View source for Shangdi

{{Short description|Chinese view of a supreme God}}
{{for|the subdistrict in Haidian District, Beijing|Shangdi Subdistrict}}
{{for|the Beijing subway station|Shangdi station}}
[[File:Zhou grapheme for Tiān 天 (Heaven), version 1.svg|200px|thumb|right|alt=The Western Zhou version of the character "Tian". J. C. Didier identified the squared shape to be the same square found at the very central core of Shangdi, thus illustrating a strong connection (and identification) between the two deities|The Western Zhou version of the character "Tian". J. C. Didier identified the squared shape to be the same square found at the very central core of Shangdi, thus illustrating a strong connection (and identification) between the two deities.]]
[[File:Jitian.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Annual [[Sacrifice to Heaven]] ({{lang|zh|祭天}} ''jìtiān'') in honour of the Highest Deity the Heavenly Ruler ({{lang|zh|皇天上帝}} ''Huángtiān Shàngdì'') is held at the [[Temple of Heaven]] in [[Beijing]]. State pomp and a variety of Confucian religious groups have contributed in the reviving of worship of the Highest Deity in the 2000s.]]{{Chinese folk religion|expanded=Concepts}}

'''Shangdi''' ({{zh|c=上帝|p=Shàngdì|w=Shang<sup>4</sup> Ti<sup>4</sup>}}), also called simply '''Di''' ({{zh|c=帝|p=Dì|l=Lord}}),<ref name=":0" /> is the name of the Chinese Highest Deity or "Lord Above" in the [[Chinese theology|theology of the classical texts]], especially deriving from [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] theology and finding an equivalent in the later ''[[Tian|Tiān]]'' ("Heaven" or "Great Whole") of [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] theology.{{sfnb|Eno|2008|p=70}}

Although the use of "Tian" to refer to the [[Absolute (philosophy)|absolute]] [[God]] of the [[universe]] is predominant in Chinese religion today, "Shangdi" continues to be used in a variety of traditions, including certain [[Chinese philosophy|philosophical schools]],{{sfnb|Chang|2000}} certain strains of [[Chinese Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]],{{sfnb|Huang|2007|p=457}} some [[Chinese salvationist religions]] (notably [[Yiguandao]]) and [[Protestantism in China|Chinese Protestant Christianity]]. In addition, it is commonly used by contemporary Chinese (both mainland and overseas) and by religious and secular groups in East Asia, as a name of a singular universal deity and as a non-religious translation for [[God in Abrahamic religions]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewslens.com/post/313239/|script-title=zh:《死期大公開》上帝一家難念的經 - The News Lens 關鍵評論網|publisher=[[Funscreen Weekly]]|date=23 April 2016|website=[[The News Lens]]}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
{{multiple image
| align   = left
| image1  = Shang oracle bone graph for 帝 Di (Deity) n.1.svg
| width1   = 100
| image2  = Shang oracle bone graph for 帝 Di (Deity) n.2.svg
| width2   = 111
| footer = Shang oracular script graphs for 帝 ''Dì'', the supreme God as the [[celestial pole]].{{sfnb|Eno|2008|p=74}}
}}

"Shang Di" is the [[pinyin]] [[romanization of Chinese|romanization]] of two [[Chinese characters]]. The first {{ndash}} {{lang|zh|{{linktext|上}}}}, ''Shàng'' {{ndash}} means "high", "highest", "first", "primordial"; the second {{ndash}} {{lang|zh|{{linktext|帝}}}}, ''Dì'' {{ndash}} is typically considered as shorthand{{Citation needed|reason=No data cited to corroborate this confusion and claim. Di is generally understood as an archaic monosyllable word that is independent of its usage in Huangdi|date=January 2024}} for ''huangdi'' ({{lang|zh|皇帝}}) in modern Chinese, the title of the [[emperors of China]] first employed by [[Qin Shi Huang]], roughly some 2200 years ago, and is usually translated as "emperor". The word itself is derived from [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors|Three "Huang" and Five "Di"]], including [[Yellow Emperor]] ({{zh|c=黃帝|p=Huangdi}}), the mythological originator of the [[China|Chinese civilization]] and the ancestor of the Chinese race. However, {{lang|zh|帝}} refers to the High God of Shang, thus means "deity" (manifested god), .{{sfnb|Chang|2000}} Thus, the name ''Shangdi'' should be translated as "Highest Deity", but also has the implied meaning of "Primordial Deity" or "First Deity" in Classical Chinese. The deity preceded the title and the emperors of China were named after him in their role as ''[[Chinese sovereign|Tianzi]]'', the sons of Heaven. In the classical texts the highest conception of the heavens is frequently identified with Shang Di, who is described somewhat anthropomorphically. He is also associated with the pole star. The conceptions of the Supreme Ruler (Shang Di) and of the Sublime Heavens ({{zh|c=皇天|w=Huang-t'ien}}) afterward coalesce or absorb each other.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Religions of the World: Their Nature and their History|last=Clemen|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Clemen|orig-year=1931|publisher=Cosmos Publications|year=2005|isbn=81-7755-927-3|location=New Delhi}}</ref>

=== Shang dynasty usage ===

The Shang pronunciation of "Di" is reconstructed as ''*têks''.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Baxter|first1=William H.|author1-link=William H. Baxter|last2=Sagart|first2=Laurent|author2-link=Laurent Sagart|year=2014|page=35|title=Baxter-Sagart Old Chinese reconstruction, v.1.1|url=http://ocbaxtersagart.lsait.lsa.umich.edu/BaxterSagartOCbyMandarinMC2014-09-20.pdf}}</ref> The Shang dynasty designed 23 versions of Di, all based on a common pattern and shape.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zhou, Fagao (周法高)|title=Jinwen gulin (金文詁林)|publisher=Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong|date=1974}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Zhou, Fagao (周法高)|title=Jinwen gulin bu 金文詁林補|publisher=Nangang: Zhongyang yanjiu yuan, Lishi-yuyan yanjiusuo|date=1982}}</ref> The word finds itself in many inscriptional contexts, including use in collocation with natural spirits or addressing ancestral deities. There was a type of offerings named "Di-sacrifice", designed for hosting Di's representatives.
{{clear}}

==Religious roles==

===Shang dynasty===
[[File:Shang-Orakelknochen excerpt adjusted for contrast.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Oracle bone script]], the earliest known form of [[Chinese characters|Chinese]].]]
The earliest references to Shangdi are found in [[oracle bone]] inscriptions of the [[Shang dynasty]] in the 2nd millennium BC, although the later work ''[[Classic of History]]'' claims yearly sacrifices were made to him by [[Emperor Shun]], even before the [[Xia dynasty]].

Shangdi was regarded as the ultimate spiritual power by the ruling elite of the [[Huaxia]] during the [[Shang dynasty]]: he was believed to control victory in battle,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Stefon |first=Matt |date=2010-02-03 |title=Shangdi |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shangdi |access-date=2023-05-01 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref> success or failure of harvests,<ref name=":0" /> weather<ref name=":0" /> conditions such as the floods of the [[Yellow River]], and the fate of the [[capital city]]<ref name=":0" /> and kingdom. Shangdi seems to have ruled a [[Chinese pantheon|hierarchy of other gods]] controlling nature, as well as the [[Chinese ancestor worship|spirits of the deceased]].<ref name="Zhao, Yanxia 2010. p. 154">Zhao, Yanxia. ''Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach.'' 2010. p. 154</ref> These ideas were later mirrored or carried on by the [[Taoism|Taoist]] [[Jade Emperor]] and his [[celestial bureaucracy]], and Shangdi was later syncretized with the Jade Emperor.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Stark |first=Rodney |title=Discovering God: The Origins of the Great Religions and the Evolution of Belief |publisher=[[HarperOne]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-06-117389-9 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=252 |author-link=Rodney Stark}}</ref>

Shangdi was probably more [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] than [[immanence|immanent]], only working through lesser gods.<ref name="Zhao, Yanxia 2010. p. 154"/> Shangdi was considered too distant to be worshiped directly by ordinary mortals.<ref name=":0" /> Instead, the Shang kings proclaimed that Shangdi had made himself accessible through the souls of their royal ancestors,<ref>Jeaneane D. Fowler, Merv Fowler, 2008, Chinese religions: beliefs and practices, Sussex Academic Press.</ref> both in the legendary past and in recent generations as the departed Shang kings joined him in the afterlife. The kings could thus successfully entreat Shangdi directly.<ref>Wu, 8</ref> Many of the oracle bone inscriptions record these petitions, usually praying for rain<ref>Wu, 173</ref> but also seeking approval from Shangdi for state action.

Shangdi was seen as somewhat human or at least anthropomorphic<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Szostak |first=Rick |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003013518/making-sense-world-history-rick-szostak |title=Making Sense of World History |date=2020-10-22 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781003013518 |location=London |pages=321 |doi=10.4324/9781003013518}}</ref> and the "greatest [[Ancestor veneration in China|ancestor]]" by some worshippers during this time.<ref name=":0" />

=== Zhou dynasty ===
In the later [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] dynasties, Shangdi was conflated with [[Tian|Heaven]] ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|天}}}}, ''[[Tian|Tiān]]'').<ref name = b220211>{{citation | contribution = Shangdi | year = 2011 | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/538488/Shangdi }}.</ref> The [[Duke of Zhou]] justified [[Battle of Muye|his clan's usurpation]] through the concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], which proposed that the protection of Shangdi was not connected to their clan membership but by their just governance. Shangdi was not just a tribal but instead an unambiguously good moral force, exercising its power according to exacting standards.<ref>''[[Book of Documents]]''.</ref> Shangdi's favor could thus be lost and even "inherited" by a new dynasty, provided they upheld the proper rituals.

Modern researches have paid attention to the adoption of Shang religious practices by the [[Zhou dynasty]], and particularly, the continued worship of Shangdi through altered forms. Modern explanations are based on the parallel between Shang and Zhou adoptions. Historically, the regency of the [[Duke of Zhou]] sought to re-stabilize the Zhou dynasty.{{sfnb|Ruth H. Chang|2000}} The Zhou court modeled their adoption after the Shang, whose imports of local cults as well as official worship of tribal deities played an important role in maintaining kingly sovereignty of the monarchs over subjugated polities. According to Ruth H. Chang, continuation of Shang religion also provided opportunities to further share changing religious activities the newly conquered Shang people.{{sfnb|Ruth H. Chang|2000}} The Zhou dynasty aimed to make an impression that the term "Di" was native to them. These actions were perceived by Chang as a Zhou attempt at a similar cult adoption for the purpose of uniting Shang and Zhou under one political entity.{{sfnb|Ruth H. Chang|2000|p=13-14}}

There were other reasons behind the Duke of Zhou's attempt in merging Di with the concept of Tian. Evidence from oracle bone inscriptions show that the Shang believed in Shangdi's blessings for the king, which some scholars interpreted as a belief in the ruler's granted authority by the gods.<ref>{{cite book|last=Creel|first=Herrlee G.|title=Chinese Thought from Confucius to Mao Tse-tung|publisher=Chicago: University of Chicago Press|year=1953}}</ref> This belief was resonant with the theory of Tian, in that the monarch received divine authority to rule. Obedience of the Shang people was likely to be ensured by implementing a Zhou concept in which the Shang found similarities with their native beliefs.{{sfnb|Ruth H. Chang|2000|p=15}}

The connection of many rituals with the [[Zi (surname)|Shang clan]] meant that Shang nobles continued to rule several locations (despite their rebellions) and to serve as court advisors and priests. The Duke of Zhou even created an [[Luoyang|entire ceremonial city]] along strict cosmological principles to house the Shang aristocracy and the [[Nine Tripod Cauldrons|nine tripods]] representing Huaxia sovereignty; the Shang were then charged with maintaining the ''[[Rites of Zhou]]''. Likewise, the Shang's lesser houses, the [[Four occupations#The shi (士)|''shi'' knightly class]], developed directly into the learned Confucian gentry and scholars who advised the Zhou rulers on courtly etiquette and ceremony.<ref>"Chinese Philosophy". China Renmin Univ., 2006.</ref> The [[Five Classics|Confucian classics]] carried on and ordered the earlier traditions, including the worship of Shangdi. All of them include references:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Occurrences of Shangdi in the [[Five Classics]]
|-
! Chinese name !! Pinyin !! English name !! Occurrences
|-
| {{lang|zh|書經}} || ''[[Shujing]]'' || [[Classic of History]] || 32 times
|-
| {{lang|zh|詩經}} || ''[[Shijing]]'' || [[Classic of Poetry]] || 24 times
|-
| {{lang|zh|禮記}} || ''[[Liji]]''    || [[Classic of Rites]] || 20 times
|-
| {{lang|zh|春秋}} || ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals|Chunqiu]]'' || [[Spring and Autumn Annals]] || 8 times
|-
| {{lang|zh|易經}} || ''[[Yijing]]'' || [[Classic of Changes]] || 2 times
|}

The [[Four Books]] mention Shangdi as well but, as it is a later compilation, the references are much more sparse and abstract. Shangdi appears most commonly in earlier works: this pattern may reflect increasing rationalization of Shangdi over time, the shift from a known and arbitrary tribal god to a more abstract and philosophical concept,{{NoteTag|The ''[[Book of Documents]]'' says: "August Heaven has no partisan affections: it supports only the virtuous".}}{{NoteTag|The ''[[Zuo zhuan]]'' says: "Unless one is virtuous, the people will not be in harmony and the spirits will not partake of one's offerings. What the spirits are attracted to is one's virtue".}} or his conflation and absorption by other deities.

As early as the [[Western Zhou]] period, Di had become fully synonymous with Tian, as the two words were used interchangeably in various bronze inscriptions. One such situation appears in bronze castings during [[King Li of Zhou]]'s reign (9th century BC),<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp108_chinese_deity_heaven.pdf|last=Ruth H. Chang|year= 2000|title=Understanding Di and Tian: Deity and Heaven From Shang to Tang Dynasties|publisher=Sino-Platonic Papers (Number 108)}}
* {{cite book|last=Mair|first=Victor|title=Old Sinitic Myag, Old Persian Magus, and English 'Magician'"(Early China 15, 27-47)|year=1990}}</ref> pointing out the prevalence of equating both words with each other.

===Han dynasty===
By the time of the [[Han dynasty]], the influential [[Confucianism|Confucian]] scholar [[Zheng Xuan]] glossed: "''Shangdi'' is another name for [[Tian|Heaven]]". [[Dong Zhongshu]] said: "Heaven is the ultimate authority, the king of gods who should be admired by the king".<ref>Dong Zhongshu. ''Chunqiu Fanlu''.</ref> Usage of the word "Di" had significantly changed, and by the Han it had been used to refer to much more terms. In some cases, "Di" still denoted a high deity with a distinguished charge over celestial objects, but in others it was written in collocation with other words, incorporating the connotation of "god" to those concerned. "Di" featured in the name of the [[Yellow Emperor]] (Huangdi), the Flame Emperor (Yandi) and various other figures.

In later eras, he was commonly known by the name "Heavenly Ruling Highest Deity" ({{lang|zh|皇天上帝}}, ''Huángtiān Shàngdì'') and, in this usage, he is especially conflated with the Taoist [[Jade Emperor]].

==Identification==
{{Further|Chinese theology}}

===The Shang progenitor===

{{see also|Religion of the Shang dynasty}}
In Shang sources, Di is already described as the supreme ordainer of the events which occur in nature, such as wind, lightning and thunder, and in human affairs and politics. All the gods of nature are conceived as his envoys or manifestations. Shang sources also attest his cosmological [[Wufang Shangdi|Five Ministries]].{{sfnb|Eno|2008|p=71}} Di, or Tian, as later texts explain, did not receive [[cult (religious practice)|cult]] for being too remote for living humans to sacrifice to directly. Instead, an intermediary such as an ancestor was necessary to convey to Di the offerings of the living.{{sfnb|Eno|2008|p=72}}

According to some prominent scholars, including [[Guo Moruo]], Shangdi was originally identical to [[Emperor Ku|Ku]] (or Kui) or Diku ("''[[Divus]]'' Ku"), the [[progenitor]] (first ancestor) of the Zi ({{lang|zh|子}}) lineage, the founders of the Shang dynasty, attested in the ''[[Shiji]]'' and other texts.{{sfnb|Eno|2008|p=72}} According to this interpretation, this identification had profound political implications, because it meant that the earthly Shang kings were themselves by birth aspects of divinity.{{sfnb|Eno|2008|p=73}}

[[File:Shang grapheme for Shàngjiǎ 上甲 (Supreme Ancestor), version 1.svg|thumb|right|180px|alt=Shang designated character for the high ancestor Shangjia.|Shang designated character for the high ancestor [[Shang Jia]].]]Further evidence from Shang sources suggests that there wasn't a complete identification between the two, as Di controls spirits of nature, while Kui does not; Di is frequently pictured sending down "approvals", while Kui is never so pictured; and Kui received cult, while Di did not. Moreover, Kui is frequently appealed in "horizontal" relationship with other powers, undermining any portrait of him as the apex of the pantheon.{{sfnb|Eno|2008|p=73}}

Interpretations of Shang oracle bones yield the possibility of Di being equated with [[Shang Jia]], the utmost and supreme being of the "Six Spirits" who were predynastic Shang male ancestors. The bone graph for Shang Jia consists of a square encompassing a cross. Since the cross shape is understood to be "Jia", the square is therefore "Shang", indicating it to be the ancestral square that constitute Di's central core.{{sfnb|Didier|2009}}

===Shangdi as the celestial pole===
David Pankenier has studied the astral connections of Shangdi, drawing on a view that interest in the sky was a focal character of the religious practices of the Shang, but also of the earlier [[Xia dynasty|Xia]] and [[Erlitou culture]]s. Especially intriguing is the fact that palatial and ceremonial structures of these cultures were carefully aligned to the [[celestial pole]] and the procession of [[pole star]]s. Pankenier notes that the true celestial pole lies in a sky template which is vacant of significant stars, and that the various pole stars are those nearest to this vacant apex which is of crucial importance.{{sfnb|Eno|2008|pp=73-74}}

He illustrates how the Shang [[oracle bone script|oracular script]] for Di can be projected on the north pole template of the ancient sky in such a way that its extremity points correspond with the visible star, while the intersection of the linear axes at the centre will map to the vacant celestial pole. Pankenier argues that the supreme Di was identified with the celestial pole, an idea familiar in later stages of Chinese religion, linking with the ''Tàiyī'' 太一 ("Great One") fully documented as early as the 4th century BC.{{sfnb|Eno|2008|p=74}}

The interpretation of Shangdi as the celestial pole, Taiyi and as Ku the progenitor of the Shang is not contradictory. Feng Shi argues that Ku and Di are indeed identical. The Shang probably deliberately identified their ancestor with a universal god recognized in different regions and local cultures in order to legitimize their power.{{sfnb|Eno|2008|p=75}}

=== Multiplicity of Di ===

{{multiple image
| align             = center
| width             = 150
| header            = <small>Shang characters for ''Shangdi'', designed in three most frequently used versions. In all three cases, the central component of the character is a manifestation of the polar square which housed main-lineage Shang ancestors.</small>
| image1            = Shang grapheme for Dì 帝 (Deity), version 1.svg
| caption1          = 
| image2            = Shang grapheme for Dì 帝 (Deity), version 2.svg
| caption2          = 
| image3            = Shang grapheme for dì 禘 or dǐng 鼎 (to divine, to sacrifice).svg
| caption3          = 
}}

Inscriptions of the Shang dynasty point out the collective nature of Shangdi. The fact that the word "Di" was also used to address Shang ancestors show that Di was intimately related to the ancestral spirits. The Shang character for Di features a squared pattern, which was a symbol of the northern ecliptic pole.{{sfnb|Didier|2009}} This square composes many Shang ancestral names, and it even denotes temples and altars dedicated to the foremost Shang predynastic ancestors. J. C. Didier pointed out that the central square of the word "Di" housed all main-lineage Shang ancestral spirits.{{sfnb|Didier|2009}} These spirits represented Di's core of cosmic divinity and carry his will to bless the human world.{{sfnb|Didier|2009}} "Di" also emcompasses non-ancestral deities that could be unfavorable towards living beings, a result of adopting foreign cults. These gods represent Di's authority to exercise control over disastrous events, contrary to "friendly" Shang ancestral square.{{sfnb|Didier|2009}} Spirits were considered by the Shang to be consular spirits of Di, and often were given direct offerings as representations of the supreme deity.

Many inscriptions found on Shang bones and bronze indicate that Di's multiplicity could be further understood by interpreting the "Shang" in "Shangdi". Scholars argue that the "Shang" component illustrated the inequivalence between ''Di'' and ''Shangdi''.{{sfnb|Didier|2009}} Shangdi, according to them, was only a part of Di in the mind of the Shang people, and that there was presence of Shangdi's counterpart. Interpreting versions of the character "Di" in Shang texts, Didier found out that versions with two horizontal lines above the graph denoted "Shangdi", while those possessing three lines would connote a broader meaning of "''Shangxiadi''" ({{lang|zh|上下帝}}).{{sfnb|Didier|2009}} This connotation appearing in Shang inscriptions reveal the multiplicity in which the deity was divided into superior (''shang'') and lesser ranks (''xia''). They argued that the adopted spirits which constitute Di's unfavorable actions to them living realm would, possibly, be housed in the lesser rank, or "Xiadi" ({{lang|zh|下帝}}),{{sfnb|Didier|2009}} while the "friendly" ancestral spirits would compose the "Shangdi" as a counterpart.

===Contemporary Confucianism===
Contemporary Confucian theologians have emphasised differences between the Confucian idea of Shangdi, conceived as both [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]] and [[immanent]], and act only as a governor of the world, and the Christian idea of God, which they conceived contrary to those of Christian as a deity that is completely otherworldly (transcendent) and is merely a creator of the world.<ref>Zhōng Shǐ-shēng, {{lang|zh|天学初征: "天是「統御世間、主善罰惡之天，即《詩》、《易》、《中庸》所稱上帝是也」，但這個主宰之天只是「治世，而非生世，譬如帝王，但治民而非生民也」}}"</ref>{{sfnb|Huang|2007|p=457}}{{Clarification needed|reason=Are the subjects mixed up or reversed here? The God in Christianity article says, in the 2nd sentence, that God is "both transcendent and immanent," whereas this very article says "Shangdi was probably more transcendent than immanent, only working through lesser gods." But this sentence seems to imply the opposite, that Shangdi is immanent, unlike the Christian God.|date=October 2024}}

== Worship ==

=== Rituals ===
[[File:CircularMound.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Sacred altar at the [[Temple of Heaven]], Beijing]]

As mentioned above, sacrifices offered to Shangdi by the king are claimed by traditional Chinese histories to predate the Xia dynasty. The [[Oracle bones#Discovery|surviving archaeological record]] shows that by the Shang, the [[scapula|shoulder blades]] of sacrificed oxen were used to send questions or communication through fire and smoke to the divine realm, a practice known as [[scapulimancy]]. The heat would cause the bones to crack, and royal diviners would interpret the marks as Shangdi's response to the king. Inscriptions used for divination were buried in special orderly pits, while those for practice or records were buried in common [[midden]]s after use.<ref>Xu Yahui. Caltonhill, Mark & al., trans. ''Ancient Chinese Writing: Oracle Bone Inscriptions from the Ruins of Yin.'' [[Academia Sinica]]. [[National Palace Museum]] (Taipei), 2002. Govt. Publ. No. 1009100250.</ref>

During the Shang, it is observed that Di did not receive a direct cult. Instead, his consular spirits would manifest in the human world to be offered sacrifices. The Shang often identified these spirits as Di and sometimes performed a "Di-sacrifice" to them, illustrating intimate connections of the recipients with the being.

Under Shangdi or his later names, the deity received sacrifices from the ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty annually at a great [[Temple of Heaven]] in the imperial capital. Following the principles of [[fengshui|Chinese geomancy]], this would always be located in the southern quarter of the city.{{NoteTag|For instance, the Classic of History records the Duke of Zhou building an altar in the southern part of Luo.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}}} During the ritual, a completely healthy bull would be slaughtered and presented as an animal sacrifice to Shangdi.{{NoteTag|Although the Duke of Zhou is presented as sacrificing two.}} The ''[[Book of Rites]]'' states the sacrifice should occur on the "[[summer solstice|longest day]]" on a round-mound altar.{{clarify|date=October 2012}} The altar would have three tiers: the highest for Shangdi and the [[Son of Heaven]]; the second-highest for the sun and moon; and the lowest for the natural gods such as the stars, clouds, rain, wind, and thunder.

It is important to note that Shangdi is never represented with either images or idols. Instead, in the central building of the Temple of Heaven, in a structure called the "Imperial Vault of Heaven", a "spirit tablet" ({{lang|zh|神位}}, shénwèi) inscribed with the name of Shangdi is stored on the throne, ''Huangtian Shangdi'' ({{lang|zh|皇天上帝}}). During an annual sacrifice, the emperor would carry these tablets to the north part of the Temple of Heaven, a place called the "Prayer Hall for Good Harvests", and place them on that throne.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.jsdj.com/luyou/tp2/BJTT12.jpg |title = JSDJ |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051214105152/http://www.jsdj.com/luyou/tp2/BJTT12.jpg |archive-date = 2005-12-14 }}</ref>

===Conflation with singular universal God===
{{see also|Chinese Rites controversy|Chinese names for the God of Abrahamic religions|Unknown God}}

It was during the Ming and Qing dynasties, when Roman Catholicism was introduced by [[Jesuit]] priest [[Matteo Ricci]], that the idea of "Shangdi" started to be applied to the [[God in Christianity|Christian conception of God]].

While initially he utilized the term ''[[Tianzhu (Chinese name of God)|Tianzhu]]'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=天主|p=Tiānzhǔ}}, lit. "The Lord of Heaven"), Ricci gradually changed the translation to "Shangdi" instead.<ref>“{{lang|zh|上帝給人雙目、雙耳、雙手、雙足，欲兩友相助，方爲事有成矣。”《交友論》}},1595</ref><ref>{{lang|zh|“上帝者，生物原始，宰物本主也。”《二十五言》}},1599</ref> His usage of Shangdi was contested by Confucians, as they believed that the concept of ''Tian'' and "Shangdi" is different from that of Christianity's God: Zhōng Shǐ-shēng, through his books,<ref>{{lang|zh|天学初征}}</ref><ref>{{lang|zh|天学再征}}</ref> stated that Shangdi only governs, while Christianity's God is a creator, and thus they differ.<ref>{{lang|zh|程小娟：《God的汉译史——争论、接受与启示》，[[Social Sciences Literature Press]]，2013年}}</ref> Ricci's translation also invited the displeasure of [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] and that of the [[Roman Curia]]: on March 19, 1715, [[Pope Clement XI]] released the Edict ''Ex Illa Die'', stating that Catholics must use "Tianzhu" instead of "Shangdi" for Christianity's God.

When [[Protestantism]] entered China in the middle of the 19th century, the Protestant missionaries also encountered a similar issue: some preferred the term "Shangdi", while some preferred the term ''Shen'' ("god"). A conference held in 1877 in Shanghai, discussing the translation issue, also believed that "Shangdi" of Confucianism and the Christian concept of God are different in nature.<ref>{{lang|zh|艾約瑟譯《各省教師集議記略》，載李天綱編校《萬國公報文選》，北京：生活·讀書·新知三聯書店，1998年，第22頁。}}</ref>

However, by the 20th century, most British missionaries, some [[Catholics]], [[Chinese Orthodox Church|Chinese Orthodox Christians]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orthodox.cn/localchurch/200406ancientcnhist_en.htm|title=Ancient Chinese History in Light of the Book of Genesis|website=www.orthodox.cn}}</ref> and [[Evangelicals]] preferred "Shangdi" as a connection with Chinese native [[monotheism]],<ref>[[James Legge|Legge, James]], The Religions of China, Hodder and Stoughton, 1880, p24-25: "'He sacrificed specifically, but with the ordinary forms, to ShangTi' -that is, we have seen, to God."</ref> with some furthering the argument by linking it with the [[unknown god]] as described in the Christian Bible.<ref>{{bibleref|Acts|17:23-31|31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rlhymersjr.com/Online_Sermons_Chinese/2012/092912PM_TheUnknownGod.html|title=Sermons in Traditional Chinese: THE UNKNOWN GOD|website=www.rlhymersjr.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzimxWlnh8YC&q=%E6%9C%AA%E8%AD%98%E4%B9%8B%E7%A5%9E%E4%B8%8A%E5%B8%9D&pg=PA43|title=Confucian Christian Theology|first=Tian|last=Tongxin|publisher=Academic Press Corporation|isbn=9781936040322|via=Google Books}}</ref> Catholics preferred to avoid it, due to compromises with the local authority in order to do their missions, as well as fear such translation may associate the Christian God to Chinese polytheism.<ref name=sg282211>{{citation | first = Archie CC | last = Lee | title = God's Asian Names: Rendering the Biblical God in Chinese | publisher = SBL Forum | date = Oct 2005 | url = http://sbl-site.org/Article.aspx?ArticleID=456}}</ref>

Nowadays, through the secular Chinese-language media, the Chinese words "Shangdi" and "Tian" are frequently used to translate the singular universal deity with minimal religious attachment to the Christian idea of God. At the same time, Confucians and intellectuals in contemporary mainland China and Taiwan attempt to realign the term to its original meaning. Catholics officially use the term ''Tianzhu'', while Evangelicals typically use ''Shangdi'' and/or ''Shen'' ({{lang|zh|神}}, "god" or "spirit").

==See also==
*[[Jade Emperor]]
*[[Yuanshi Tianzun]]
*[[Taiyi Tianzun]]
*[[Hongjun Laozu]]
*[[Tian]]
*[[Tao]]
*[[Chinese folk religion]]
*[[Chinese mythology]]
*[[Shen (Chinese religion)|Shen]]
*[[King of the gods]]
*[[Sky father]]

===In other cultures and belief systems===
*[[Śakra (Buddhism)|Śakra]] (in Buddhism)
*[[Haneullim]] (in Korea)
*[[Amenominakanushi]] (in Japan)
*[[Tengri]] (in Mongolia)
*[[Indra]] (in Hinduism)
*[[Ông Trời]] (in Vietnam)
* [[Yahweh]] or [[Jehovah]] (referred as [[Allah]] ("the god") in [[Arabic]]) (in [[Abrahamic]] religions)
* [[Brahma]]
* [[Ishvara]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | last = Chang | first = Ruth H. | title = Understanding Di and Tian: Deity and Heaven from Shang to Tang Dynasties | journal = [[Sino-Platonic Papers]] | issue = 108 | publisher = Victor H. Mair | date = 2000 | url = http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp108_chinese_deity_heaven.pdf | issn = 2157-9679 }}
* {{citation | first = Robert | last = Eno | chapter = Shang State Religion and the Pantheon of the Oracle Texts | pages = 41–102 | title = Early Chinese Religion: Part One: Shang Through Han (1250 BC-220 AD) | editor-first1 = John | editor-last1 = Lagerwey | editor-first2 = Marc | editor-last2 = Kalinowski | publisher = Brill | year = 2008 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Idhyr1hqS0kC | isbn = 978-9004168350 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Huang | first = Yong | title = Confucian Theology: Three Models | journal = Religion Compass | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = 455–478 | publisher = Blackwell | date = 2007 | url = https://www.academia.edu/10610633 | issn = 2157-9679 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-8171.2007.00032.x }}
* [[Herrlee Creel|Creel, Herrlee G.]], The Origins of Statecraft in China. {{ISBN|0-226-12043-0}}
* [[K. C. Wu|Wu, K. C.]] (1982). ''The Chinese Heritage''. New York: Crown Publishers. {{ISBN|0-517-54475X}}.
* {{cite journal|last=Didier|first=John C.|title=In and Outside the Square: The Sky and the Power of Belief in Ancient China and the World, c. 4500 BC – AD 200|journal=[[Sino-Platonic Papers]]|issue=192|publisher=Victor H. Mair|date=2009}} ''[http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp192_vol1.pdf Volume I: The Ancient Eurasian World and the Celestial Pivot]'', ''[http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp192_vol2.pdf Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China]'', ''[http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp192_vol3.pdf Volume III: Terrestrial and Celestial Transformations in Zhou and Early-Imperial China]''.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Wiktionary-inline|上帝}}

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{{Names of God}}

[[Category:Chinese gods]]
[[Category:God]]
[[Category:Names of God]]
[[Category:Deities in Chinese folk religion]]
[[Category:Sky and weather gods]]
[[Category:Supernatural beings identified with Christian saints]]
[[Category:Religious Confucianism]]
[[Category:Conceptions of God]]
{{Religious Confucianism}}