View source for Sexual objectification

{{Short description|Treating a person primarily as a sexual object}}
{{Redirect|Sex object}}
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[[File:Hot Import Nights bikini contest 35.jpg|thumb|Women in a [[bikini contest]] are valued for the sex appeal of their bodies over other attributes.]]
{{Feminism sidebar}}
'''Sexual objectification''' is the act of treating a person solely as an [[Physical object|object]] of [[sexual desire]] (a '''sex object'''). [[Objectification]] more broadly means treating a person as a [[commodity]] or an object without regard to their [[personality]] or [[dignity]]. Objectification is most commonly examined at the level of a society ([[sociology]]), but can also refer to the behavior of individuals (psychology), and is a type of [[dehumanization]].

Although both men and women can be sexually objectified, the concept is mainly associated with the objectification of women, and is an important idea in many [[feminist theories]], and psychological theories derived from them. Many feminists argue that sexual objectification of girls and women contributes to [[gender inequality]], and many psychologists associate objectification with a range of physical and mental health risks in women. Research suggests that the psychological effects of objectification of men are similar to those of women, leading to negative [[body image]] among men. The concept of sexual objectification is controversial, and some feminists and psychologists have argued that at least some degree of objectification is a normal part of [[human sexuality]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Paglia |first1=Camille |title=Sexual Personae |date=10 September 1990 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-18213-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jpZmBuUoAf8C&q=Objectification%20 |access-date=13 November 2022}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite web |last1=Barber |first1=Nigel |title=Objectification Is a Basic Aspect of Male Sexuality |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-human-beast/201607/objectification-is-basic-aspect-male-sexuality |website=Psychology Today |access-date=13 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Strossen |first1=Nadine |title=Defending Pornography |year=2000 |isbn=0-8147-8149-7 |page=136 |publisher=NYU Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=geCnBAAAQBAJ&q=Objectification%20 |access-date=13 November 2022}}</ref>

==Sexual objectification of women==
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The sexual objectification of women involves them being viewed primarily as an object of heteronormative male sexual desire, rather than as a whole person.<ref name=Barry>{{cite book |last=Barry |first=Kathleen |contribution=Pornography: the ideology of cultural sadism |editor-last=Barry |editor-first=Kathleen |title=Female sexual slavery |page=247 |publisher=NYU Press |location=New York London |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-8147-1069-2 }}</ref><ref name=LeMoncheck>{{cite book |last=LeMoncheck |first=Linda |contribution=I only do it for the money: pornography, prostitution, and the business of sex |editor-last=LeMoncheck |editor-first=Linda |title=Loose women, lecherous men a feminist philosophy of sex |page=[https://archive.org/details/loosewomenlecher00lemo/page/133 133] |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, New York |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-510556-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/loosewomenlecher00lemo/page/133 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Szymanski |first1=Dawn M. |last2=Moffitt |first2=Lauren B. |last3=Carr |first3=Erika R. |title=Sexual objectification of women: advances to theory and research |journal=[[The Counseling Psychologist]] |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=6–38 |doi=10.1177/0011000010378402 |date=January 2011  |s2cid=17954950 |url=http://www.apa.org/education/ce/sexual-objectification.pdf}}</ref>  Although opinions differ as to which situations are objectionable, many see the objectification of women taking place in the sexually oriented depictions of women in advertising, art and media, [[pornography]], the occupations of [[Striptease|stripping]] and [[prostitution]], and women being brazenly evaluated or judged sexually or aesthetically in public spaces and events, such as [[beauty contest]]s.<ref name=Jhally>{{cite AV media |last=Jhally |first=Sut (director) |author-link=Sut Jhally |date=1997 |title=Dreamworlds II: desire, sex, power in music |medium=Documentary |location=USA |publisher=[[Media Education Foundation]]}}</ref>

Some feminists and psychologists<ref name=fredrickson2>{{Cite journal |last1=Fredrickson |first1=Barbara L. |last2=Roberts |first2=Tomi-Ann |title=Objectification theory: toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks |journal=[[Psychology of Women Quarterly]] |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=173–206 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x |date=June 1997|s2cid=145272074 }}</ref> argue that sexual objectification can lead to negative psychological effects including [[eating disorder]]s, [[depression (mood)|depression]] and [[sexual dysfunction]], and can give women negative [[self-image]]s because of the belief that their intelligence and competence are currently not being, nor will ever be, acknowledged by society.<ref name=:0 /> Sexual objectification of women has also been found to negatively affect women's performance, confidence, and level of position in the workplace.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=The Counseling Psychologist |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=6–38 |first1=Dawn M. |last1=Szymanski |first2=Lauren B. |last2=Moffitt |first3=Erika R. |last3=Carr |date=2011 |doi=10.1177/0011000010378402 |title=Sexual Objectification of Women: Advances to Theory and Research |s2cid=17954950 |url=https://www.apa.org/education-career/ce/sexual-objectification.pdf |access-date=17 October 2022}}</ref> How objectification has affected women and society in general is a topic of academic debate, with some saying girls' understanding of the importance of appearance in society may contribute to feelings of [[fear]], [[shame]], and [[disgust]] during the transition to womanhood,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Janet |title=Menarche and the (hetero)sexualization of the female body |journal=[[Gender & Society]] |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=343–362 |doi=10.1177/089124394008003004 |date=September 1994|s2cid=144282688 }}</ref> and others saying that young women are especially susceptible to objectification, as they are often taught that [[Power (sociology)|power]], [[respect]], and [[wealth]] can be derived from one's outward appearance.<ref name=apareport>{{Cite report |title=Report of the American Psychological Association task force on the sexualization of girls, executive summary |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |location=Washington, DC |year=2010 |url=http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf |access-date=19 February 2007}}</ref>

==Sexual objectification of men==
[[File:Eros and Amore 019.JPG|thumb|Male strippers are an example of the sexual objectification of men.]]

===General===
Instances where men may be viewed as sexualized can be in advertisements, [[sexuality in music videos|music videos]], films, television shows, [[beefcake]] calendars, [[women's magazine]]s, male [[striptease|strip shows]], and clothed female/nude male (CFNM) events.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sensations4women.com/sportsIni/index.html |title=Sports, gym classes, team initiations and events |work=Sensations4women.com |date=26 January 1998 |access-date=1 August 2012 |archive-date=30 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430135846/http://www.sensations4women.com/sportsIni/index.html }}</ref> Women also purchase and consume [[pornography]].<ref>''Citations'':
* {{cite book |last=McElroy |first=Wendy |author-link=Wendy McElroy |title=XXX: a woman's right to pornography |page=[https://archive.org/details/xxxwomansrightto00mcel/page/36 36] |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-312-13626-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/xxxwomansrightto00mcel/page/36 }}
* {{cite news |url=http://www.multichannel.com/article/79434-A_Playgirl_for_Adult_TV.php |title=A 'Playgirl" for adult TV |work=[[Multichannel News]] |publisher=[[NewBay Media]] |access-date=1 August 2012 |archive-date=6 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306002620/http://www.multichannel.com/article/79434-A_Playgirl_for_Adult_TV.php |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite news |last=Taormino |first=Tristan |url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2008-05-13/coulumns/girls-love-gay-male-porn |title=Girls love gay male porn |work=[[The Village Voice]] |publisher=Josh Fromson |date=13 May 2008 |access-date=16 August 2012 |archive-date=3 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603172927/http://www.villagevoice.com/2008-05-13/coulumns/girls-love-gay-male-porn/ }}
* {{cite news |last=Scott |first=Lisa |url=http://www.metro.co.uk/lifestyle/356386-women-who-like-to-watch-gay-porn |title=Women who like to watch gay porn |work=[[Metro (British newspaper)|Metro]] |publisher=[[DMG Media]] |date=15 October 2008 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=17 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117231142/http://www.metro.co.uk/lifestyle/356386-women-who-like-to-watch-gay-porn |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Chris |title=Women's porn tastes: You'll never guess what ladies prefer |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/weird-news/womens-porn-tastes-youll-never-5686920 |work=[[Daily Mirror]] |publisher=[[Trinity Mirror]] |date=12 May 2015 }}</ref>

Within gay male communities, men are often objectified.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Teunis |first=Niels |title=Sexual objectification and the construction of whiteness in the gay male community |journal=[[Culture, Health & Sexuality]] |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=263–275 |jstor=20460929 |doi=10.1080/13691050601035597 |pmid=17457730 |date=May 2007 |s2cid=8287617 }}</ref> In 2007 a study found discussing negative effects of objectification was met with considerable resistance in the community. The sexual objectification of [[person of color|men of color]] may force them to play specific roles in sexual encounters that are not necessarily of their own choosing.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1080/13691050601035597| pmid=17457730|title = Sexual objectification and the construction of whiteness in the gay male community| journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality| volume=9| issue=3| pages=263–275|year = 2007|last1 = Teunis|first1 = Niels| s2cid=8287617}}</ref>

Research suggests that the psychological effects of objectification on men are similar to those of women, leading to negative [[body image]] among men.<ref>{{cite news |last=Neimark |first=Jill |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200910/the-beefcaking-america |title=The beefcaking of America |work=[[Psychology Today]] |publisher=Sussex Publishers |date=1 November 1994 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref>

=== Media ===
Men's bodies have become more objectified than they previously were, though because of society's established gaze on the objectification of women, the newfound objectification of men is not as widespread.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kellie |first1=Dax J. |last2=Blake |first2=Khandis R. |last3=Brooks |first3=Robert C. |title=What drives female objectification? An investigation of appearance-based interpersonal perceptions and the objectification of women |journal=PLOS ONE |date=23 August 2019 |volume=14 |issue=8 |article-number=e0221388 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0221388 |pmid=31442260 |pmc=6707629 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1421388K |doi-access=free }}</ref> Even with this increase of male objectification, men are still seen as the dominant figures and so the focus is still primarily on women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Tortajada-Giménez |first1= Iolanda |last2= Araüna-Baró |first2= Núria | last3 = Martínez-Martínez | first3 = Inmaculada José | title = Advertising stereotypes and gender representation in social networking sites | journal = Comunicar | volume = 21 | issue = 41 | pages = 177&ndash;186 | date = 2013 | url = https://www.revistacomunicar.com/indice-en/articulo.php?numero=41-2013-17 |doi= 10.3916/C41-2013-17 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10272/7056 | hdl-access = free }} [https://doi.org/10.3916/C41-2013-17 Original Spanish article.]</ref>

Male sexual objectification has been found in 37% of advertisements featuring men's body parts to showcase a product.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal | last1 = Davidson | first1 = M. Meghan | last2 = Gervais | first2 = Sarah J. | last3 = Canivez | first3 = Gary L. | last4 = Cole | first4 = Brian P. | title = A psychometric examination of the Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Scale among college men | journal = [[Journal of Counseling Psychology]] | volume = 60 | issue = 2 | pages = 239&ndash;250 | doi = 10.1037/a0032075 | pmid = 23458607 | date = April 2013 }}</ref> Similar to the issues of sexual objectification in women, it is common for said objectification to lead men to body shaming, eating disorders, and a drive for perfection. The continued exposure of these "ideal" men subject society to expect all men to fit this role.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Buchbinder | first = David | author-link = David Buchbinder | title = Object or ground? The male body as fashion accessory | journal = [[Canadian Review of American Studies]] | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 221&ndash;232 | doi = 10.1353/crv.2006.0030 | date = Winter 2004 | s2cid = 161493223 }}</ref>

Male actors featured in TV shows and movies are oftentimes in excellent shape and have the "ideal" bodies. These men often fill the leading roles. When society is subjected to men who do not have ideal bodies, we typically see them as the comic relief. It is rare to see an out of shape man have a leading role. Leanne  Dawson writes that "There are temporal, cultural and geographical "norms" of gender and other aspects of identity, which are often incorrectly considered to be inherent or natural."<ref>{{cite journal | last = Dawson | first = Leanne | title = Passing and policing: controlling compassion, bodies and boundaries in ''Boys Don't Cry'' and ''Unveiled/Fremde Haut'' | journal = Studies in European Cinema | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 205&ndash;228 | doi = 10.1080/17411548.2015.1094258 | date = 2015 | s2cid = 147349266 | url = https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/22121834/Dawson_SEC_2015_Passing_and_Policing.pdf | hdl = 20.500.11820/8f102aab-aa8c-4524-8cc1-18ff25ed0467 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

In the media, the ideal version of a man is seen as a strong, toned man. The idealized version of a woman is thin.<ref name="Aubrey" /> Body evaluation is more commonly used to criticize women than men, and it can take different forms for men. For example, body evaluation is often directed at men's nonverbal cues. By contrast, women more often are subject to body evaluation in the form of sexual, sometimes offensive, verbal remarks. Men tend to experience this from other men, whereas women experience it from both sexes.<ref name=":02" /> The Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Scale (ISOS) is a scale that shows sexual objectification of respondents, both men and women. While experiencing sexual objectification it creates the need to constantly maintain and critique one's physical appearance. This leads to other things like eating disorders, body shaming, and anxiety. The ISOS scale can be related to objectification theory and sexism.<ref name=":02" /> Self-objectification, which is the way in which people evaluate themselves, is concentrated more on women.  Men typically experience it through media display.  To the extent that men do experience self-objectification, studies have shown that men typically do not experience its negative effects to the extent that women do.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Tomi-Ann|last1=Roberts|first2=Jennifer Y.|last2=Gettman|title=Mere Exposure: Gender Differences in the Negative Effects of Priming a State of Self-Objectification|journal=Sex Roles|date=1 July 2004|issn=1573-2762|pages=17–27|volume=51|issue=1|doi=10.1023/B:SERS.0000032306.20462.22|s2cid=55703429}}</ref><ref name="Aubrey">{{cite book | last = Stevens Aubrey | first = Jennifer |title=Investigating the role of self-objectification in the relationship between media exposure and sexual self-perceptions | url = http://www.icahdq.org/page/PastFuture | date = 27 May 2003 }} Paper presented at the annual meeting of the [[International Communication Association]], Marriott Hotel, San Diego, CA, May 27, 2003.
:''See also'': {{cite journal | last = Stevens Aubrey | first = Jennifer | title = Effects of sexually objectifying media on self-objectification and body surveillance in undergraduates: results of a 2-year panel study | journal = [[Journal of Communication]] | volume = 56 | issue = 2 | pages = 366&ndash;386 | doi = 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00024.x | date = June 2006 }}</ref>

In the media, sexual objectification has been used as a way to sell products to the general public.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Amanda|last1=Zimmerman|first2=John|last2=Dahlberg|title=The Sexual Objectification of Women in Advertising: A Contemporary Cultural Perspective|url=http://www.journalofadvertisingresearch.com/content/48/1/71|journal=Journal of Advertising Research|date=1 March 2008|issn=0021-8499|pages=71–79|volume=48|issue=1|doi=10.2501/S0021849908080094|s2cid=30977582|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Lizardo|last1=Vargas-Bianchi|first2=Marta|last2=Mensa|title=Do you remember me? Women sexual objectification in advertising among young consumers|journal=Young Consumers|date=1 January 2020|issn=1747-3616|pages=77–90|volume=21|issue=1|doi=10.1108/YC-04-2019-0994|s2cid=216353566}}</ref> Sexual objectification has been used as a marketing strategy for many decades according to the Journal of Advertising. This specific strategy targets the public in selling products that will make them look and feel desirable and attractive. It is stated that this strategy sells well by grabbing the attention of the public. The journal states that explicit advertisements do better in marketing than other non-explicit ads.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Brett A. S. |last2=Lang |first2=Bodo |last3=Wong |first3=Stephanie |title=Conclusion Explicitness in Advertising: The Moderating Role of Need for Cognition (NFC) and Argument Quality (AQ) on Persuasion |journal=Journal of Advertising |date=2003 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=57–65 |doi=10.1080/00913367.2003.10639148 |jstor=4622179 |s2cid=140844572 |issn=0091-3367}}</ref>

==Views on sexual objectification==
{{see also|Gaze}}
While the concept of sexual objectification is important within feminist theory, ideas vary widely on what constitutes sexual objectification and what are the ethical implications of such objectification. Some feminists such as [[Naomi Wolf]] find the concept of [[physical attractiveness]] itself to be problematic,<ref name=beautymyth>{{cite book |last=Wolf |first=Naomi |author-link=Naomi Wolf |title=The beauty myth: how images of beauty are used against women |publisher=Perennial |location=New York |year=2002 |orig-date=1992 |isbn=978-0-06-051218-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/beautymyth00naom }}</ref> with some [[radical feminists]]  being opposed to any evaluation of another person's sexual attractiveness based on physical characteristics.{{Citation needed|reason=This claim needs references to reliable sources|date=September 2015}} [[John Stoltenberg]] goes so far as to condemn as wrongfully objectifying any sexual fantasy that involves the visualization of a woman.<ref name=stoltenberg>{{cite book |last=Stoltenberg |first=John |author-link=John Stoltenberg |chapter=Sexual objectification and male supremacy |chapter-url=http://www.feministes-radicales.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Stoltenberg-Refusing-to-be-a-Man.pdf |title=Refusing to be a man: essays on sex and justice |publisher=UCL Press |location=London New York |page=38 |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-84142-041-7 |archive-date=2018-07-13 |access-date=2016-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713145009/http://www.feministes-radicales.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Stoltenberg-Refusing-to-be-a-Man.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Radical feminists view objectification as playing a central role in reducing women to what they refer to as the "oppressed sex [[Social class|class]]".{{Quote without source|date=September 2015}} While some feminists view mass media in societies that they argue are [[patriarchal]] as objectifying, they often focus on [[pornography]] as playing an egregious role in habituating men to objectify women.<ref name='MacKinnon "Only Words"'>{{cite book |last=MacKinnon |first=Catharine |author-link=Catharine MacKinnon |title=Only words |url=https://archive.org/details/onlywords00mack |url-access=registration |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-674-63934-8}}</ref>

Cultural critics such as [[Robert W. Jensen|Robert Jensen]] and [[Sut Jhally]] accuse [[mass media]] and advertising of promoting the objectification of women to help promote goods and services,<ref name=Jhally /><ref name=Jensen>{{cite book |last=Jensen |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Jensen |contribution=Using pornography |editor-last1=Dines |editor-first1=Gail |editor-last2=Jensen |editor-first2=Robert |editor-last3=Russo |editor-first3=Ann |editor-link1=Gail Dines |editor-link2=Robert Jensen |title=Pornography: the production and consumption of inequality |page=[https://archive.org/details/loosewomenlecher00lemo/page/133 133] |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, New York |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-510556-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/loosewomenlecher00lemo/page/133 }}</ref><ref name=Frith>{{Cite journal |last1=Frith |first1=Katherine |last2=Shaw |first2=Ping |last3=Cheng |first3=Hong |title=The construction of beauty: a cross-cultural analysis of women's magazine advertising |journal=[[Journal of Communication]] |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=56–70 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02658.x |date=March 2005}}</ref> and the television and film industries are commonly accused of normalizing the sexual objectification of women.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://my.vanderbilt.edu/wgs272/2013/04/representations-of-women-in-reality-tv/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414044502/https://my.vanderbilt.edu/wgs272/2013/04/representations-of-women-in-reality-tv/|archive-date=14 April 2019|title=Representations of Women in Reality TV|date=15 April 2013|author=balembbn|website=Feminism and Film (blog)|via=Vanderbilt University}}</ref>

The objection to the objectification of women is not a recent phenomenon. In the French [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], for example, there was a debate as to whether a woman's breasts were merely a sensual enticement or rather a natural gift. In [[Alexandre Guillaume Mouslier de Moissy]]'s 1771 play ''The True Mother'' (''La Vraie Mère''), the title character rebukes her husband for treating her as merely an object for his sexual gratification: "Are your senses so gross as to look on these breasts &ndash; the respectable treasures of nature &ndash; as merely an embellishment, destined to ornament the chest of women?"<ref>{{cite book |last=Schama |first=Simon |author-link=Simon Schama |contribution=The cultural construction of a citizen: II Casting roles: children of nature |editor-last=Schama |editor-first=Simon |editor-link=Simon Schama |title=Citizens: a chronicle of the French Revolution |publisher=Knopf Distributed by Random House |location=New York |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-394-55948-3|title-link=Citizens. A Chronicle of the French Revolution }}</ref>

The issues concerning sexual objectification became first [[problematization|problemized]] during the 1970s by feminist groups. Since then, it has been argued that the phenomenon of female sexual objectification has increased drastically since its problematization in all levels of life, and has resulted in negative consequences for women, especially in the political sphere. However, a rising form of new third-waver feminist groups have also taken the increased objectification of women as an opportunity to use the female body as a mode of power.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Heldman | first = Caroline | title = Sexualizing Sarah Palin: the social and political context of the sexual objectification of female candidates | journal = [[Sex Roles (journal)|Sex Roles]] | volume = 65 | issue = 3 | pages = 156&ndash;164 | doi = 10.1007/s11199-011-9984-6 | date = August 2011 | s2cid = 141197696 }}</ref>

Some [[social conservatives]] have taken up aspects of the [[feminist]] critique of sexual objectification. In their view, however, the increase in the sexual objectification of both sexes in Western culture is one of the negative legacies of the [[sexual revolution]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Dr. James Dobson |url=http://www.theinterim.com/issues/society-culture/dr-james-dobson-6 |work=The Interim: Canada's life and family newspaper |location=[[Toronto, Ontario]], Canada |publisher=via [[True Media]] |date=12 January 1997 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref><ref name=shalit1>{{cite book |last=Shalit |first=Wendy |author-link=Wendy Shalit |title=A return to modesty: discovering the lost virtue |publisher=Touchstone |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-684-86317-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/returntomodestyd00shal }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Reisman |first=Judith A. |author-link=Judith Reisman |title="Soft porn" plays hardball: its tragic effects on women, children, and the family |url=https://archive.org/details/softpornplayshar00reis/page/32 |url-access=registration |publisher=Huntington House Publishers |location=[[Lafayette, Louisiana]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-910311-92-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/softpornplayshar00reis/page/32 32–46, 173] }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Holz |first=Adam R. |title=Is average the new ugly? |url=http://www.pluggedin.com/familyroom/articles/2007/isaveragethenewugly.aspx |work=[[Plugged In (publication)|Plugged In Online]] |publisher=[[Focus on the Family]] |date=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=National Coalition for the Protection of Children & Families |url=http://pureintimacy.org/piArticles/A000000551.cfm |title=Subtle Dangers of Pornography (special report by the National Coalition for the Protection of Children & Families) |work=Pure Intimacy (website) |publisher=[[Focus on the Family]] |date=July 1997 |access-date=1 August 2012}}</ref> These critics, notably [[Wendy Shalit]], advocate a return to pre-sexual revolution standards of [[sexual morality]], which Shalit refers to as a "return to [[modesty]]", as an antidote to sexual objectification.<ref name=shalit1/><ref name=shalit2>{{cite web |last=Shalit |first=Wendy |author-link=Wendy Shalit |title=Modesty revisited |url=http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/ShalitModesty.php |website=orthodoxytoday.org |publisher=[[Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America|Fr. Johannes Jacobse]] |date=2000 |access-date=2015-09-07 |archive-date=2018-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028151807/http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/ShalitModesty}}</ref> Some social conservatives have argued that the feminist movement itself has contributed to the problem of the sexual objectification of women by promoting  "free" love (i.e. men and women choosing to have non-reproductive sex outside of marriage and for their own pleasure).<ref name=fredrickson2 /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Abrams |first1=Dominic |last2=Hogg |first2=Michael A. |contribution=Collective identity: group membership and self-conception |editor-last1=Brewer |editor-first1=Marilynn B. |editor-last2=Hewstone |editor-first2=Miles |editor-link1=Marilynn B. Brewer |title=Self and social identity |page=167 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Massachusetts |series=Perspectives on Social Psychology |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4051-1069-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aGhvm-QH1yEC&q=Fredrickson+and+Roberts&pg=RA1-PA136}}</ref>

Others such as [[Civil libertarianism|civil libertarians]] and [[Sex-positive feminism|sex-positive feminists]] contest feminist claims about the objectification of women. [[Camille Paglia]] holds that "[t]urning people into sex objects is one of the specialties of our species." In her view, objectification is closely tied to (and may even be identical with) the highest human faculties toward conceptualization and [[aesthetics]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Paglia |first=Camille |author-link=Camille Paglia |title=Sexual personae: art and decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-679-73579-3|title-link=Sexual Personae: Art and Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson }}</ref> Feminist author [[Wendy Kaminer]] criticized feminist support for anti-pornography laws, arguing that pornography does not cause sexual violence, and bans on such material infantilize women. She has noted that [[Radical feminism|radical feminists]] have often allied themselves with the [[Christian right]] in supporting these laws and denouncing the depiction of sex in popular culture although the two groups strongly disagree on virtually everything else.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kaminer |first1=Wendy |title=When Conservative Senators Sound Like Anti-Porn Feminists|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive/2013/06/when-conservative-senators-sound-like-anti-porn-feminists/276808/|access-date=15 October 2022}}</ref> Her [[American Civil Liberties Union|ACLU]] colleagues [[Nadine Strossen]] and Nan D. Hunter have made similar criticisms.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Strossen |first1=Nadine |title=Who Really Benefits From the First Amendment |url=https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/news/articles/who-really-benefits-from-the-first-amendment |access-date=15 October 2022 |publisher=Tablet}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hunter |first1=Nan D. |last2=Duggan |first2=Lisa |title=Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political Culture |year=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-91037-8 |pages=44–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cMO2AgAAQBAJ&q=lisa+duggan |access-date=15 October 2022}}</ref> Strossen has argued that objectification is not in and of itself dehumanizing, and may fulfill women's own fantasies.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Strossen |first1=Nadine |title=Defending Pornography |year=2000 |isbn=0-8147-8149-7 |pages=136–165|publisher=NYU Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=geCnBAAAQBAJ&q=Objectification%20 |access-date=13 November 2022}}</ref> Psychologist [[Nigel Barber]] argues that men, and to a lesser extent, women, are naturally inclined to focus on the physical attractiveness of the opposite sex (or the same sex in the case of gays and lesbians), and that this has been widely misinterpreted as sexism.<ref name="auto"/>

===Female self-objectification===
{{further|sex-positive feminism|feminist sex wars}}
[[File:Kilt Girls.jpg|thumb|upright|Waitresses of [[Tilted Kilt Pub & Eatery]] restaurant in uniform. Tilted Kilt has skimpily dressed waitresses, and is thus an example of a [[breastaurant]].]]
[[Ariel Levy (writer)|Ariel Levy]] contends that Western women who exploit their sexuality by, for example, wearing revealing clothing and engaging in lewd behavior, engage in female self-objectification, meaning they objectify themselves. While some women see such behaviour as a form of [[empowerment]], Levy contends that it has led to greater emphasis on a physical criterion or [[sexualization]] for women's perceived self-worth, which Levy calls "[[Raunch aesthetics|raunch culture]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Levy |first=Ariel |author-link=Ariel Levy (writer) |title=Female chauvinist pigs: women and the rise of raunch culture |publisher=Pocket Books |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4165-2638-4|title-link=Female Chauvinist Pigs }}</ref> 

Levy discusses this phenomenon in ''[[Female Chauvinist Pigs]]: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture''. Levy followed the camera crew from the ''[[Girls Gone Wild (franchise)|Girls Gone Wild]]'' video series, and argues that contemporary America's sexualized culture not only objectifies women, it encourages women to objectify themselves.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/article2523264.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719231008/http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/article2523264.ece |archive-date=July 19, 2008 |work=The Times |location=London |title=Yes we are bovvered |first=Ginny |last=Dougary |date=25 September 2007 |access-date=23 May 2010}}</ref> In today's culture, Levy writes, the idea of a woman participating in a [[wet T-shirt contest]] or being comfortable watching explicit [[pornography]] has become a symbol of feminist strength.

Social media has made a major impact on the self-objectification of women. Through social media, women self-objectify by posting provocative images they know will be objectified by their viewers as a form of seeking validation of posting images that fits the mold of society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=Dong |last2=Ni |first2=Xiao-li |last3=Luo |first3=Yi-jun |date=2019-03-01 |title=Selfie Posting on Social Networking Sites and Female Adolescents' Self-Objectification: The Moderating Role of Imaginary Audience Ideation |journal=Sex Roles |language=en |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=325–331 |doi=10.1007/s11199-018-0937-1 |s2cid=149757000 |issn=1573-2762}}</ref>

=== Latina women ===
Latina women face a particular form of sexual objectification based on [[Stereotypes of Latinos|stereotypes relating to Latina women.]] American media often portrays Latina women as being sexually promiscuous and curvaceous, having large breasts and buttocks, being melodramatic, or having a feisty attitude.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McLaughlin|first1=Bryan|last2=Rodriguez|first2=Nathian S.|last3=Dunn|first3=Joshua A.|last4=Martinez|first4=Jobi|date=2018-09-03|title=Stereotyped Identification: How Identifying with Fictional Latina Characters Increases Acceptance and Stereotyping|journal=Mass Communication and Society|volume=21|issue=5|pages=585–605|doi=10.1080/15205436.2018.1457699|s2cid=149715074|issn=1520-5436}}</ref> Keller identifies three main stereotypes that contribute to the objectification of Latinas. (Cantina Girl, Suffering Senorita, and [[Femme fatale|Vamp]]). The "Cantina Girl" is characterized as being an alluring sexual presence. The "Suffering Senorita" is the Latina who goes "bad" due to her love of the (usually Anglo) love interest. Lastly, the "Vamp" is seen as beautiful but devious, and a psychological threat for her wit or charm.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Merskin|first=Debra|date=2007-05-29|title=Three Faces of Eva: Perpetuation of The Hot-Latina Stereotype in Desperate Housewives|journal=Howard Journal of Communications|volume=18|issue=2|pages=133–151|doi=10.1080/10646170701309890|s2cid=144571909|issn=1064-6175}}</ref> All three of these categorizations stem from the sexual objectification of Latina women's bodies and identities.

Such sexual objectifications hold real-world consequences for Latina women. For instance, the prevalence of negative Latina stereotypes (such as [[Sexualization|hypersexualization]]) has led to a decrease in positive [[Social identity theory|in-group attitudes]] among the Latina community.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tukachinsky|first1=Riva|last2=Mastro|first2=Dana|last3=Yarchi|first3=Moran|date=2017-07-03|title=The Effect of Prime Time Television Ethnic/Racial Stereotypes on Latino and Black Americans: A Longitudinal National Level Study|journal=Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media|volume=61|issue=3|pages=538–556|doi=10.1080/08838151.2017.1344669|s2cid=148590923|issn=0883-8151}}</ref>

=== Black women ===
Black women have been fetishized and objectified throughout history. They may be portrayed as having a more animalistic nature than their non-black counterparts. People who fetishize black women are sometimes pejoratively said to have "[[jungle fever]]".<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Bianca |first=Fransisca |date=2017 |title=Fetishism and Sexual Objectification towards African (Black) Women in Modern Society: Analyzing the Portrayal of African Women in the Media |url=https://journal.unpar.ac.id/index.php/Sentris/article/view/4132 |journal=Jurnal Sentris |language=en |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=91–99 |doi=10.26593/sentris.v1i1.4132.91-99 |s2cid=240601761 |issn=2746-3826|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Black women are widely objectified in the media and in pornography, and are scrutinized more closely for doing the same things as their non-black counterparts.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} They are also stereotyped in the media as having more curvaceous bodies and bigger lips.<ref name=":03" />

==Objectification theory==
{{expert needed|Gender Studies|section|reason=The prose is jargon-filled, repetitive and nearly impenetrable to laypeople. The structure needs improvement|date=January 2015}}
Objectification theory is a framework for understanding the experiences of women in cultures that sexually objectify them, proposed by [[Barbara Fredrickson]] and Tomi-Ann Roberts in 1997.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Fredrickson|first1 = B. L.|author-link1 = Barbara Fredrickson|last2 = Roberts|first2 = T.-A.|year = 1997|title = Objectification Theory|journal = [[Psychology of Women Quarterly]]|volume = 21|issue = 2|pages = 173–206|doi = 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x|s2cid = 145272074}}</ref> Within this framework, Fredrickson and Roberts draw conclusions about women's experiences. This theory states that, because of sexual objectification, women learn to internalize an outsider's view of their bodies as the primary view of themselves. Women, they explain, begin to view their bodies as objects separate from their person. This internalization has been termed self-objectification. This theory does not seek to prove the existence of sexual objectification; the theory assumes its existence in culture. This self-objectification then, according to objectification theory, leads to increased habitual body monitoring. With this framework in mind, Fredrickson and Roberts suggest explanations for consequences they believe are the result of sexual objectification. The consequences suggested are: increased feelings of shame, increased feelings of anxiety, decreased peak motivational state, and decreased awareness of internal bodily states.

Sexual objectification has been studied based on the proposition that girls and women develop their primary view of their physical selves from observing others. These observations can take place in the media or through personal experience.<ref name=bartky>{{cite book |last=Bartky |first=Sandra Lee |author-link=Sandra Bartky |chapter=On Psychological Oppression |title=Femininity and Domination: Studies in the Phenomenology of Oppression |page=[https://archive.org/details/femininitydomina00bart/page/22 22]-32 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-415-90186-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/femininitydomina00bart |url-access=registration }}</ref>{{rp|26}} Through a blend of expected and actual exposure, women are socialized to objectify their own physical characteristics from a [[Grammatical person|third-person]] perception, which is identified as self-objectification.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaschak |first=Ellyn |author-link=Ellyn Kaschak |title=Engendered Lives: A New Psychology of Women's Experience |url=https://archive.org/details/engenderedlivesn00kascrich |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/engenderedlivesn00kascrich/page/12 12] |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |location=New York, New York |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-465-01349-4}}</ref> Women and girls develop an expected physical appearance for themselves, based on observations of others; and are aware that others are likely to observe as well. The sexual objectification and self-objectification of women is believed to influence social [[gender roles]] and inequalities between the sexes.<ref name=Goldenberg>{{cite book |last1=Goldenberg |first1=Jamie L. |last2=Roberts |first2=Tomi-Ann |chapter=The Beast within the Beauty: An Existential Perspective on the Objectification and Condemnation of Women |editor-last1=Greenberg |editor-first1=Jeff |editor-link1=Jeff Greenberg (professor) |editor-last2=Koole |editor-first2=Sander L. |editor-last3=Pyszczynski |editor-first3=Thomas A. |editor-link3=Tom Pyszczynski |title=Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology |pages=71–85 |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |location=New York |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-59385-040-1 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_KMRe9wK2MC&pg=PA71 }}</ref>

===Self-objectification===

[[Self-objectification]] can increase in situations which heighten the awareness of an individual's physical appearance.<ref name=frederickson1.82>{{Cite journal |last1=Fredrickson |first1=Barbara L. |last2=Harrison |first2=Kristen |author-link1=Barbara Fredrickson |title=Throwing like a Girl: Self-Objectification Predicts Adolescent Girls' Motor Performance |journal=[[Journal of Sport and Social Issues]] |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=79–101 |doi=10.1177/0193723504269878 |year=2005 |s2cid=146312527 }}</ref>{{rp|82}} Here, the presence of a [[third-person (video games)|third-person]] observer is enhanced. Therefore, when individuals know others are looking at them, or will be looking at them, they are more likely to care about their physical appearance. Examples of the enhanced presence of an observer include the presence of an audience, camera, or other known observer.

===Women, girls, and self-objectification===
Primarily, objectification theory describes how women and girls are influenced as a result of expected social and [[gender roles]].<ref name=bartky/> Research indicates not all women are influenced equally, due to the [[anatomical]], [[hormonal]], and [[Genetics|genetic]] differences of the female body; however, women's bodies are often objectified and evaluated more frequently.<ref name=frederickson1.82 />{{rp|90–95}} Self-objectification in girls tends to stem from two main causes: the internalization of traditional beauty standards as translated through media as well as any instances of sexual objectification that they might encounter in their daily lives.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McKay |first=Tajare' |title=Female self-objectification: causes, consequences and prevention |journal=[[McNair Scholars Research Journal]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=53–70 |year=2013 |issn=2166-109X |url=http://commons.emich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1065&context=mcnair }}</ref> It is not uncommon for women to translate their anxieties over their constant sense of objectification into obsessive self-surveillance. This, in turn, can lead to many serious problems in women and girls, including "body shame, anxiety, negative attitudes toward menstruation, a disrupted flow of consciousness, diminished awareness of internal bodily states, depression, sexual dysfunction, and disordered eating."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Calogero |first1=Rachel M. |last2=Davis |first2=William N. |last3=Thompson |first3=J. Kevin |title=The Role of Self-Objectification in the Experience of Women with Eating Disorders |journal=[[Sex Roles (journal)|Sex Roles]] |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=43–50 |doi=10.1007/s11199-005-1192-9 |year=2005 |url=http://brown.uk.com/eatingdisorders/calogero.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.413.8397 |s2cid=10241677 }}</ref>

Sexual objectification occurs when a person is identified by their sexual body parts or sexual function. In essence, an individual loses their identity, and is recognized solely by the physical characteristics of their body.<ref name=bartky/> The purpose of this recognition is to bring enjoyment to others, or to serve as a sexual object for society.<ref name=LeMoncheck /> Sexual objectification can occur as a [[Social constructionism|social construct]] among individuals.

Sexual objectification has been around and present in society for many but has increased with the introduction of social media according to "Objectification, Sexualization, and Misrepresentation: Social Media and the College Experience - Stefanie E Davis, 2018". This article explains how young girls are influenced by social media to be sexually objectified. The platform is meant to share a glimpse into a person's life through photos to share with friends, family and mutuals. For many individuals, social media applications like Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok, and X (formerly Twitter) are used to glamorize and romanticize certain lifestyles. Examples of this can be young women using their platform (however big it may be) to pose as an older age by uploading provocative photos. This behavior promotes sexual objectification of young girls that participate on social media.

===Psychological consequences===
Objectification theory suggests both direct and indirect consequences of objectification to women. Indirect consequences include [[self consciousness]] in terms that a woman is consistently checking or rearranging her clothes or appearance to ensure that she is presentable. More direct consequences are related to sexual victimization. Rape and sexual harassment are examples of this.<ref name=fredrickson2 /> Doob (2012) states that sexual harassment is one of the challenges faced by women in workplace. This may constitute sexual jokes or comments, most of which are degrading.<ref name="Doob">{{cite book |last=Doob |first=Christopher B. |title=Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society |publisher=[[Pearson Education, Inc.]] |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-205-79241-2}}</ref> Research indicates that objectification theory is valuable to understanding how repeated visual images in the media are socialized and translated into [[mental health]] problems, including psychological consequences on the individual and societal level.<ref name=fredrickson2 /> These include increased self-consciousness, increased body anxiety, heightened mental health threats ([[Clinical depression|depression]], [[anorexia nervosa]], [[bulimia]], and [[sexual dysfunction]]), and increased body shame.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moradi |first1=Bonnie |last2=Huang |first2=Yu-Ping |title=Objectification Theory and Psychology of Women: A Decade of Advances and Future Directions |journal=[[Psychology of Women Quarterly]] |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=377–398 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00452.x |year=2008 |s2cid=144389646 }}</ref> Therefore, the theory has been used to explore an array of dependent variables including [[disordered eating]], [[mental health]], [[Clinical depression|depression]], motor performance, [[body image]], idealized body type, [[stereotype]] formation, sexual perception and sexual typing.<ref name=fredrickson2/><ref name=frederickson1.82/> Body shame is a byproduct of the concept of an idealized body type adopted by most Western cultures that depicts a thin, model-type figure. Thus, women will engage in actions meant to change their body such as dieting, exercise, eating disorders, [[cosmetic surgery]], etc.<ref name=fredrickson2 /> Effects of objectification theory are identified on both the individual and societal levels.

===Causes of depression===
[[Learned helplessness]] theory posits that because human bodies are only alterable to a certain point, people develop a sense of body shame and anxiety from which they create a feeling of helplessness in relation to correcting their physical appearance and helplessness in being able to control the way in which others perceive their appearance. This lack of control often results in depression.<ref name=fredrickson2 /> In relating to a lack of motivation, objectification theory states that women have less control in relationships and the work environment because they have to depend on the evaluation of another who is typically basing their evaluation on physical appearance. Since the dependence on another's evaluation limits a woman's ability to create her own positive experiences and motivation, it adversely increases her likelihood for depression.<ref name=fredrickson2 /> Furthermore, sexual victimization may be a cause. Specifically, victimization within the workplace degrades women. Harassment experienced every day wears on a woman, and sometimes this results in a state of depression.<ref name=fredrickson2 /><ref name="Doob"/>

== Alternatives and critique ==
[[Ann J. Cahill]] uses the concept of ''derivitization'' as an alternative to objectification when trying to address sexual objectification's seeming judgment of all physical interactions (termed somatophobia by Cahill).  Cahill criticizes the notion of objectification as marginalizing the role of the body in one's subjective experience and therefore making it impossible to understand how being viewed as a sexually appealing body can enhance an individual's notion of self.<ref name=":1" /> {{Rp|page=842}}

Instead, Cahill uses the concept of subjectivity from the study of [[intersubjectivity]]. A subject is an individual with their unique experience of reality. Derivitization is then defined as limiting another person's subjective behaviour and experience to align with or serve your own subjective experience. In this framing, the objectification exists in sex work is viewed instead as the derivitization of having another act for only one's own subjective experience and ignoring the sex worker's experience. Drawing comparisons to the [[doctor–patient relationship]], Cahill argues that a recognition of what both people bring to a relationship and their subjective goals is what makes a relationship ethical.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Cahill |first=Ann J. |date=2014 |title=The Difference Sameness Makes: Objectification, Sex Work, and Queerness |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0887536700027264/type/journal_article |journal=Hypatia |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=840–856 |doi=10.1111/hypa.12111 |issn=0887-5367|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{Rp|page=843–847}}

=== Free use ===
"Free use" describes a [[Sexual fetishism|sexual fetish]] involving being consensually "used" as a sex object at any time and anywhere by a [[sexual partner]] when they are aroused, including while doing chores or while sleeping. It became popular online in the mid-2020s, including in [[gay pornography]], on [[Reddit]]—where one [[subreddit]] dedicated to the fetish had over 1.4 million members by 2023—and on [[TikTok]].<ref name="QueertyFU">{{cite web |last1=Myers |first1=Jake |title=The 'free use' fetish is sweeping the gay community. Is it ruthless, or a relief? |url=https://www.queerty.com/the-free-use-fetish-is-sweeping-the-gay-community-is-it-ruthless-or-a-relief-20230822 |website=[[Queerty]] |access-date=11 August 2024 |date=22 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="ViceFU">{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Magdalene |title=What's the 'Free Use' Fetish, and Why's Everyone Talking About It? |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/whats-the-free-use-fetish-and-whys-everyone-talking-about-it/ |website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |access-date=11 August 2024 |date=18 August 2023}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Exploitation of women in mass media]]
*[[Human furniture]]
*[[Male gaze]]
*[[Pornification]]
*[[Rape culture]]
*[[Sex in advertising]]
*[[Sexuality in music videos]]
*[[Sex in film]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Bartky |first=Sandra Lee |author-link=Sandra Bartky |title=Femininity and domination: studies in the phenomenology of oppression |url=https://archive.org/details/femininitydomina00bart |url-access=registration |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-415-90186-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Berger |first=John |author-link=John Berger |title=Ways of Seeing |publisher=BBC and Penguin Books |year=1972 |location=London|title-link=Ways of Seeing }} {{ISBN|0-563-12244-7}} (BBC), {{ISBN|0-14-021631-6}}, {{ISBN|0-14-013515-4}} (pbk).
* {{Cite journal |last1=Bridges |first1=Ana J. |last2=Johnson |first2=Jennifer A. |last3=Dines |first3=Gail |last4=Condit |first4=Deirdre M. |last5=West |first5=Carolyn M. |author-link1=Ana J. Bridges |author-link2=Jennifer A. Johnson |author-link3=Gail Dines |author-link5=Carolyn M. West |title=Introducing ''Sexualization, Media & Society'' |journal=[[Sexualization, Media, & Society]] |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=487–515 |doi=10.1177/2374623815588763 |date=April 2015  |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last=Brooks |first=Gary R. |title=The centerfold syndrome: how men can overcome objectification and achieve intimacy with women |publisher=Jossey-Bass |year=1995 |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-7879-0104-2}} 
* {{Cite journal |last1=Coy |first1=Maddy |last2=Garner |first2=Maria |author-link1=Maddy Coy |title=Glamour modelling and the marketing of self-sexualization: critical reflections |journal=[[International Journal of Cultural Studies]] |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=657–675 |doi=10.1177/1367877910376576 |date=November 2010 |s2cid=145230875 }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Eames |first=Elizabeth R. |title=Sexism and woman as sex object |journal=Journal of Thought |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=140–143 |date=1976 |url= http://journalofthought.com/?page_id=66 }} [http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ147519 Preview.] [Link Broken]
* {{cite conference |last=Holroyd |first=Julia |title=Sexual objectification: The unlikely alliance of feminism and Kant |conference=Society for Applied Philosophy International Congress |date=2005 |location=Oxford, UK |url=https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Philosophy/conferencepapers/objectification.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050521221242/http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Philosophy/conferencepapers/objectification.pdf |archive-date=2005-05-21 }} (conference paper)
* {{cite book |last=LeMoncheck |first=Linda |title=Dehumanizing Women: Treating Persons as Sex Objects |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=1985 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8476-7386-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/dehumanizingwome0000lemo }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha C. |title=Objectification |author-link=Martha Nussbaum |journal=[[Philosophy & Public Affairs]] |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=249–291 |doi=10.1111/j.1088-4963.1995.tb00032.x |jstor=2961930 |date=October 1995}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Papadaki |first=Evangelia (Lina) |title=Sexual objectification: From Kant to contemporary feminism |journal=[[Contemporary Political Theory]] |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=330–348 |doi=10.1057/palgrave.cpt.9300282 |date=August 2007  |s2cid=144197352 |url=http://www.palgrave-journals.com/cpt/journal/v6/n3/pdf/9300282a.pdf}}
* {{cite news |last=Parker |first=Kathleen |author-link=Kathleen Parker |title='Save the males': Ho culture lights fuses, but confuses |url=http://www.nydailynews.com/lifestyle/2008/06/30/2008-06-30_save_the_males_ho_culture_lights_fuses_b.html |work=[[Daily News (New York)|Daily News]] |location=New York |date=30 June 2008}} 
* {{cite book |last=Paul |first=Pamela |author-link=Pamela Paul |title=Pornified: how pornography is transforming our lives, our relationships, and our families |publisher=Times Books |location=New York |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8050-8132-9}}
* [[Mario Perniola]], ''The Sex-appeal of the inorganic'', translated by Massimo Verdicchio, London-New York, [[Continuum International Publishing Group|Continuum]], 2004.
* {{Cite journal |last=Sharge |first=Laurie |title=Exposing the fallacies of anti-porn feminism |journal=[[Feminist Theory (journal)|Feminist Theory]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=45–65 |doi=10.1177/1464700105050226 |date=April 2005 |s2cid=145194517 }}
* {{cite book |last=Soble |first=Alan |title=Pornography, Sex, and Feminism |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |year=2002 |location=Amherst, New York|isbn= 978-1-57392-944-8}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=L. Monique |last2=Daniels |first2=Elizabeth A. |last3=Zurbriggen |first3=Eileen L. |last4=Rosenscruggs |first4=Danielle |title=The sources and consequences of sexual objectification |journal=[[Nature Reviews Psychology]] |date=2023 |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=496–513 |doi=10.1038/s44159-023-00192-x}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* Papadaki, Evangelia (March 10, 2010), "[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-objectification/ Feminist perspectives on objectification]", in {{cite book | editor-last = Zalta | editor-first = Edward N. | editor-link = Edward N. Zalta | title = Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | title-link = Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy }}
* Shrage, Laurie (July 13, 2007), "[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-sex-markets/#SexObj Feminist perspectives on sex markets: 1.3 sexual objectification]", in {{cite book | editor-last = Zalta | editor-first = Edward N. | editor-link = Edward N. Zalta | title = Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  | title-link = Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy }}
* {{cite web | last = Steinberg | first = David | title = On Sexual Objectification | url = http://www.nearbycafe.com/loveandlust/steinberg/erotic/cn/cn5.html | work = [[Spectator Magazine]] &#124; Comes Naturally column #5 | date = March 5, 1993 }} – Sex-positive feminist perspective on sexual objectification.
* {{cite news | last = Wyatt | first = Petronella | author-link = Petronella Wyatt | title = Women like seeing men as sex objects | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml;?html=%2Farchive%2F1996%2F10%2F05%2Ftlpet05.html | work = [[Daily Telegraph]] | date = October 5, 1996 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080530044627/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml;?html=%2Farchive%2F1996%2F10%2F05%2Ftlpet05.html | archive-date = May 30, 2008 }} Interview with [[Janet Anderson]].
* {{cite web | last1 = Kalyanaraman | first1 = Sriram | last2 = Redding | first2 = Michael | last3 = Steele | first3 = Jason | title = Sexual suggestiveness in online ads: effects of objectification on opposite genders | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080208172715/http://www.psu.edu/dept/medialab/research/objectification.html | archive-date = February 8, 2008 | url = http://www.psu.edu/dept/medialab/research/objectification.html | website = psu.edu/dept/medialab | publisher = Media Effects Research Laboratory, [[Pennsylvania State University]] | date = 2000 }}
*Davis, Stefanie E (July 13, 2018) [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2056305118786727 "Objectification, Sexualization and Misrepresentation: Social Media and the College Experience"]  Sage Journals 
*Bello, D. C., Pitts, R. E., & Etzel, M. J. (1983). The communication effects of controversial sexual content in television programs and commercials. ''Journal of Advertising'', ''12''(3), 32–42.  
*Hill, M. S., & Fischer, A. R. (2008). Examining objectification theory: Lesbian and heterosexual women's experiences with sexual-and self-objectification. The Counseling Psychologist, 36(5), 745–776. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000007301669

'''User-generated content'''
* {{cite web | last = Tigtog | title = FAQ: What is sexual objectification? | url = http://finallyfeminism101.wordpress.com/2007/03/23/faq-what-is-sexual-objectification/ | website = finallyfeminism101.wordpress.com | publisher = Finally, A Feminism 101 Blog via [[WordPress]] | date = March 23, 2007}}
* {{cite AV media | people= [[Karen Straughan]] | date= March 28, 2012 |access-date= June 7, 2017 | title= I'm a sexy woman, so stop objectifying me! | medium= Video | publisher= [[Karen Straughan]] via [[YouTube]] | url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d-N9daqANcw }}

{{Sexual ethics}}
{{Nudity}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sexualization]]
[[Category:Sexuality and society]]
[[Category:Feminist terminology]]
[[Category:Feminist theory]]
[[Category:Philosophy of sexuality]]
[[Category:Postmodern theory]]
[[Category:Sexual attraction]]
[[Category:Sexual fetishism]]
[[Category:Sexual ethics]]
[[Category:Pornography]]