View source for Sherman Antitrust Act

{{short description|1890 U.S. anti-monopoly law}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox U.S. legislation
| shorttitle = Sherman Antitrust Act
| othershorttitles = 
| longtitle = An Act to protect trade and commerce against unlawful restraints and monopolies
| colloquialacronym = 
| nickname = 
| enacted by = 51st
| effective date = 
| public law url = 
| cite public law = {{uspl|51|647}}<!--{{uspl}} can be used-->
| cite statutes at large = {{usstat|26|209}}
| acts amended = 
| acts repealed = 
| title amended = [[Title 15 of the United States Code|Title 15—Commerce and Trade]]
| sections created = {{usc|15|1|7}}
| sections amended = 
| leghisturl = 
| introducedin = Senate
| introducedbill = 
| introducedby = [[John Sherman]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]–[[Ohio|OH]])
| introduceddate = 
| committees = 
| passedbody1 = Senate
| passeddate1 = April 8, 1890
| passedvote1 = 52–1
| passedbody2 = House
| passedas2 = <!-- used if the second body changes the name of the legislation -->
| passeddate2 = June 20, 1890
| passedvote2 = unanimous vote
| conferencedate = 
| passedbody3 = 
| passeddate3 = 
| passedvote3 = 
| agreedbody3 = <!-- used when the other body agrees without going into committee -->
| agreeddate3 = <!-- used when the other body agrees without going into committee -->
| agreedvote3 = <!-- used when the other body agrees without going into committee -->
| agreedbody4 = <!-- used if agreedbody3 further amends legislation -->
| agreeddate4 = <!-- used if agreedbody3 further amends legislation -->
| agreedvote4 = <!-- used if agreedbody3 further amends legislation -->
| passedbody4 = 
| passeddate4 = 
| passedvote4 = 
| signedpresident = [[Benjamin Harrison]]
| signeddate = July 2, 1890
| amendments = 
| SCOTUS cases = {{Collapsible list|framestyle=line-height:1em|''[[United States v. E.C. Knight Co.]]'', {{ussc|156|1|1894}}|''[[United States v. Trans-Missouri Freight Association]]'', {{ussc|166|290|1897}}|''[[Northern Securities Co. v. United States]]'', {{ussc|193|197|1904}}|''[[Hale v. Henkel]]'', {{ussc|201|43|1906}}|''[[Dr. Miles Medical Co. v. John D. Park & Sons Co.]]'', {{ussc|220|373|1911}}|''[[Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States]]'', {{ussc|221|1|1911}}|''[[United States v. American Tobacco Co.]]'', {{ussc|221|106|1911}}|''[[Federal Baseball Club v. National League]]'', {{ussc|259|200|1922}}|''[[Apex Hosiery Co. v. Leader]]'', {{ussc|310|469|1940}}|''[[United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.]]'', {{ussc|334|131|1948}}|''[[United States v. National City Lines]]'', {{ussc|334|573|1948}}|''[[Kiefer-Stewart Co. v. Seagram & Sons, Inc.]]'', {{ussc|340|211|1951}}|''[[Lorain Journal Co. v. United States]]'', {{ussc|342|143|1951}}|''[[Continental Television, Inc. v. GTE Sylvania, Inc.]]'', {{ussc|433|36|1977}}|''[[Arizona v. Maricopa County Medical Society]]'', {{ussc|457|332|1982}}|''[[Jefferson Parish Hospital District No. 2 v. Hyde]]'', {{ussc|466|2|1984}}|''[[Copperweld Corp. v. Independence Tube Corp.]]'', {{ussc|467|752|1984}}|''[[Spectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan]]'', {{ussc|506|447|1993}}|''[[Leegin Creative Leather Products, Inc. v. PSKS, Inc.]]'', {{ussc|551|877|2007}}|''[[Pacific Bell Telephone Co. v. linkLine Communications, Inc.]]'', {{ussc|555|438|2009}}|''[[American Needle, Inc. v. National Football League]]'', {{ussc|560|183|2010}}|''[[North Carolina Bd. of Dental Examiners v. FTC]]'', {{ussc|574|494|2015}}|''[[Ohio v. American Express Co.]]'', {{ussc|docket=16-1454|volume=585|year=2018}}|''[[National Collegiate Athletic Assn. v. Alston]]'', {{ussc|docket=20-512|volume=594|year=2021}}}}
}}

[[File:John-Sherman-2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[United States Senate|Sen.]] [[John Sherman]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]–[[List of United States Senators from Ohio|Ohio]]), the principal author of the Sherman Antitrust Act]]
{{Competition law}}

The '''Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890'''<ref>Officially re-designated as the "Sherman Act" by Congress in the [[Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act|Hart–Scott–Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act of 1976]], (Public Law 94-435, Title 3, Sec. 305(a), 90 Stat. 1383 at [[s:Page:United States Statutes at Large Volume 90 Part 1.djvu/1447|p. 1397]]).</ref> ({{USStat|26|209}}, {{usc|15|1|7}}) is a [[United States antitrust law]] which prescribes the rule of free competition among those engaged in commerce and consequently prohibits unfair [[Monopoly|monopolies]]. It was passed by [[United States Congress|Congress]] and is named for Senator [[John Sherman]], its principal author.

The Sherman Act broadly prohibits 1) anticompetitive agreements and 2) unilateral conduct that monopolizes or attempts to monopolize the relevant market. The Act authorizes the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] to bring [[Lawsuit|suits]] to [[enjoin]] (i.e. prohibit) conduct violating the Act, and additionally authorizes private parties injured by conduct violating the Act to bring suits for [[treble damages]] (i.e. three times as much money in damages as the violation cost them). Over time, the federal courts have developed a body of law under the Sherman Act making certain types of anticompetitive conduct per se illegal, and subjecting other types of conduct to case-by-case analysis regarding whether the conduct unreasonably restrains trade.

The law attempts to prevent the artificial raising of prices by restriction of trade or supply.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://butnowyouknow.net/those-who-fail-to-learn-from-history/sherman-anti-trust-act-and-analysis/|title=Sherman AntiTrust Act, and Analysis|date=12 March 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20111118040849/http://butnowyouknow.net/those-who-fail-to-learn-from-history/sherman-anti-trust-act-and-analysis/|archive-date=18 November 2011}}</ref> "Innocent monopoly", or monopoly achieved solely by merit, is legal, but acts by a monopolist to artificially preserve that status, or nefarious dealings to create a monopoly, are not. The purpose of the Sherman Act is not to protect competitors from harm from legitimately successful businesses, nor to prevent businesses from gaining honest profits from consumers, but rather to preserve a competitive marketplace to protect consumers from abuses.<ref name="Cseres2005">"This focus of U.S. competition law, on protection of competition rather than competitors, is not necessarily the only possible focus or purpose of competition law. For example, it has also been said that competition law in the European Union (EU) tends to protect the competitors in the marketplace, even at the expense of market efficiencies and consumers."<  {{cite book|title=Competition law and consumer protection|last=Cseres|first=Katalin Judit|year=2005|publisher=Kluwer Law International|isbn=9789041123800|pages=291–293|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y3IOROCcVacC|access-date=July 15, 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512183804/http://books.google.com/books?id=y3IOROCcVacC&printsec=frontcover&cad=0|archive-date=May 12, 2013}}</ref>

==Background==
In ''[[Spectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan]]'' 506 U.S. 447 (1993) the Supreme Court said:

{{blockquote|The purpose of the [Sherman] Act is not to protect businesses from the working of the market; it is to protect the public from the failure of the market. The law directs itself not against conduct which is competitive, even severely so, but against conduct which unfairly tends to destroy competition itself.<ref name="SpectrumSports">{{ussc|name=Spectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan|link=|volume=506|page=447|pin=458|year=1993}}.</ref>}}

According to its authors, it was not intended to impact market gains obtained by honest means, by benefiting the consumers more than the competitors. Senator [[George Hoar]] of [[Massachusetts]], another author of the Sherman Act, stated that "a man who merely by superior skill and intelligence [...] got the whole business because nobody could do it as well as he could was not a monopolist," but that it was monopoly if their business practices "made it impossible for other persons to engage in fair competition".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OsssAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA279|title=Bills and Debates in Congress Relating to Trusts: Fiftieth Congress to Fifty-seventh Congress, First Session, Inclusive|first1=United States|last1=Congress|first2=James Arthur|last2=Finch|date=26 March 2018|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|via=Google Books|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409142100/https://books.google.com/books?id=OsssAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA279&lpg=PA279&source=bl&ots=QI5PFBZPn_&sig=0mccC_vXBFDUc9O8BsmPW2x6HAk&hl=en&ei=VoXFTs28OoObtwej1PWTCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&f=false|archive-date=9 April 2017}}</ref>

In 1937, the business Apex Hosiery suffered losses when strikers occupied their business, and prevented shipments of orders, including shipments to other states.  Apex attempted to sue the union leader for treble damages as provided by the Sherman Act.  Apex argued that the union had interfered with interstate commerce. The court held that the Sherman Act did not apply to the unlawful occupation of a business.{{citation needed|date=October 2025}}

The Supreme Court stated in the case ''Apex Hosiery Co. v. Leader'' [http://supreme.justia.com/us/310/469/case.html 310 U.S. 469], [http://supreme.justia.com/us/310/469/case.html#492 310 U. S. 492]-93 and n. 15:

{{blockquote|The legislative history of the Sherman Act, as well as the decisions of this Court interpreting it, show that it was not aimed at policing interstate transportation or movement of goods and property. The legislative history and the voluminous literature which was generated in the course of the enactment and during fifty years of litigation of the Sherman Act give no hint that such was its purpose.<ref>Footnote 11 appears here: "''See'' the Bibliography on Trusts (1913) prepared by the Library of Congress. ''Cf.'' Homan, Industrial Combination as Surveyed in Recent Literature, 44 Quart.J.Econ., 345 (1930). With few exceptions, the articles, scientific and popular, reflected the popular idea that the Act was aimed at the prevention of monopolistic practices and restraints upon trade injurious to purchasers and consumers of goods and services by preservation of business competition. ''See, e.g.,'' Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems (1929), 367 ''et seq.,'' 42 Ann.Am.Acad., Industrial Competition and Combination (July 1912); P. L. Anderson, Combination v. Competition, 4 Edit.Rev. 500 (1911); Gilbert Holland Montague, Trust Regulation Today, 105 Atl.Monthly, 1 (1910); Federal Regulation of Industry, 32 Ann.Am.Acad. of Pol.Sci., No. 108 (1908), ''passim;'' Clark, Federal Trust Policy (1931), Ch. II, V; Homan, Trusts, 15 Ency.Soc.Sciences 111, 113:

"clearly the law was inspired by the predatory competitive tactics of the great trusts, and its primary purpose was the maintenance of the competitive system in industry."

''See also'' Shulman, Labor and the Anti-Trust Laws, 34 Ill.L.Rev. 769; Boudin, the Sherman Law and Labor Disputes, 39 Col.L.Rev. 1283; 40 Col.L.Rev. 14."</ref>}}

{{blockquote|They do not suggest that, in general, state laws or law enforcement machinery were inadequate to prevent local obstructions or interferences with interstate transportation, or presented any problem requiring the interposition of federal authority.<ref>Footnote 12 appears here: "There was no lack of existing law to protect against evils ascribed to organized labor. Legislative and judicial action of both a criminal and civil nature already restrained concerted action by labor. ''See, e.g.,'' the kinds of strikes which were declared illegal in Pennsylvania, including a strike accompanied by force or threat of harm to persons or property, Brightly's Purdon's Digest of 1885, pp. 426, 1172.

For collection of state statutes on labor activities, ''see'' Report of the Commissioner of Labor, Labor Laws of the Various States (1892); Bull. 370, Labor Laws of the United States with Decisions Relating Thereto, United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (1925); Witte, The Government in Labor Disputes (1932), 12–45, 61–81."</ref> 

In 1890, when the Sherman Act was adopted, there were only a few federal statutes imposing penalties for obstructing or misusing interstate transportation.<ref>Footnote 13 appears here: "Three statutes covered in 1890 the Congressional action in relation to obstructions to interstate commerce. A penalty was imposed for the refusal to transmit a telegraph message (R.S. § 5269, 17 Stat. 366 (1872)) for transporting nitroglycerine and other explosives without proper safeguards (R.S. § 5353, 14 Stat. 81 (1866)) and for combining to prevent the continuous carriage of freight, 24 Stat. 382, 49 U.S.C. § 7."</ref> With an expanding commerce, many others have since been enacted safeguarding transportation in interstate commerce as the need was seen, including statutes declaring conspiracies to interfere or actual interference with interstate commerce by violence or threats of violence to be felonies.<ref>Footnote 14 appears here:

"''See, e.g.'' regulation of; interstate carriage of lottery tickets, 28 Stat. 963 (1895), 18 U.S.C. § 387; Transportation of obscene books, 29 Stat. 512 (1897), 18 U.S.C. § 396; transportation of illegally killed game, 31 Stat. 188 (1900), 18 U.S.C. §§ 392–395; interstate shipment of intoxicating liquors, 35 Stat. 1136 (1909), 18 U.S.C. §§ 388–390; white slave traffic, 36 Stat. 825 (1910), 18 U.S.C. §§ 397–404; transportation of prize-fight films, 37 Stat. 240 (1912), 18 U.S.C. §§ 405–407; larceny of goods moving in interstate commerce, 37 Stat. 670 (1913), 18 U.S.C. § 409; violent interference with foreign commerce, 40 Stat. 221 (1917), 18 U.S.C. § 381; transportation of stolen motor vehicles, 41 Stat. 324 (1919), 18 U.S.C. § 408; transportation of kidnapped persons, 47 Stat. 326 (1932), 18 U.S.C. § 408a–408c; threatening communication in interstate commerce, 48 Stat. 781 (1934), 18 U.S.C. § 408d; transportation of stolen or feloniously taken goods, securities or money, 48 Stat. 794 (1934), 18 U.S.C. § 415; transporting strikebreakers, 49 Stat. 1899 (1936), 18 U.S.C. § 407a; destruction or dumping of farm products received in interstate commerce, 44 Stat. 1355 (1927), 7 U.S.C. § 491. ''Cf.''

National Labor Relations Act, 49 Stat. 449 (1935), 29 U.S.C., Ch. 7, § 151,

"Findings and declaration of policy. The denial by employers of the right of employees to organize and the refusal by employers to accept the procedure of collective bargaining lead to strikes and other forms of industrial strife or unrest, which have the intent or the necessary effect of burdening or obstructing commerce. . . ."

The Anti-Racketeering Act, 48 Stat. 979, 18 U.S.C. §§ 420a-420e (1934), is designed to protect trade and commerce against interference by violence and threats. § 420a provides that

"any person who, in connection with or in relation to any act in any way or in any degree affecting trade or commerce or any article or commodity moving or about to move in trade or commerce --"

"(a) Obtains or attempts to obtain, by the use of or attempt to use or threat to use force, violence, or coercion, the payment of money or other valuable considerations . . . not including, however, the payment of wages by a bonafide employer to a bona fide employee; or"

"(b) Obtains the property of another, with his consent, induced by wrongful use of force or fear, or under color of official right; or"

"(c) Commits or threatens to commit an act of physical violence or physical injury to a person or property in furtherance of a plan or purpose to violate subsections (a) or (b); or"

"(d) Conspires or acts concertedly with any other person or persons to commit any of the foregoing acts; shall, upon conviction thereof, be guilty of a felony and shall be punished by imprisonment from one to ten years or by a fine of $10,000 or both."

But the application of the provisions of § 420a to labor unions is restricted by § 420d, which provides:

"Jurisdiction of offenses. Any person charged with violating section 420a of this title may be prosecuted in any district in which any part of the offense has been committed by him or by his actual associates participating with him in the offense or by his fellow conspirators: ''Provided,'' That no court of the United States shall construe or apply any of the provisions of sections 420a to 420e of this title in such manner as to impair, diminish, or in any manner affect the rights of bona fide labor organizations in lawfully carrying out the legitimate objects thereof, as such rights are expressed in existing statutes of the United States."

It is significant that Chapter 9 of the Criminal Code, dealing with "Offenses Against Foreign And Interstate Commerce" and relating specifically to acts of interstate transportation or its obstruction, makes no mention of the Sherman Act, which is made a part of the Code which deals with social, economic and commercial results of interstate activity, notwithstanding its criminal penalty."</ref>}} 

{{blockquote|The law was enacted in the era of "trusts" and of "combinations" of businesses and of capital organized and directed to control of the market by suppression of competition in the marketing of goods and services, the monopolistic tendency of which had become a matter of public concern. The goal was to prevent restraints of free competition in business and commercial transactions which tended to restrict production, raise prices, or otherwise control the market to the detriment of purchasers or consumers of goods and services, all of which had come to be regarded as a special form of public injury.<ref>Footnote 15 appears here:

"The history of the Sherman Act, as contained in the legislative proceedings, is emphatic in its support for the conclusion that "business competition" was the problem considered, and that the act was designed to prevent restraints of trade which had a significant effect on such competition.

On July 10, 1888, the Senate adopted without discussion a resolution offered by Senator Sherman which directed the Committee on Finance to inquire into, and report in connection with, revenue bills

"such measures as it may deem expedient to set aside, control, restrain or prohibit all arrangements, contracts, agreements, trusts, or combinations between persons or corporations, made with a view, or which tend to prevent ''free and full competition'' . . . with such penalties and provisions . . . as will tend to preserve freedom of trade and production, the natural competition of increasing production, the lowering of prices by such competition . . ."

(19 Cong.Rec. 6041).

This resolution explicitly presented the economic theory of the proponents of such legislation. The various bills introduced between 1888 and 1890 follow the theory of this resolution. Many bills sought to make void all arrangements

"made with a view, or which tend, to prevent full and free competition in the production, manufacture, or sale of articles of domestic growth or production, . . ."

S. 3445; S. 3510; H.R. 11339; all of the 50th Cong., 1st Sess. (1888) were bills of this type. In the 51st Cong. (1889), the bills were in a similar vein. ''See'' S. 1, sec. 1 (this bill as redrafted by the Judiciary Committee ultimately became the Sherman Law); H.R. 202, sec. 3; H.R. 270; H.R. 286; H.R. 402; H.R. 509; H.R. 826; H.R. 3819. ''See'' Bills and Debates in Congress relating to Trusts (1909), Vol. 1, pp. 1025–1031.

Only one, which was never enacted, S. 1268 in the 52d Cong., 1st Sess. (1892), introduced by Senator Peffer, sought to prohibit

"every willful act . . . which shall have the effect to in any way interfere with the freedom of transit of articles in interstate commerce, . . ."

When the antitrust bill (S. 1, 51st Cong., 1st Sess.) came before Congress for debate, the debates point to a similar purpose. Senator Sherman asserted the bill prevented only "business combinations" "made with a view to prevent competition", 21 Cong.Rec. 2457, 2562; ''see also ibid.'' at 2459, 2461.

Senator Allison spoke of combinations which "control prices," ''ibid.,'' 2471; Senator Pugh of combinations "to limit production" for "the purpose of destroying competition", ''ibid.,'' 2558; Senator Morgan of combinations "that affect the price of commodities," ''ibid.,'' 2609; Senator Platt, a critic of the bill, said this bill proceeds on the assumption that "competition is beneficent to the country," ''ibid.,'' 2729; Senator George denounced trusts which crush out competition, "and that is the great evil at which all this legislation ought to be directed," ''ibid.,'' 3147.

In the House, Representative Culberson, who was in charge of the bill, interpreted the bill to prohibit various arrangements which tend to drive out competition, ''ibid.,'' 4089; Representative Wilson spoke in favor of the bill against combinations among

"competing producers to control the supply of their product, in order that they may dictate the terms on which they shall sell in the market, and may secure release from the stress of competition among themselves,"

''ibid.,'' 4090.

The unanimity with which foes and supporters of the bill spoke of its aims as the protection of free competition permits use of the debates in interpreting the purpose of the act. ''See'' White, C.J. in ''Standard Oil Co. v. United States,'' [http://supreme.justia.com/us/221/1/case.html#50 221 U. S. 50] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501033745/http://supreme.justia.com/us/221/1/case.html#50 |date=2009-05-01 }}; ''United States v. San Francisco, ante,'' p. [http://supreme.justia.com/us/310/16/case.html 310 U. S. 16] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525001628/http://supreme.justia.com/us/310/16/case.html |date=2009-05-25 }}.

''See also'' Report of Committee on Interstate Commerce on Control of Corporations Engaged in Interstate Commerce, S.Rept. 1326, 62d Cong., 3d Sess. (1913), pp. 2, 4; Report of Federal Trade Commission, S.Doc. 226, 70th Cong., 2d Sess. (1929), pp. 343–345."</ref>}} 

{{blockquote|For that reason the phrase "restraint of trade," which, as will presently appear, had a well understood meaning in common law, was made the means of defining the activities prohibited. The addition of the words "or commerce among the several States" was not an additional kind of restraint to be prohibited by the Sherman Act, but was the means used to relate the prohibited restraint of trade to interstate commerce for constitutional purposes, Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, 286 U. S. 427, 286 U. S. 434, so that Congress, through its commerce power, might suppress and penalize restraints on the competitive system which involved or affected interstate commerce. Because many forms of restraint upon commercial competition extended across state lines so as to make regulation by state action difficult or impossible, Congress enacted the Sherman Act, 21 Cong.Rec. 2456. It was in this sense of preventing restraints on commercial competition that Congress exercised "all the power it possessed." Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, supra, 286 U. S. 435.}}

At ''[[Addyston Pipe and Steel Company v. United States]]'', 85 F.2d 1, ''affirmed'', [http://supreme.justia.com/us/175/211/case.html 175 U. S. 175] U.S. 211;{{clarification needed|date=October 2025}}

At ''[[Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States]]'', [http://supreme.justia.com/us/221/1/case.html 221 U. S. 1], [http://supreme.justia.com/us/221/1/case.html#54 221 U. S. 54]-58.{{clarification needed|date=October 2025}}

==Provisions==
===Original text===
The Sherman Act is divided into three sections. Section 1 delineates and prohibits specific means of anticompetitive conduct, while Section 2 deals with end results that are anti-competitive in nature. Thus, these sections supplement each other in an effort to prevent businesses from violating the spirit of the Act, while technically remaining within the letter of the law. Section 3 simply extends the provisions of Section 1 to U.S. territories and the District of Columbia.

{{blockquote|Section 1:
:Every contract, combination in the form of [[Trust (19th century)|trust]] or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is hereby declared to be illegal.
Section 2:
:Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor [. . . ]}}

====Subsequent legislation expanding its scope====
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2022}}
The [[Clayton Antitrust Act]], passed in 1914, proscribes certain additional activities that had been discovered to fall outside the scope of the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Clayton Antitrust Act added certain practices to the list of impermissible activities:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mochoruk |first=James |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Business, Labor, and Economic History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780199738816 |editor-last=Dubofsky |editor-first=Melvyn |location=New York |chapter=Clayton Antitrust Act}}</ref>
* price discrimination against competing companies<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Clayton Antitrust Act |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/clayton_antitrust_act#:~:text=The%20Clayton%20Antitrust%20Act%20of,directors%20for%20two%20competing%20companies. |access-date=2024-09-28 |website=LII / Legal Information Institute |language=en}}</ref>
* conditioning sales on "exclusive dealing" agreements
* one person serving on the board of directors for two competing companies
* mergers and acquisitions that may significantly reduce market competition
The Clayton Antitrust Act specifically states that unions are exempt from this ruling.<ref name=":0" />

The [[Robinson–Patman Act]] of 1936 amended the Clayton Act. The amendment proscribed certain anti-competitive practices in which manufacturers engaged in price discrimination against equally-situated distributors.

==Legacy==
{{main|History of United States antitrust law}}
The federal government began filing cases under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890.  Some cases were successful and others were not; many took several years to decide, including appeals.

Notable cases filed under the act include:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UcJAAAAAYAAJ|title=Sherman Anti-trust Law and List of Decisions Relating Thereto|first=United|last=States|date=26 March 2018|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|via=Google Books}}</ref>
* ''United States v. Workingmen's Amalgamated Council of New Orleans'' (1893), which was the first to hold that the law applied to labor unions.
* ''Chesapeake & Ohio Fuel Co. v. United States'' (1902), in which the trust was dissolved<ref>{{cite web |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1069&context=wharton_research_scholars |title=An Early Assessment of the Sherman Antitrust Act: Three Case Studies |access-date=2016-03-08 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926031609/http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1069&context=wharton_research_scholars |archive-date=2015-09-26 }}</ref>
* ''[[Northern Securities Co. v. United States]]'' (1904), which reached the Supreme Court, dissolved the company and set many precedents for interpretation.
* ''[[Hale v. Henkel]]'' (1906) also reached the Supreme Court. Precedent was set for the production of documents by an officer of a company, and the self-incrimination of the officer in his or her testimony to the [[grand jury]]. Hale was an officer of the [[American Tobacco Co.]]
* ''[[Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States]]'' (1911), which broke up the company based on geography, and contributed to the [[Panic of 1910–1911]].
* ''[[United States v. American Tobacco Co.]]'' (1911), which split the company into four.
* ''United States v. General Electric Co'' (1911), where GE was judged to have violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, along with International General Electric, [[Philips]], [[Sylvania Electric Products|Sylvania]], Tungsol, and Consolidated and Chicago Miniature. Corning and Westinghouse made consent decrees.<ref name="US v GE 1911">{{cite web |title=United States v. General Electric Co., 82 F. Supp. 753 (D.N.J. 1949) |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/82/753/1755675/ |website=Justia Law |access-date=15 September 2019 |language=en |date=4 April 1949}}</ref>
* ''[[United States v. Motion Picture Patents Co.]]'' (1915), which ruled that the company was abusing its monopolistic rights, and therefore, violated the Sherman act.
* ''[[Federal Baseball Club v. National League]]'' (1922) in which the Supreme Court ruled that [[Major League Baseball]] was not [[interstate commerce]] and was not subject to the antitrust law.
* ''United States v. National City Lines'' (1953), related to the [[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]].
* ''[[United States v. AT&T (1982)|United States v. AT&T Co.]]'', which was settled in 1982 and resulted in the breakup of the company.
*''[[Wilk v. American Medical Ass'n|Wilk v. American Medical Association]]'' (1990) Judge Getzendanner issued her opinion that the AMA had violated Section 1, but not 2, of the Sherman Act, and that it had engaged in an unlawful conspiracy in [[restraint of trade]] "to contain and eliminate the chiropractic profession." 
* ''[[United States v. Microsoft Corp. (2001)|United States v. Microsoft Corp.]]'' was settled in 2001 without the breakup of the company.
* ''[https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCOURTS-ca2-10-00846/pdf/USCOURTS-ca2-10-00846-0.pdf Fleischman vs Albany Medical Center]'' (2010), where nurses alleged Albany Medical Center suppressed their wages in violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, by sharing wage information with other area hospitals. References: (1) Casetext Fleischman vs Albany Medical Center (2) Justia Docket No. 10-0846-mv
* ''[[United States v. Google LLC (2020)|United States v. Google LLC]]'' (2020, ongoing as of 2025), wherein Judge Amit P. Mehta ruled Google acted illegally to maintain a monopoly in online search.

==Legal application==
===Constitutional basis for legislation===
Congress claimed power to pass the Sherman Act through its [[Commerce Clause|constitutional authority to regulate interstate commerce]]. Therefore, federal courts only have jurisdiction to apply the Act to conduct that restrains or substantially affects either interstate commerce. (Congress also has ultimate authority over economic rules within the District of Columbia and US territories under the 17th [[Enumerated powers (United States)|enumerated power]] and the [[Article Four of the United States Constitution#Clause 2: Property Clause|Territorial Clause]], respectively.) This requires that the plaintiff must show that the conduct occurred during the flow of interstate commerce or had an appreciable effect on some activity that occurs during interstate commerce.{{facts|date=September 2024}}

===Elements===
A Section 1 violation has three elements:<ref>E.g., [https://www.lexis.com/research/buttonTFLink?_m=c2cdaffd0ce470de6e524fd3149b710f&_xfercite=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b54%20Fordham%20L.%20Rev.%20247%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_butType=3&_butStat=2&_butNum=322&_butInline=1&_butinfo=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b547%20F.%20Supp.%20893%2cat%20917%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_fmtstr=FULL&docnum=27&_startdoc=21&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkAB&_md5=79b43fe5414599f9b527852cc3923437 ''Richter Concrete Corp. v. Hilltop Basic Resources, Inc.'', 547 F. Supp. 893, 917 (S.D. Ohio 1981)], ''aff'd,'' [https://www.lexis.com/research/buttonTFLink?_m=c2cdaffd0ce470de6e524fd3149b710f&_xfercite=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b54%20Fordham%20L.%20Rev.%20247%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_butType=3&_butStat=2&_butNum=323&_butInline=1&_butinfo=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b691%20F.2d%20818%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_fmtstr=FULL&docnum=27&_startdoc=21&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkAB&_md5=6b29ef5c9d547fa7ec5db6b9e3d721ae 691 F.2d 818 (6th Cir. 1982)]; [https://www.lexis.com/research/buttonTFLink?_m=c2cdaffd0ce470de6e524fd3149b710f&_xfercite=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b54%20Fordham%20L.%20Rev.%20247%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_butType=3&_butStat=2&_butNum=324&_butInline=1&_butinfo=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b480%20F.%20Supp.%20640%2cat%20648%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_fmtstr=FULL&docnum=27&_startdoc=21&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkAB&_md5=e2b70f0ee5ddeea95366fc31069e1498 ''Consolidated Farmers Mut. Ins. Co. v. Anchor Sav. Association'', 480 F. Supp. 640, 648 (D. Kan. 1979)]; [https://www.lexis.com/research/buttonTFLink?_m=c2cdaffd0ce470de6e524fd3149b710f&_xfercite=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b54%20Fordham%20L.%20Rev.%20247%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_butType=3&_butStat=2&_butNum=325&_butInline=1&_butinfo=%3ccite%20cc%3d%22USA%22%3e%3c%21%5bCDATA%5b474%20F.%20Supp.%20628%2cat%20636%5d%5d%3e%3c%2fcite%3e&_fmtstr=FULL&docnum=27&_startdoc=21&wchp=dGLzVtb-zSkAB&_md5=6fd0f7818a17e24b32e8c0e6cbc4083e ''Mardirosian v. American Inst. of Architects'', 474 F. Supp. 628, 636 (D.D.C. 1979).]</ref>

# an agreement;
# which unreasonably restrains competition; and
# which affects interstate commerce.

A Section 2 monopolization violation has two elements:<ref>{{ussc|name=United States v. Grinnell Corp.|link=|volume=384|page=563|pin=570–71|year=1966}}; see also {{cite court |litigants=Weiss v. York Hosp. |vol=745 |reporter=F.2d |opinion=786 |pinpoint=825 |court=3d Cir. |date=1984 |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/745/786/128964/ |access-date=2019-02-02 }}</ref>

# the possession of monopoly power in the relevant market; and
# the willful acquisition or maintenance of that power as distinguished from growth or development as a consequence of a superior product, business acumen, or historic accident.

Section 2 also bans attempted monopolization, which has the following elements:

# qualifying exclusionary or anticompetitive acts designed to establish a monopoly
# specific intent to monopolize; and
# dangerous probability of success (actual monopolization).

===Violations "per se" and violations of the "rule of reason"===
Violations of the Sherman Act fall (loosely<ref>The truth is that our categories of analysis of anticompetitive effect are less fixed than terms like 'per se', 'quick look', and 'rule of reason' tend to make them appear. We have recognized, for example, that 'there is often no bright line separating per se from rule of reason analysis,' since 'considerable inquiry into market conditions' may be required before the application of any so-called 'per se' condemnation is justified. [[Cal. Dental Association v. FTC]] at 779 (quoting NCAA, 468 U.S. at 104 n.26). "Whether the ultimate finding is the product of a presumption or actual market analysis, the essential inquiry remains the same whether or not the challenged restraint enhances competition." 526 U.S. at 779–80 (quoting NCAA, 468 U.S. at 104).</ref>) into two categories:

* '''Violations "per se":''' These are violations that meet the strict characterization of Section 1 ("agreements, conspiracies or trusts in restraint of trade"). A per se violation requires no further inquiry into the practice's actual effect on the market or the intentions of those individuals who engaged in the practice. Conduct characterized as unlawful per se is that which has been found to have a {{"'}}pernicious effect on competition' or 'lack[s] ... any redeeming virtue{{'"}}<ref>{{ussc|name=Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc.|link=|volume=433|page=36|pin=58|year=1977}} (quoting {{ussc|name=Northern Pac. Ry. v. United States|link=|volume=356|page=1|pin=5|year=1958}}).</ref> Such conduct "would always or almost always tend to restrict competition and decrease output".<ref>{{ussc|name=Broadcast Music, Inc. v. CBS|link=|volume=441|page=1|pin=19–20|year=1979}}.</ref> When a per se rule is applied (in contrast to a rule of reason analysis), a civil violation of the antitrust laws is found merely by proving that the conduct occurred and that it fell within a per se category.<ref>{{ussc|name=Jefferson Parish Hosp. Dist. No. 2 v. Hyde|link=Jefferson Parish Hospital District No. 2 v. Hyde|volume=466|page=2|pin=|year=1984}}; ''[[Gough v. Rossmoor Corp.]]'', [https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/585/381/424532/ 585 F.2d 381], 386–89 (9th Cir. 1978), cert. denied, {{ussc|440|936|1979|el=no}}; see {{ussc|name=White Motor v. United States|link=|volume=372|page=253|pin=259–60|year=1963}} (a per se rule forecloses analysis of the purpose or market effect of a restraint); ''Northern Pac. Ry.'', 356 U.S. at 5 (same).</ref> Conduct considered unlawful per se includes horizontal price-fixing,<ref>{{ussc|name=United States v. Trenton Potteries Co.|link=|volume=273|page=392|pin=397–98|year=1927}}.</ref> horizontal market division,<ref>''Continental T.V.'', 433 U.S. at 50 n. 16 (limiting {{ussc|name=United States v. Topco Assocs.|link=|volume=405|page=596|pin=608|year=1972}} by making vertical market division rule-of-reason analysis).</ref> and concerted refusals to deal.<ref>{{ussc|name=FTC v. Superior Court Trial Lawyers Ass'n|link=|volume=493|page=411|pin=|year=}} for collusive effects and {{ussc|name=NW Wholesale Stationers, Inc. v. Pacific Stationery & Printing Co.|link=|volume=472|page=284|pin=|year=1985}} for exclusionary effects.</ref>
* '''Violations of the "rule of reason":''' A totality of the circumstances test, asking whether the challenged practice promotes or suppresses market competition. Unlike with per se violations, intent and motive are relevant when predicting future consequences. The rule of reason is said to be the "traditional framework of analysis" to determine whether Section 1 is violated.<ref>''Continental T.V.'', 433 U.S. at 49. The inquiry focuses on the restraint's effect on competition. {{ussc|name=National Soc'y of Professional Eng'rs v. United States|link=|volume=435|page=679|pin=691|year=1978}}.</ref> The court analyzes "facts peculiar to the business, the history of the restraining, and the reasons why it was imposed",<ref>''National Soc'y of Professional Eng'rs'', 435 U.S. at 692.</ref> to determine the effect on competition in the relevant product market.<ref>See ''Continental T.V.'', 433 U.S. at 45 (citing {{ussc|name=United States v. Arnold, Schwinn & Co.|link=|volume=388|page=365|pin=382|year=1967}}), and geographic market, see {{ussc|name=United States v. Columbia Steel Co.|volume=334|page=495|pin=519|year=1948}}.</ref> A restraint violates Section 1 if it unreasonably restrains trade.<ref>''Continental T.V.'', 433 U.S. at 49; see {{ussc|name=Standard Oil Co. v. United States|link=|volume=221|page=1|pin=58|year=1911}} (Congress only intended to prohibit agreements that were "unreasonably restrictive of competitive (conditions").</ref>
**'''Quick-look:''' A "quick look" analysis under the rule of reason may be used when "an observer with even a rudimentary understanding of economics could conclude that the arrangements in question would have an anticompetitive effect on customers and markets", yet the violation is also not one considered unlawful per se.<ref>''Cal. Dental Ass'n'', 526 U.S. at 770.</ref> Taking a "quick look", economic harm is presumed from the questionable nature of the conduct, and the burden is shifted to the defendant to prove harmlessness or justification. The quick-look became a popular way of disposing of cases where the conduct was in a grey area between illegality "per se" and demonstrable harmfulness under the "rule of reason".

===Modern trends===
{{refimprove section|date=July 2022}}
{{original research section|date=July 2022}}
====Inference of conspiracy====
A modern trend has increased difficulty for antitrust plaintiffs as courts have come to hold plaintiffs to increasing burdens of pleading. Under older Section 1 precedent, it was not settled how much evidence was required to show a conspiracy. For example, a conspiracy could be inferred based on parallel conduct, etc. That is, plaintiffs were only required to show that a conspiracy was conceivable. Since the 1970s, however, courts have held plaintiffs to higher standards, giving antitrust defendants an opportunity to resolve cases in their favor before significant discovery under [[Federal Rules of Civil Procedure|FRCP]] 12(b)(6). That is, to overcome a [[Motion in United States law|motion to dismiss]], plaintiffs, under ''[[Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly]]'', must plead facts consistent with [[Federal Rules of Civil Procedure|FRCP]] 8(a) sufficient to show that a conspiracy is plausible (and not merely conceivable or possible). This protects defendants from bearing the costs of antitrust "fishing expeditions"; however it deprives plaintiffs of perhaps their only tool to acquire evidence (discovery).

=====Manipulation of market=====
Second, courts have employed more sophisticated and principled definitions of markets. Market definition is necessary, in rule of reason cases, for the plaintiff to prove a conspiracy is harmful. It is also necessary for the plaintiff to establish the market relationship between conspirators to prove their conduct is within the per se rule.

In early cases, it was easier for plaintiffs to show market relationship, or dominance, by tailoring market definition, even if it ignored fundamental principles of economics. In ''[[U.S. v. Grinnell]]'', 384 U.S. 563 (1966), the trial judge, [[Charles Wyzanski]], composed the market only of alarm companies with services in every state, tailoring out any local competitors; the defendant stood alone in this market, but had the court added up the entire national market, it would have had a much smaller share of the national market for alarm services that the court purportedly used. The appellate courts affirmed this finding; however, today, an appellate court would likely find this definition to be flawed. Modern courts use a more sophisticated market definition that does not permit as manipulative a definition.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

===Monopoly===
Section 2 of the Act forbids monopoly. In Section 2 cases, the court has, again on its own initiative, drawn a distinction between [[Coercive monopoly|coercive]] and innocent monopoly. The act is not meant to punish businesses that come to dominate their market passively or on their own merit, only those that intentionally dominate the market through misconduct, which generally consists of conspiratorial conduct of the kind forbidden by Section 1 of the Sherman Act, or Section 3 of the Clayton Act.

===Application of the act outside pure commerce===
While the Act was aimed at regulating businesses, its prohibition of contracts restricting commerce was applied to the activities of labor unions until the 1930s.<ref name="Clark 1948">{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=O. L. |date=January 1948 |title=Application of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to Unions since the Apex Case |journal=SMU Law Review |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=94–103 |url=https://scholar.smu.edu/smulr/vol2/iss1/6}}</ref> This is because unions were characterized as cartels as well (cartels of laborers).<ref>See {{ussc|name=Loewe v. Lawlor|link=|volume=208|page=274|pin=|year=1908}}.</ref> In 1914 the [[Clayton Antitrust Act|Clayton Act]] created exceptions for certain union activities, but the Supreme Court ruled in ''[[Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering]]'' that the actions allowed by the Act were already legal. Congress included provisions in the [[Norris–La Guardia Act]] in 1932 to more explicitly exempt organized labor from antitrust enforcement, and the Supreme Court upheld these exemptions in ''United States v. Hutcheson'' [https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/312/219/ 312 U.S. 219].<ref name="Clark 1948"></ref>

==Preemption by Section 1 of state statutes that restrain competition==
{{ibid|date=August 2024}}
To determine whether the Act '''preempts a state law''', courts will engage in a two-step analysis, as set forth by the Supreme Court in ''[[Rice v. Norman Williams Co.]]''

*First, they will inquire whether the state legislation "mandates or authorizes conduct that necessarily constitutes a violation of the antitrust laws in all cases, or ... places irresistible pressure on a private party to violate the antitrust laws in order to comply with the statute." ''[[Rice v. Norman Williams Co.]]'', 458 U.S. 654, 661; see also ''[[324 Liquor Corp. v. Duffy]]'', 479 U.S. 335 (1987) ("Our decisions reflect the principle that the federal antitrust laws pre-empt state laws authorizing or compelling private parties to engage in anticompetitive behavior.")
*Second, they will consider whether the state statute is saved from preemption by the [[state action immunity doctrine]] (aka Parker immunity). In ''[[California Retail Liquor Dealers Ass'n v. Midcal Aluminum, Inc.]]'', 445 U.S. 97, 105 (1980), the Supreme Court established a two-part test for applying the doctrine: "First, the challenged restraint must be one clearly articulated and affirmatively expressed as state policy; second, the policy must be actively supervised by the State itself." Id. (citation and quotation marks omitted).

The antitrust laws allow coincident state regulation of competition.<ref>''See'' ''Exxon Corp. v. Governor of MD.'', 437 U.S. 117, 130–34 (1978) (state law with anticompetitive effect upheld to avoid destroying the ability of the states to regulate economic activity); ''Conant'', ''supra'' note 1, at 264., Werden & Balmer, ''supra'' note 1, at 59. ''See generally'' 1 P. Areeda & D. Turner, ''Antitrust Law'' P208 (1978) (discussing the interaction of state and federal antitrust laws); ''id.'' P210 (discussing areas where federal law expressly defers to state law).</ref> The Supreme Court enunciated the test for determining when a state statute is in irreconcilable conflict with Section 1 of the Sherman Act in [[Rice v. Norman Williams Co.]] Different standards apply depending on whether a statute is attacked on its face or for its effects.

A statute can be condemned on its face only when it mandates, authorizes or places irresistible pressure on private parties to engage in conduct constituting a per se violation of Section 1.<ref>''Rice,'' 458 U.S. at 661. If a statute does not require a per se violation, then it cannot be preempted on its face. ''Id.''</ref>

If the statute does not mandate conduct violating a per se rule, the conduct is analyzed under the rule of reason, which requires an examination of the conduct's actual effects on competition.<ref>''See'' ''Rice,'' 458 U.S. at 661.</ref> If unreasonable anticompetitive effects are created, the required conduct violates Section 1<ref>''National Soc'y of Professional Eng'rs v. United States'', 435 U.S. 679, 687–90 (1978); ''Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc.'', 433 U.S. 36, 49 (1977)</ref> and the statute is in irreconcilable conflict with the Sherman Act.<ref>See ''Battipaglia v. New York State Liquor Auth.'', 745 F.2d 166, 175 (2d Cir. 1984) (while declining to decide whether a statute required an antitrust violation in a facial attack, the court left open the possibility of preemption based on the statute's operation), cert. denied, 105 S. Ct. 1393 (1985); ''Lanierland Distribs. v. Strickland'', 544 F. Supp. 747, 751 (N.D. Ga. 1982) (plaintiff failed to show anticompetitive effects sufficient to violate the rule of reason); ''Wine & Spirits Specialty, Inc. v. Daniel'', 666 S.W.2d 416, 419 (Mo.) ([[en banc]]) (declining to decide whether the rule of reason might invalidate a law on the record before them), Appeal dismissed, 105 S. Ct. 56 (1984); ''United States Brewers Ass'n v. Director of N.M. Dept' of Alcoholic Beverage Control'', 100 N.M. 216, 668 P.2d 1093, 1099 (1983) (rejecting a facial attack on a statute but reserving a decision on whether the actual application of the statute might violate the antitrust laws), appeal dismissed, 104 S. Ct. 1581 (1984). But see infra note 149{{clarify|reason=Wikipedia articles and their notes change constantly, you cannot just use note numbers. "Note 149" may be something totally different from when this was written. Was this passage cribbed from a journal article or court ruling?|date=August 2024}} for a discussion on the possibility of a much more limited rule of reason preemption analysis.</ref> Then statutory arrangement is analyzed to determine whether it qualifies as "state action" and is thereby saved from preemption.<ref>See ''Rice'', 458 U.S. at 662–63 n.9 ("because of our resolution of the pre-emption issue, it is not necessary for us to consider whether the statute may be saved from invalidation under the [state action] doctrine"); ''Capitol Tel. Co. v New York Tel. Co.'', 750 F.2d 1154, 1157, 1165 (2d Cir. 1984) (holding that the state action doctrine protected the conduct of a private party after assuming that it violated the federal antitrust laws), cert. denied, 105 S. Ct. 2325 (1985); ''Allied Artists Picture Corp. v. Rhodes'', 679 F.2d 656, 662 (6th Cir. 1982) (even if conduct violated Sherman Act, the statute is saved by the state action doctrine); '"Miller v. Hedlund'', 579 F. Supp. 116, 124 (D. Or. 1984) (statute violating Section 1 saved by state action); ''Flav-O-Rich, Inc. v. North Carolina Milk Comm'n'', 593 F. Supp. 13, 17–18 (E.D.N.C. 1983) (though conduct violates Section 1, state action saves statute).</ref>

''Rice'' sets out guidelines to aid in preemption analysis. Preemption should not occur "simply because in a hypothetical situation a private party's compliance with the statute might cause him to violate the antitrust laws".<ref>Rice v. Norman Williams Co., 458 U.S. 654, 659 (1982).</ref> This language suggests that preemption occurs only if economic analysis determines that the statutory requirements create "an unacceptable and unnecessary risk of anticompetitive effect",<ref>Id. at 668 (Stevens, J., concurring in the judgment).</ref> and does not occur simply because it is possible to use the statute in an anticompetitive manner.<ref>See ''Grendel's Den, Inc. v. Goodwin'', 662 F.2d 88, 100 n.15 (1st Cir.) (power to control others not sufficient for facial preemption where party had no institutional reason to make anticompetitive decisions especially likely), aff'd on other grounds, 662 F.2d 102 (1st Cir. 1981) ([[en banc]]), aff'd sub nom. ''Larkin v. Grendel's Den, Inc.'', 459 U.S. 116 (1982); ''Flav-O-Rich, Inc. v. North Carolina Milk Comm'n'', 593 F. Supp. 13, 15 (E.D.N.C. 1983) (in an oligopolistic market, price posting would result in an antitrust violation).</ref> It should not mean that preemption is impossible whenever both procompetitive and anticompetitive results are conceivable.<ref>But cf. ''Allied Artists Pictures Corp. v. Rhodes'', 496 F. Supp. 408, 449 (S.D. Ohio 1980) (indicating that a statute neither requiring nor permitting an anticompetitive collaboration gives the private party enough freedom of choice to preclude preemption), aff'd in part and remanded in part, 679 F.2d 656 (6th Cir. 1982)</ref> The per se rule "reflects the judgment that such cases are not sufficiently common or important to justify the time and expense necessary to identify them".

Another important, yet, in the context of ''Rice'', ambiguous guideline regarding preemption by Section 1 is the Court's statement that a "state statute is not preempted by the federal antitrust laws simply because the state scheme might have an anticompetitive effect".<ref>''Rice'', 458 U.S. at 659.</ref> The meaning of this statement is clarified by examining the three cases cited in ''Rice'' to support the statement.<ref>Id. (citing ''[[New Motor Vehicle Bd. v. Orrin W. Fox Co.]]'', 439 U.S. 96, 110–11 (1978); ''[[Exxon Corp. v. Governor of MD.]]'', 437 U.S. 117, 129–34 (1978); ''[[Joseph E. Seagram & Sons v. Hostetter]]'', 384 U.S. 35, 45–46 (1966)).</ref>

In ''[[New Motor Vehicle Board v. Orrin W. Fox Co.]]'', automobile manufacturers and retail franchisees contended that the Sherman Act preempted a statute requiring manufacturers to secure the permission of a state board before opening a new dealership if and only if a competing dealer protested. They argued that a conflict existed because the statute permitted "auto dealers to invoke state power for the purpose of restraining intrabrand competition".

In ''[[Exxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland]]'', oil companies challenged a state statute requiring uniform statewide gasoline prices in situations where the [[Robinson-Patman Act]] would permit charging different prices. They reasoned that the Robinson-Patman Act is a qualification of our "more basic national policy favoring free competition" and that any state statute altering "the competitive balance that Congress struck between the Robinson-Patman and Sherman Acts" should be preempted.

In both ''New Motor Vehicle'' and ''Exxon'', the Court upheld the statutes and rejected the arguments presented as

{{quote|Merely another way of stating that the ... statute will have an anticompetitive effect. In this sense, there is a conflict between the statute and the central policy of the Sherman Act – 'our charter of economic liberty'. ... Nevertheless, this sort of conflict cannot itself constitute a sufficient reason for invalidating the ... statute. For if an adverse effect on competition were, in and of itself, enough to render a state statute invalid, the States' power to engage in economic regulation would be effectively destroyed.<ref>''New Motor Vehicle Bd. v. Orrin W. Fox Co.'', 439 U.S. 96, 110–11 (1978) (quoting ''Exxon Corp. v. Governor of MD.'', 437 U.S. 117, 133 (1978)).</ref>}}

This indicates that not every anticompetitive effect warrants preemption. In neither ''Exxon'' nor ''New Motor Vehicle'' did the created effect constitute an antitrust violation. The ''Rice'' guideline therefore indicates that only when the effect unreasonably restrains trade, and is therefore a violation, can preemption occur.

The third case cited to support the "anticompetitive effect" guideline is ''[[Joseph E. Seagram & Sons v. Hostetter]]'', in which the Court rejected a facial Sherman Act preemption challenge to a statute requiring that persons selling liquor to wholesalers affirm that the price charged was no higher than the lowest price at which sales were made anywhere in the United States during the previous month. Since the attack was a facial one, and the state law required no per se violations, no preemption could occur. The Court also rejected the possibility of preemption due to Sherman Act violations stemming from misuse of the statute. The Court stated that rather than imposing "irresistible economic pressure" on sellers to violate the Sherman Act, the statute "appears firmly anchored to the assumption that the Sherman Act will deter any attempts by the appellants to preserve their ... price level [in one state] by conspiring to raise the prices at which liquor is sold elsewhere in the country". Thus, ''Seagram'' indicates that when conduct required by a state statute combines with other conduct that, taken together, constitutes an illegal restraint of trade, liability may be imposed for the restraint without requiring preemption of the state statute.

''Rice v. Norman Williams Co.'' supports this misuse limitation on preemption. ''Rice'' states that while particular conduct or arrangements by private parties would be subject to per se or rule of reason analysis to determine liability, "[t]here is no basis ... for condemning the statute itself by force of the Sherman Act."<ref>''Rice v. Norman Williams Co.'', 458 U.S. 654, 662 (1982).</ref>

Thus, when a state requires conduct analyzed under the rule of reason, a court must carefully distinguish rule of reason analysis for preemption purposes from the analysis for liability purposes. To analyze whether preemption occurs, the court must determine whether the inevitable effects of a statutory restraint unreasonably restrain trade. If they do, preemption is warranted unless the statute passes the appropriate state action tests. But, when the statutory conduct combines with other practices in a larger conspiracy to restrain trade, or when the statute is used to violate the antitrust laws in a market in which such a use is not compelled by the state statute, the private party might be subjected to antitrust liability without preemption of the statute.{{cn|date=July 2022}}

===Evidence from legislative history===
The Act was not intended to regulate existing state statutes regulating commerce within state borders.  The House committee, in reporting the bill which was adopted without change, declared:
{{quote|No attempt is made to invade the legislative authority of the several States or even to occupy doubtful grounds. No system of laws can be devised by Congress alone which would effectually protect the people of the United States against the evils and oppression of trusts and monopolies. Congress has no authority to deal, generally, with the subject within the States, and the States have no authority to legislate in respect of commerce between the several States or with foreign nations.<ref>H.R.Rep. No. 1707, 51st Cong., 1st Sess., p. 1.</ref>}}

See also the statement on the floor of the House by Mr. Culberson, in charge of the bill,
{{quote|There is no attempt to exercise any doubtful authority on this subject, but the bill is confined strictly and alone to subjects over which, confessedly, there is no question about the legislative power of Congress.<ref>21 Cong.Rec. 4089.</ref>}}

And see the statement of Senator Edmunds, chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee which reported out the bill in the form in which it passed, that in drafting that bill the committee thought that "we would frame a bill that should be clearly within our constitutional power, that we would make its definition out of terms that were well known to the law already, and would leave it to the courts in the first instance to say how far they could carry it or its particular definitions as applicable to each particular case as the occasion might arise."<ref>21 Cong.Rec. 3148</ref>

Similarly Senator Hoar, a member of that committee who with Senator Edmunds was in charge of the bill, stated

{{quote|Now we are dealing with an offense against interstate or international commerce, which the State cannot regulate by penal enactment, and we find the United States without any common law. The great thing that this bill does, except affording a remedy, is to extend the common-law principles, which protected fair competition in trade in old times in England, to international and interstate commerce in the United States.<ref>21 Cong.Rec. 3152.</ref>}}

== Criticism ==
{{See also|Competition law|United States antitrust law}}
[[Alan Greenspan]], in his essay entitled ''Antitrust'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.polyconomics.com/ssu/ssu-980612.htm |title=Antitrust, by Alan Greenspan |access-date=2022-04-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217061126/http://www.polyconomics.com/ssu/ssu-980612.htm |archive-date=2022-02-17 }}</ref> described the Sherman Act as stifling innovation and harming society. "No one will ever know what new products, processes, machines, and cost-saving mergers failed to come into existence, killed by the Sherman Act before they were born. No one can ever compute the price that all of us have paid for that Act which, by inducing less effective use of capital, has kept our standard of living lower than would otherwise have been possible." Greenspan summarized the nature of antitrust law as "a jumble of economic irrationality and ignorance".<ref>Criticisms such as this one, attributed to Greenspan, are not directed at the Sherman act in particular, but rather at the underlying policy of all antitrust law, which includes several pieces of legislation other than just the Sherman Act, e.g. the [[Clayton Antitrust Act]].</ref> Greenspan at that time was a disciple and friend of [[Ayn Rand]], and he first published ''Antitrust'' in Rand's monthly publication ''The Objectivist Newsletter.'' Rand, who described herself as "a radical for capitalism",<ref>"Check Your Premises", ''The Objectivist Newsletter'', January 1962, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1</ref> opposed antitrust law not only on economic grounds but also morally, as a violation of property rights, asserting that the "meaning and purpose" of antitrust law is "the penalizing of ability for being ability, the penalizing of success for being success, and the sacrifice of productive genius to the demands of envious mediocrity".<ref>''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal'', Ch. 3, New American Library, Signet, 1967</ref>

In 1890, Representative [[William E. Mason (American politician)|William E. Mason]] said "trusts have made products cheaper, have reduced prices; but if the price of oil, for instance, were reduced to one cent a barrel, it would not right the wrong done to people of this country by the trusts which have destroyed legitimate competition and driven honest men from legitimate business enterprise."<ref>Congressional Record, 51st Congress, 1st session, House, May 1, 1890, p. 4100.</ref> Consequently, if the primary goal of the act is to protect consumers, and consumers are protected by lower prices, the act may be harmful if it reduces [[economy of scale]], a price-lowering mechanism, by breaking up big businesses. Mason put small business survival, a justice interest, on a level concomitant with the pure economic rationale of consumer interest.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}

Economist [[Thomas DiLorenzo]] notes that Senator Sherman sponsored the 1890 [[William McKinley]] tariff just three months after the Sherman Act, and agrees with ''[[The New York Times]]'' which wrote on October 1, 1890: "That so-called Anti-Trust law was passed to deceive the people and to clear the way for the enactment of this Pro-Trust law relating to the tariff." The ''New York Times'' went on to assert that Sherman merely supported this "humbug" of a law "in order that party organs might say&nbsp;... 'Behold! We have attacked the trusts. The Republican Party is the enemy of all such rings.{{'"}}<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1890/10/01/103268337.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524101419/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1890/10/01/103268337.pdf |archive-date=2019-05-24 |url-status=live|title=Mr. Sherman's Hopes and Fears|date=1890-10-01|access-date=2008-04-21|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Dilorenzo writes: "Protectionists did not want prices paid by consumers to fall. But they also understood that to gain political support for high tariffs they would have to assure the public that industries would not combine to increase prices to politically prohibitive levels. Support for both an antitrust law and tariff hikes would maintain high prices while avoiding the more obvious bilking of consumers."<ref>DiLorenzo, Thomas, ''Cato Handbook for Congress'', Antitrust.</ref>{{fcn|reason=Which edition? What does the word "Antitrust" mean here?|date=August 2024}}

[[Robert Bork]] was well known for his outspoken criticism of the antitrust regime. Another conservative legal scholar and judge, [[Richard Posner]] of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit|Seventh Circuit]], does not condemn the entire regime, but expresses concern with the potential that it could be applied to create inefficiency, rather than to avoid inefficiency.<ref name=posner>Richard Posner, ''Economic Analysis of Law'', p. 295 et seq. (explaining the optimal antitrust regime from an economic point of view)</ref> Posner further believes, along with a number of others, including Bork, that genuinely inefficient cartels and coercive monopolies, the target of the act, would be self-corrected by market forces, making the strict penalties of antitrust legislation unnecessary.<ref name=posner /> Conversely, liberal [[U.S. Supreme Court]] Justice [[William O. Douglas]] criticized the judiciary for interpreting and enforcing the antitrust law unequally: "From the beginning it [the Sherman Act] has been applied by judges hostile to its purposes, friendly to the empire builders who wanted it emasculated&nbsp;... trusts that were dissolved reintegrated in new forms&nbsp;... It is ironic that the Sherman Act was truly effective in only one respect, and that was when it was applied to labor unions. Then the courts read it with a literalness that never appeared in their other decisions."<ref>Douglas, William O., ''An Almanac of Liberty'', Doubleday & Company, 1954, p. 189</ref>

According to a 2018 study in the journal ''Public Choice'', "Senator John Sherman of Ohio was motivated to introduce an antitrust bill in late 1889 partly as a way of enacting revenge on his political rival, General and former Governor Russell Alger of Michigan, because Sherman believed that Alger personally had cost him the presidential nomination at the 1888 Republican national convention&nbsp;... Sherman was able to pursue his revenge motive by combining it with the broader Republican goals of preserving high tariffs and attacking the trusts."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Newman |first=Patrick |date=2018-01-12 |title=Revenge: John Sherman, Russell Alger and the origins of the Sherman Act |journal=Public Choice |volume=174 |issue=3–4 |language=en |pages=257–275 |doi=10.1007/s11127-017-0497-x |s2cid=158141317 |issn=0048-5829}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Alcoa]]
* [[American Bar Association]]
* [[American Tobacco Company]]
* [[Antitrust]]
* [[Bell System divestiture]]
* [[Cartel]]
* [[Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914]]
* [[DRAM price fixing]]
* [[George Howard Earle, Jr.|George H. Earle, Jr.]]
** [[s:Plan of Bill Proposed by Hon. George H. Earle, Jr., Philadelphia.|Plan of Bill Proposed by Hon. George H. Earle, Jr., Philadelphia.]] (1911) at Wikisource
* ''[[Federal Baseball Club v. National League]]''
* [[Laissez-faire]]
* [[Lysine price-fixing conspiracy]]
* ''[[Monsanto Co. v. Spray-Rite Service Corp.]]''
* [[National Linseed Oil Trust]]
* [[Northern Securities Company]]
* [[Price fixing]]
* [[Resale price maintenance]]
* [[Sarbanes–Oxley Act]]
* [[Standard Oil]]
* ''[[Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States]]''
* [[Ticketmaster]]
* [[Tying (commerce)]]
* ''[[United States v. Microsoft]]''
{{div col end}}

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Sherman Act|Sherman Anti-Trust Act}}
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-3055/uslm/COMPS-3055.xml Sherman Act] as amended ([https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-3055/pdf/COMPS-3055.pdf PDF]/[https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/COMPS-3055/ details]) in the [[United States Government Publishing Office|GPO]] [https://www.govinfo.gov/help/comps Statute Compilations collection]

; Official websites
* [http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/ U.S. Department of Justice: Antitrust Division]
* [https://www.justice.gov/atr/file/761131/download U.S. Department of Justice: Antitrust Division – text of the Sherman Antitrust Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1–7]

;Additional information
* Antitrust Division's [http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/public/guidelines/lencorp.htm "Corporate Leniency Policy"]
* [http://www.polyconomics.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1605:antitrust-by-alan-greenspan&catid=47:1998&Itemid=31 ''Antitrust''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140511002404/http://www.polyconomics.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1605:antitrust-by-alan-greenspan&catid=47:1998&Itemid=31 |date=May 11, 2014 }} by [[Alan Greenspan]]
* "Labor and the Sherman Act" (1940). ''[[Yale Law Journal]]'' 49(3) p.&nbsp;518. {{JSTOR|792668}}.
* Dr. Edward W. Younkins (February 19, 2000). [http://www.quebecoislibre.org/000219-13.htm "Antitrust Laws Should Be Abolished"].

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[[Category:United States federal antitrust legislation]]
[[Category:United States federal criminal legislation]]
[[Category:History of the petroleum industry in the United States]]
[[Category:1890 in American law]]
[[Category:Monopoly (economics)]]
[[Category:1890 in American politics]]
[[Category:Progressive Era in the United States]]