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{{Short description|Major deity in Hinduism}}
{{about|the Hindu god|other uses|Shiva (Judaism)|and|Shiva (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect-multi|2|Nilkanth|Manjunatha}}
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{{EngvarB|date=February 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Bangalore Shiva.jpg
| caption = Statue of Shiva at [[Shivoham Shiva Temple]], Bangalore, Karnataka
| day = {{hlist|[[Monday]]|[[Thrayodashi]]}}
| mantra = *[[Om Namah Shivaya]]
*[[Mahamrityunjaya Mantra]]
| affiliation = {{hlist|[[Trimurti]]|[[Ishvara]]|[[Parabrahman]]|[[Paramatman]] (Shaivism)}}
| deity_of = God of Destruction
{{hlist|God of [[Kāla|Time]], [[Yoga]], Meditation and Arts<ref>Shiva Samhita, e.g. {{Harvnb|Mallinson|2007}}; {{Harvnb|Varenne|1976|pp=82}}; {{Harvnb|Marchand|2007}} for Jnana Yoga.</ref>|[[Yogeshvara|Lord of Yogis]] and Physicians<ref>{{Cite encyclopaedia|title=Yogeshvara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KItocaxbibUC&q=%28Yogesha%29&pg=PA112|year=1998|encyclopaedia=Indian Civilization and Culture|publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-7533-083-2|pages=115}}</ref>{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=436}}|[[Nataraja|The Cosmic Dancer]]}}
[[Para Brahman|The Supreme Being]]  ([[Shaivism]])<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbibAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA445|year=2008 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Religions|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.|isbn=978-1593394912 |pages=445–448}}</ref>
| weapon = *[[Trishula]]
*[[Pashupatastra]]
*[[Parashu]]
*[[Pinaka (Hinduism)|Pinaka bow]]{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}}
| symbols = {{hlist|[[Lingam]]{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}}|[[Crescent|Crescent Moon]]|[[Tripundra]]|[[Damaru]]|[[Vasuki]]|[[Third eye]]}}
| children = {{unbulleted list|
*[[Kartikeya]] (son){{sfn|Cush|Robinson|York|2008|p=78}}
*[[Ganesha]] (son){{sfn|Williams|1981|p=62}}
*''[[:Category:Children of Shiva|See list of others]]''}}
| abode = * [[Kailasa]]{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124–126}}
*[[Shmashana]]
| mount = [[Nandi (Hinduism)|Nandi]]{{sfn|Javid|2008|pp=20–21}}
| festivals = {{hlist|[[Maha Shivaratri]]|[[Shravana (month)|Shravana]]|[[Kartik Purnima]]|[[Pradosha]]|[[Teej]]|[[Bhairava Ashtami]]{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=137, 186}}}}
| other_names = {{hlist|[[Bhairava]]|Mahadeva|[[Mahakala]]|Maheśvara|[[Pashupati]]|[[Rudra]]|Shambhu|Shankara}}
| member_of = [[Trimurti]]{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124}}
| consort = [[Sati (Hindu goddess)|Sati]], [[Parvati]] and other [[:Category:Forms of Parvati|forms]] of [[Shakti]]{{refn|group=note|In scriptures, Shiva is paired with [[Shakti]], the embodiment of power; who is known under various manifestations as Uma, Sati, Parvati, [[Durga]], and [[Kali]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shiva | title=Shiva &#124; Definition, Forms, God, Symbols, Meaning, & Facts &#124; Britannica | date=10 August 2024 }}</ref> Sati is generally regarded as the first wife of Shiva, who reincarnated as Parvati after her death. Out of these forms of Shakti, Parvati is considered the main consort of Shiva.{{sfn|Kinsley|1998|p=35}} Besides Shakti, the river goddess [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]] is sometimes attested as his secondary spouse in few Puranic scriptures.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hawley |first1=John Stratton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3R1z0sE340C&dq=ga%E1%B9%85g%C4%81+wife+of+%C5%9Biva&pg=PA177 |title=The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India |last2=Wulff |first2=Donna Marie |date=1984 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House |isbn=978-0-89581-441-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref>
{{Cite book |last=Wangu |first=Madhu Bazaz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k8y-vKtqCmIC&dq=ga%E1%B9%85g%C4%81+wife+of+%C5%9Biva&pg=PA90 |title=Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings, and Models |date=2003 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-81-7017-416-5 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Sivaramamurti|1976b|p=}}{{page needed |date=June 2025}}}}
}}

'''Shiva''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|ɪ|v|ə}}; {{langx|sa|शिव|lit=The Auspicious One}}, {{IAST3|Śiva}} {{IPA|sa|ɕɪʋɐ|}}<!-- Do not remove, WP:INDICSCRIPT doesn't apply to WikiProject Hinduism -->), also known as '''Mahadeva''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|'|h|ɑː|_|'|d|ei|v|ə}}; {{Langx|sa|महादेव:|lit=The Great God}}, {{IAST3|Mahādevaḥ}}, [[Help:IPA/Sanskrit|[mɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh]]]){{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} and '''Hara''',{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}} is one of the [[Hindu deities|principal deities]] of [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/shiva-in-mythology-let-s-reimagine-the-lord-magazine-231225|title=Shiva In Mythology: Let's Reimagine The Lord|date=28 October 2022 |access-date=30 October 2022|archive-date=30 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221030120611/https://www.outlookindia.com/national/shiva-in-mythology-let-s-reimagine-the-lord-magazine-231225|url-status=live}}</ref> He is the [[God in Hinduism|Supreme Being]] in [[Shaivism]], one of the major traditions within Hinduism.{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=17, 153|Sivaraman|1973|2p=131}}

In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}}{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} In the goddess-oriented [[Shaktism|Shakta]] tradition, the Supreme Goddess ([[Devi]]) is regarded as the energy and creative power ([[Shakti]]) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva.{{sfn|Kinsley|1988|pp=50, 103–104}}{{sfn|Pintchman|2015|pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in [[Panchayatana puja]] of the [[Smarta Tradition|Smarta]] tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=17, 153}} Shiva is known as ''The Destroyer'' within the [[Trimurti]], the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] trinity which also includes [[Brahma]] and [[Vishnu]].{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124–126}}{{sfn|Gonda|1969}} 

Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an [[Omniscience|omniscient]] [[yogi]] who lives an [[Asceticism#Hinduism|ascetic life]] on [[Kailasa]]{{sfn|Zimmer|1972|pp=124–126}} as well as a householder with his wife [[Parvati]] and his two children, [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya]]. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi (the first yogi), regarded as the patron god of [[yoga]], [[Meditation#Hinduism|meditation]] and the arts.<ref>''Shiva Samhita'', e.g. {{harvnb|Mallinson|2007}}; {{harvnb|Varenne|1976|p=82}}; {{harvnb|Marchand|2007}} for Jnana Yoga.</ref> The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent king [[Vasuki]] around his neck, the adorning [[crescent]] moon, the [[holy river]] [[Ganga]] flowing from his matted hair, the [[third eye]] on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the [[trishula]] or trident as his weapon, and the [[damaru]]. He is usually worshiped in the [[aniconic]] form of [[lingam]].{{sfn|Fuller|2004|p=58}}

Though associated with Vedic minor deity Rudra, Shiva may have non-Vedic roots,{{sfnm|Sadasivan|2000|1p=148|Sircar|1998|2pp=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}} evolving as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the [[Rigvedic deity|Rigvedic]] [[wind god|storm god]] [[Rudra]] who may also have non-Vedic origins,{{Sfn|Flood|1996|p=152}} into a single major deity.{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=148–149|Keay|2000|2p=xxvii|Granoff|2003|3pp=95–114|Nath|2001|4p=31}} Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in [[Hinduism in India|India]], [[Hinduism in Nepal|Nepal]], [[Hinduism in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]], [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] and [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesia]] (especially in [[Java]] and [[Bali]]).{{sfnm|Keay|2000|1p=xxvii|Flood|1996|2p=17}}
{{Saivism}}

== Etymology and other names ==
{{Main|Shiva Sahasranama|108 Names Of Shiva}}
According to the [[Monier Monier-Williams|Monier-Williams]] Sanskrit dictionary, the word "{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}}" ({{langx|sa|शिव|label=[[Devanagari]]}}, also transliterated as ''shiva'') means "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly".<ref name="mmwshiva">Monier Monier-Williams (1899), [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227192855/http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html |date=27 February 2017 }}, Oxford University Press, pp. 1074–1076</ref> The root words of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}} in folk etymology are ''śī'' which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and ''va'' which means "embodiment of grace".<ref name="mmwshiva" />{{sfn|Prentiss|2000|p=199}}

The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the [[Rig Veda]] ({{Circa|1700–1100 BCE}}), as an epithet for several [[Rigvedic deities]], including [[Rudra]].<ref>For use of the term ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}}'' as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=28}}.</ref> The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one"; this adjectival usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature.<ref name="mmwshiva" />{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=21–22}} The term evolved from the Vedic ''Rudra-Shiva'' to the noun ''Shiva'' in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".<ref name="mmwshiva" />{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1, 7, 21–23}}

Sharma presents another etymology with the [[Sanskrit]] root ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śarv}}-'', which means "to injure" or "to kill",<ref>For root ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śarv}}-'' see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=910}}.</ref> interpreting the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".{{Sfn|Sharma|1996|p=306}}

The [[Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit]] word ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śaiva}}'' means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=927}} It is used as an adjective to characterise certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.<ref>For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}} (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śivaśāna}}'') and which focus on the deity {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}}... " see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=149}}</ref>

Some authors associate the name with the [[Tamil language|Tamil word]] ''{{IAST|śivappu}}'' meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun (''{{IAST|śivan}}'', "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called ''Babhru'' (brown, or red) in the Rigveda.<ref>{{cite book|last1=van Lysebeth|first1=Andre|title=Tantra: Cult of the Feminine|date=2002|publisher=Weiser Books|isbn=978-0877288459|page=213|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R4W-DivEweIC&pg=FA213|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131657/https://books.google.com/books?id=R4W-DivEweIC&pg=FA213|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tyagi|first1=Ishvar Chandra|title=Shaivism in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to C.A.D. 300|publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan|year=1982|page=81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WH3XAAAAMAAJ|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131704/https://books.google.com/books?id=WH3XAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The ''[[Vishnu sahasranama]]'' interprets ''Shiva'' to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)".{{sfnm|Sri Vishnu Sahasranama|1986|1pp=47, 122|Chinmayananda|2002|2p=24}}

Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo,{{sfn|Powell|2016|p=27}} Mahasu,{{sfn|Berreman|1963|p=[https://archive.org/details/hindusofhimalaya00inberr/page/385 385]}} Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms),<ref name="Manmatha">For translation see: {{harvnb|Dutt|1905|loc=Chapter 17 of Volume 13}}.</ref><ref name="Kisari">For translation see: {{harvnb|Ganguli|2004|loc=Chapter 17 of Volume 13}}.</ref><ref name="Chidbhav">{{harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997}}, ''Siva Sahasranama Stotram''.</ref> and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion).{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=247}} The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Mahādeva}}'' ("Great god"; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mahā}}'' "Great" and ''deva'' "god"),{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}}<ref>For appearance of the name {{lang|sa|महादेव}} in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'' see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=297}}</ref> ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Maheśvara}}'' ("Great Lord"; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mahā}}'' "great" and ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|īśvara}}'' "lord"),{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=477}}<ref>For appearance of the name in the Shiva Sahasranama see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=299}}</ref> and ''[[Parameshwara (god)|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Parameśvara}}]]'' ("Supreme Lord").<ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Parameśhvara}} as "Supreme Lord" see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=479}}.</ref>

[[Sahasranama]] are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity.<ref name="mmwsahasran">Sir Monier Monier-Williams, ''sahasranAman'', A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford University Press (Reprinted: Motilal Banarsidass), {{ISBN|978-8120831056}}</ref> There are at least eight different versions of the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', devotional hymns (''[[stotras]]'') listing many names of Shiva.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|pp=viii–ix}}</ref> The version appearing in Book 13 ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|''Anuśāsanaparvan''}}) of the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' provides one such list.{{efn|This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clarify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See {{harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997|p=5}}.}} Shiva also has ''Dasha-Sahasranamas'' (10,000 names) that are found in the ''Mahanyasa''. The ''Shri Rudram Chamakam'', also known as the ''Śatarudriya'', is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.<ref>For an overview of the ''Śatarudriya'' see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|pp=71–74}}.</ref><ref>For complete Sanskrit text, translations, and commentary see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976a}}.</ref>

== Historical development and literature ==
[[File:Elephanta Caves Trimurti.jpg|thumb|200px|An ancient sculpture of Shiva at the [[Elephanta Caves]], Maharashtra. 6th century CE]]{{See also|History of Shaivism|l1=}}

=== Assimilation of traditions ===
{{See also|History of Hinduism#Roots of Hinduism|l1=Roots of Hinduism}}

The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the [[Indian subcontinent]], such as India, [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]],{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1p=17|Keay|2000|2p=xxvii}} and [[Southeast Asia]], such as [[Bali, Indonesia]].{{sfn|Boon|1977|pp=143, 205}} Shiva-Rudra may have non-Vedic tribal roots,{{sfnm|Sadasivan|2000|1p=148|Sircar|1998|2pp=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}} having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols,"{{sfn|Sadasivan|2000|p=148}} but the oldest literary attestion is the associated Vedic minor deity Rudra,{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=148}} who may also have non-Aryan origins.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=148, 150}} The figure of Shiva as he is known today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of [[Sanskritization]] and the emergence of the [[Hindu synthesis]] in post-Vedic times.{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=148–149|Keay|2000|2p=xxvii|Granoff|2003|3pp=95–114}} How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation.<ref>For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well documented, see {{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=147}}</ref> According to Vijay Nath:
{{blockquote|Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of ''Isa'' or ''Isvara'' to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."{{sfn|Nath|2001|p=31}}}}

An example of assimilation took place in [[Maharashtra]], where a regional deity named [[Khandoba]] is a patron deity of farming and herding [[caste]]s.{{sfn|Courtright|1985|p=205}} The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in [[Jejuri]].<ref>For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: {{harvnb|Mate|1988|p=162}}.</ref> Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself,{{sfn|Sontheimer|1976|pp=180–198|ps=: "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."}} in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.{{sfn|Courtright|1985|p=205}}<ref>For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: {{harvnb|Mate|1988|p=176}}.</ref> Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with [[Surya]]{{sfn|Courtright|1985|p=205}} and [[Karttikeya]].<ref>For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: {{harvnb|Gupta|1988|loc=''Preface'', and p. 40}}.</ref>

Myths about Shiva that were "roughly contemporary with early [[Christianity]]" existed that portrayed Shiva with many differences than how he is thought of now,{{sfn|Hopkins|2001|p=243}} and these mythical portrayals of Shiva were incorporated into later versions of him. For instance, he and the other [[Hindu deities|gods]], from the highest gods to the least powerful gods, were thought of as somewhat human in nature, creating [[emotion]]s they had limited control over and having the ability to get in touch with their inner natures through [[asceticism]] like humans.{{sfn|Hopkins|2001|pp=243-244, 261}} In that era, Shiva was widely viewed as both the god of [[lust]] and of asceticism.{{sfn|Hopkins|2001|p=244}} In one story, he was seduced by a [[Prostitution|prostitute]] sent by the other gods, who were jealous of Shiva's ascetic lifestyle he had lived for 1000 years.{{sfn|Hopkins|2001|p=243}}

=== Pre-Vedic elements ===

==== Prehistoric art ====
Prehistoric rock paintings dating to the [[Mesolithic]] from [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]] have been interpreted by some authors as depictions of Shiva.{{sfn|Neumayer|2013|p=104}}{{efn|reference=Temporal range for Mesolithic in South Asia is from 12000 to 4000 years [[before present]]. The term "Mesolithic" is not a useful term for the periodisation of the South Asian Stone Age, as certain [[Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes|tribes]] in the interior of the Indian subcontinent retained a Mesolithic culture into the modern period, and there is no consistent usage of the term. The range 12,000–4,000 Before Present is based on the combination of the ranges given by Agrawal et al. (1978) and by Sen (1999), and overlaps with the early Neolithic at [[Mehrgarh]]. D.P. Agrawal et al., "Chronology of Indian prehistory from the Mesolithic period to the Iron Age", ''Journal of Human Evolution'', Volume 7, Issue 1, January 1978, 37–44: "A total time bracket of c. 6,000–2,000 B.C.  will cover the dated Mesolithic sites,  e.g.  Langhnaj, Bagor, '''Bhimbetka''', Adamgarh, Lekhahia, etc." (p. 38). S.N. Sen, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA23 ''Ancient Indian History and Civilization''], 1999: "The Mesolithic period roughly ranges between 10,000 and 6,000 B.C."  (p. 23).}} However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that the figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways.<ref>{{cite book |author=Howard Morphy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XhchBQAAQBAJ |title=Animals Into Art |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-59808-4 |pages=364–366 |access-date=30 January 2024 |archive-date=31 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131700/https://books.google.com/books?id=XhchBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Indus Valley and the Pashupati seal ====
{{Main|Pashupati seal}}
[[File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|The [[Pashupati seal]] discovered during excavation of the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus Valley]] archaeological site of [[Mohenjo-Daro]] and showing a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure as [[Pashupati|Paśupati]] (Lord of the Animals" {{Circa|2350}}–2000 BCE]]

Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either [[horned deity|horned]] or wearing a horned headdress and possibly [[ithyphallic]],{{refn|group=note|name="ilph_rep_l"}}<ref>{{harvnb|Singh|1989}}; {{harvnb|Kenoyer|1998}}. For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=29}}</ref> seated in a posture reminiscent of the [[Lotus position]], surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of [[Mohenjo-daro]] as ''[[Pashupati]]'' (Lord of Animals, [[Sanskrit]] ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|paśupati}}''),<ref>For translation of ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|paśupati}}'' as "Lord of Animals" see: {{harvnb|Michaels|2004|p=312}}.</ref> an epithet of the later [[Hindu deities]] Shiva and Rudra.{{sfnm|Vohra|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/makingindiahisto00vohr/page/n10 15]|Bongard-Levin|1985|2p=45|3a1=Rosen|3a2=Schweig|3y=2006|3p=45}} [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]] and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a "[[yoga]] posture" with the knees out and feet joined.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=28–29}} Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as [[Gavin Flood]], [[John Keay]] and [[Doris Meth Srinivasan]] have expressed doubts about this suggestion.{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=28–29|Flood|2003|2pp=204–205|Srinivasan|1997|3p=181}}

[[Gavin Flood]] states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterises these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva [[iconographic]] themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a [[bull]].{{sfnm|Flood|1996|1pp=28–29|Flood|2003|2pp=204–205}} John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=14}} Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.{{sfn|Srinivasan|1997|p=181}}

The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. [[McEvilley]], for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McEvilley|first=Thomas|date=1 March 1981|title=An Archaeology of Yoga| journal=Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics| volume=1| page =51| doi= 10.1086/RESv1n1ms20166655|s2cid=192221643|issn=0277-1322 }}</ref> Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate.<ref>Asko Parpola(2009), Deciphering the Indus Script, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521795661}}, pp. 240–250</ref> Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective|last=Possehl|first=Gregory L.|date=2002|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=978-0759116429|pages=140–144|author-link=Gregory Possehl|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=20 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120224137/https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Proto-Indo-European elements ====
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised [[Proto-Indo-European religion]],<ref name="Woodard2006">{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&pg=FA242|date=2006|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0252092954|pages=242–}}</ref> and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}} The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Indo-European]] link for Shiva,<ref name=woodward60 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC |year=1992|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0892813742|pages=49–50}}, Quote: "The parallels between the names and legends of Shiva, Osiris and Dionysus are so numerous that there can be little doubt as to their original sameness".</ref> or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures.<ref>{{cite book|author=Namita Gokhale|title=The Book of Shiva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pFN15nX9_zsC|year=2009|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0143067610|pages=10–11}}</ref><ref>Pierfrancesco Callieri (2005), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/29757637 A Dionysian Scheme on a Seal from Gupta India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220104032/http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757637 |date=20 December 2016 }}, East and West, Vol. 55, No. 1/4 (December 2005), pp. 71–80</ref> His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god [[Dionysus]],<ref>{{cite journal | last=Long | first=J. Bruce | title=Siva and Dionysos: Visions of Terror and Bliss | journal=Numen | volume=18 | issue=3 | pages=180–209 | year=1971 | doi=10.2307/3269768 | jstor=3269768  | issn = 0029-5973}}</ref> as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life.<ref name=flahertyds81 /><ref>{{cite book|author=Patrick Laude|title=Divine Play, Sacred Laughter, and Spiritual Understanding|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTDIAAAAQBAJ|year=2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1403980588|pages=41–60|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131700/https://books.google.com/books?id=cTDIAAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus ''"god of the Orient"''.<ref name=flahertyds81>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1980), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062337 Dionysus and Siva: Parallel Patterns in Two Pairs of Myths] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220102525/http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062337 |date=20 December 2016 }}, History of Religions, Vol. 20, No. 1/2 (Aug. – Nov. 1980), pp. 81–111</ref> Similarly, the use of phallic symbol{{refn|group=note|name="ilph_rep_l"}} as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus<ref>{{cite book|author1=Walter Friedrich Otto|author2=Robert B. Palmer|title=Dionysus: Myth and Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XCDvuoZ8IzsC&pg=PA164 |year=1965|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0253208912|page=164}}</ref>) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward.<ref name=woodward60>{{cite book|author=Roger D. Woodard|title=Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC |year=2010|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=978-0252-092954|pages=60–67, 79–80}}</ref> Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous non-Aryan tribal origins.{{sfn|Sircar|1998|pp=3 with footnote 2, 102–105}}

===Vedic elements===

==== Rudra ====
[[File:ThreeHeadedShivaGandhara2ndCentury.jpg|upright|thumb|200px|Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD]]

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god [[Rudra]],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=316}} and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in [[Hindu texts|Hindu scriptures]]. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, a [[Rigvedic deity]] with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring [[storm]]. He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=73}} In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the [[Rudras]]", a group of storm gods.<ref>Doniger, pp. 221–223.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Rudra {{!}} Hinduism, Shiva, Vedas {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rudra |access-date=8 June 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=152}} Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to [[Odin|Wodan]], the Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the [[wild hunt]].{{sfnm|Zimmer|2000|p=186}}{{sfn|Storl|2004}}{{page needed|date=April 2022}}{{sfn|Winstedt|2020}}{{page needed|date=April 2022}}

According to Sadasivan, during the development of the [[Hindu synthesis]] attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with [[Rudra]].{{Sfn|Sadasivan|2000|p=148}} The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1–2}} Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (Shiva).{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=7}}

The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=2–3}} This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.{{Sfn|Chakravarti|1986|pp=1–9}}

The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (''vahana'') of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian [[zebu]], in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|pp=14–15}}

==== Agni ====
[[Rudra]] and [[Agni]] have a close relationship.{{refn|group=note|For a general statement of the close relationship, and example shared epithets, see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976a|p=11}}. For an overview of the Rudra-Fire complex of ideas, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|pp=15–19}}.}} The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva.{{refn|group=note|For quotation "An important factor in the process of Rudra's growth is his identification with Agni in the Vedic literature and this identification contributed much to the transformation of his character as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Rudra-Śiva}}." see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=17}}.}} The identification of [[Agni]] with Rudra is explicitly noted in the ''[[Nirukta]]'', an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."<ref>For translation from ''Nirukta'' 10.7, see: {{harvnb|Sarup|1998|p=155}}.</ref> The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
{{blockquote|The fire myth of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Rudra-Śiva}} plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=18}}}}

In the [[Shri Rudram Chamakam|''Śatarudrīya'']], some epithets of Rudra, such as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Sasipañjara}} ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tivaṣīmati}} ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.{{refn|group=note|For "Note Agni-Rudra concept fused" in epithets {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Sasipañjara}} and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tivaṣīmati}} see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976a|p=45}}.}} Agni is said to be a bull,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm |title=Rig Veda: Rig-Veda, Book 6: HYMN XLVIII. Agni and Others |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |access-date=6 June 2010 |archive-date=25 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100325222509/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv06048.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]]. The horns of [[Agni]], who is sometimes characterised as a bull, are mentioned.<ref>For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=89}}.</ref><ref>RV 8.49; 10.155.</ref> In medieval sculpture, both [[Agni]] and the form of Shiva known as [[Bhairava]] have flaming hair as a special feature.<ref>For flaming hair of Agni and Bhairava see: Sivaramamurti, p. 11.</ref>

==== Indra ====
[[File:Pashupatinath Temple-2020.jpg|thumb|[[Pashupatinath Temple]], [[Nepal]], dedicated to Shiva as the lord of all beings]]
According to [[Wendy Doniger]], the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from [[Indra]].<ref>{{cite book|last =Doniger|first=Wendy|author-link=Wendy Doniger|title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic|year=1973|publisher=Oxford University Press US|pages=84–89|chapter = The Vedic Antecedents }}</ref> Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, the transgression of established mores, the [[Om|Aum]] sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}}'' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,{{refn|group=note|For text of RV 2.20.3a as {{lang|sa|स नो युवेन्द्रो जोहूत्रः सखा शिवो नरामस्तु पाता ।}} and translation as "May that young adorable ''Indra'', ever be the friend, the benefactor, and protector of us, his worshipper".{{Sfn|Arya|Joshi |2001|p=48, volume 2}}}} 6.45.17,<ref>For text of RV 6.45.17 as {{lang|sa|यो गृणतामिदासिथापिरूती शिवः सखा । स त्वं न इन्द्र मृलय ॥ }} and translation as "''Indra'', who has ever been the friend of those who praise you, and the insurer of their happiness by your protection, grant us felicity" see: {{harvnb|Arya|Joshi|2001|p=91}}, volume 3.</ref><ref>For translation of RV 6.45.17 as "Thou who hast been the singers' Friend, a Friend auspicious with thine aid, As such, O Indra, favour us" see: {{Harvnb|Griffith|1973|p=310}}.</ref> and 8.93.3.<ref>For text of RV 8.93.3 as {{lang|sa|स न इन्द्रः सिवः सखाश्चावद् गोमद्यवमत् । उरूधारेव दोहते ॥}} and translation as "May ''Indra'', our auspicious friend, milk for us, like a richly-streaming (cow), wealth of horses, kine, and barley" see: {{harvnb|Arya|Joshi|2001|p=48}}, volume 2.</ref>) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.<ref>For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=89}}.</ref><ref>RV 7.19.</ref> In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the [[Maruts]], but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.<ref>For the lack of warlike connections and difference between Indra and Rudra, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=8}}.</ref>

Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria–Margiana Culture]].{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=32}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=454–455}} According to Anthony,
{{blockquote|Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, [[Verethraghna]], were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the ''Rig Veda''. He was associated more than any other deity with ''Soma'', a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from ''Ephedra'') probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=454}}}}

The texts and artwork of [[Jainism]] show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras.{{sfn|Owen|2012|pp=25–29}} For example, in the Jain caves at [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]], extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of [[Tirthankara]]s in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.{{sfnm|Sivaramamurti|2004|1pp=41, 59|Owen|2012|2pp=25–29}}

=== Development ===
A few texts such as ''[[Atharvashiras Upanishad]]'' mention [[Rudra]], and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible.{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}} The ''[[Kaivalya Upanishad]]'' similarly, states [[Paul Deussen]] – a German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.{{sfnm|Deussen|1997|1pp=792–793|Radhakrishnan|1953|2p=929}}

Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204–205}} Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and [[Saṃsāra|liberator of Selfs]] from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Svetasvatara-Upanishad-~-Chap-3-The-Highest-Reality-1.aspx | title=Svetasvatara Upanishad - Chap 3 the Highest Reality | access-date=2 September 2022 | archive-date=1 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001023958/https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Upanishads-Commentary/Svetasvatara-Upanishad-~-Chap-3-The-Highest-Reality-1.aspx | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/edit-page/speaking-tree-the-trika-tradition-of-kashmir-shaivism/articleshow/4822600.cms | title=Speaking Tree: The Trika Tradition of Kashmir Shaivism | website=[[The Times of India]] | date=27 July 2009 | access-date=2 September 2022 | archive-date=2 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902090554/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/edit-page/speaking-tree-the-trika-tradition-of-kashmir-shaivism/articleshow/4822600.cms | url-status=live }}</ref> The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period.{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=204–205}} Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the ''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'' presents pluralism, [[pantheism]], or [[henotheism]], rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.{{sfnm|Hume|1921|1pp=399, 403|Hiriyanna|2000|2pp=32–36|3a1=Kunst|3y=1968|Srinivasan|1997|4loc=pp. 96–97 and Chapter 9}}

{{Quote box
 |quote  ='''Self-realization and Shaiva Upanishads'''
<poem>
He who sees himself in all beings,
And all beings in him,
attains the highest [[Brahman]],
not by any other means.
</poem>
 |source = —''[[Kaivalya Upanishad]] 10''{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|pp=792–793}}{{Sfn|Sastri|1898|pp=80–82}}
 |width  = 28%
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Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in [[Patanjali]]'s ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' (2nd-century BCE) and in the ''[[Mahabharata]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|2003|p=205}} For date of Mahabhasya see: {{harvnb|Scharf|1996|loc=page 1 with footnote}}.</ref>

The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism{{refn|group=note|name="ilph_rep_l"}} in this art suggests it was likely Shiva.{{sfn|Blurton|1993|pp=84, 103}} [[Numismatics]] research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient [[Kushan Empire]] (30–375 CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva.{{sfn|Blurton|1993|p=84}} The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.–A.D. 700|url=https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa |url-access=registration|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520-059917|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa/page/75 75]–80}}</ref>{{sfn|Sivaramamurti|2004|pp=41, 59}}

The [[Shaiva Upanishads]] are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century.{{Sfn|Deussen| 1997|p=556, 769 footnote 1}} These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality [[Brahman]] and the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (Self),{{Sfn|Deussen|1997|p=769}} and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.{{Sfn|Klostermaier|1984|pp=134, 371}}

The [[Puranas#Classification|Shaiva Puranas]], particularly the [[Shiva Purana]] and the [[Linga Purana]], present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage (''[[Tirtha (Hinduism)|Tirtha]]'') associated with him.{{sfnm|Flood|2003|1pp=205–206|Rocher|1986|2pp=187–188, 222–228}} The Shiva-related [[Tantra]] literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as [[Sruti]]. Dualistic [[Āgama (Hinduism)#Philosophy|Shaiva Agamas]] which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, ''dvaita''), are the foundational texts for [[Shaiva Siddhanta]].{{sfn|Flood|2003|pp=208–212}} Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, ''advaita''), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharma|1990|pp=9–14}}; {{harvnb|Davis|1992|loc=p. 167 note 21}}, ''Quote (page 13):'' "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important".</ref> In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts.<ref>Mark Dyczkowski (1989), The Canon of the Śaivāgama, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805958}}, pl. 43–44</ref><ref>JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120804074}}, pp. 252, 259</ref>{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–169}}

Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions.{{Sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–169}} Shaivism gained immense popularity in [[Tamilakam]] as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as [[Appar]] and [[Sambandar]] composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his [[tandava]] dance, the mulavam ([[dumru]]), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining the proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Somasundaram |first1=Ottilingam |last2=Murthy |first2=Tejus |date=2017 |title=Siva - The Mad Lord: A Puranic perspective |journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=119–122 |doi=10.4103/0019-5545.204441 |issn=0019-5545 |pmc=5418997 |pmid=28529371 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva.{{sfn|Tagare|2002|pp=16–19}} The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies.{{sfnm|Flood|2003|1pp=208–212|Gonda|1975|2pp=3–20, 35–36, 49–51|Thakur|1986|3pp=83–94}}

== Position within Hinduism ==
[[File:Lingothbhavar.jpg|thumb|[[Lingodbhava]] is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the [[Lingam]] (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the [[Trimurt]]i; [[Brahma]] on the left and [[Vishnu]] on the right are depicted bowing to Shiva in the centre.]]
[[File:8th century Standing Shiva Mahadeva, Kashmir, India, Clevelandart 1989.369.jpg|thumb|A {{circa|750–800 CE}} gray [[schist]] three-headed Shiva from [[History of Kashmir|Kashmir]], with a three-eyed yogi-king front facing form, his consort [[Parvati]] as the left head, and three-eyed [[Bhairava]] as right head. His sons [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya|Kumara]] stand at his feet, and a three-eyed [[Nandi (Hinduism)|Vrishabha]], his mount, stands behind.<ref>{{citation|last1=Pal |first1=Pratapaditya |author-link1=Pratapaditya Pal |last2=Heller |first2=Amy |author-link2=Amy Heller |last3=von Hinüber |first3=Oskar |author-link3=Oskar von Hinüber |last4=Vajrācārya |first4=Gautamavajra |author-link4=Gautama V. Vajracharya |title=Himalayas: An Aesthetic Adventure |place=[[Chicago]], IL |publisher=[[Art Institute of Chicago]] in association with [[University of California Press]] and Mapin Publishing |year=2003 |page=112}}</ref>]]
=== Shaivism ===
{{Main|Shaivism}}
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of [[Hinduism]], the others being [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaktism]] and the [[Smarta Tradition]]. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}}{{Sfn|Issitt|Main|2014|pp=147, 168}} He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal Self, the pure consciousness and [[Brahman|Absolute Reality]] in the Shaiva traditions.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=65}} Shiva is also part of 'Om' (ॐ) as a 'U' (उ).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Devi bhagwat Purana Skandh 5 Chapter 1 Verse 22-23 |url=https://archive.org/details/devi-bhagavata-with-hindi-translation/Devi%20Bhagavata%20with%20Hindi%20Translation%20Vol%201%20%28Gitapress%29%202010/page/n540/mode/1up?view=theater |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/devi-bhagavata-with-hindi-translation/Devi%20Bhagavata%20with%20Hindi%20Translation%20Vol%201%20%28Gitapress%29%202010/page/n540/mode/1up?view=theater}}</ref>

The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|p=216}} The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist (''Advaita'') and devotional traditions (''Dvaita''), such as Tamil [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] and [[Lingayatism]]. Shiva temples feature items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, and relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva.{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=216–218}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Surendranath Dasgupta|title=A History of Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aohGsuUuXuMC |year=1973|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-81208-04166|pages=17, 48–49, 65–67, 155–161}}</ref>

The [[Tantra|Tantric]] Shiva (''[[:hi:%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5|"शिव]]''") tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric [[Kapalika]]s (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, and sometimes used meat as a part of ritual.<ref>{{cite book|author=David N. Lorenzen|title=The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C|year=1972|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520-018426|pages=2–5, 15–17, 38, 80|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131703/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C|url-status=live}}</ref> The esoteric tradition within [[Kashmir Shaivism]] has featured the ''Krama'' and ''Trika'' sub-traditions.<ref name=patil125>{{cite book|author=Narendranath B. Patil|title=The Variegated Plumage: Encounters with Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3C1GWkeyXnQC |year=2003|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120819535|pages=125–126}}</ref> The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mark S. G. Dyczkowski|title=The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC|year=1987|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0887064319|page=9|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131652/https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC|url-status=live}}</ref> The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self-liberation.<ref name=patil125 />{{Sfn|Michaels|2004|pp=215–216}}<ref>David Lawrence, [http://www.iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/#SH1d Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312172048/http://www.iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/#SH1d |date=12 March 2017 }}, University of Manitoba, Canada, IEP, Section 1(d)</ref>

=== Vaishnavism ===
The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents [[Vishnu]] as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the ''Bhagavata Purana'' while praising [[Krishna]] as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalised form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality.<ref>Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0141913377}}, pp. 10–12, Quote: "(...) accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too"</ref><ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3447025225}}, p. 23 with footnotes</ref><ref>EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004016125}}, pp. 150–153</ref> The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:

{{Blockquote|
Vishnu is no one but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.
|Skanda Purana |1.8.20–21<ref>Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, {{ISBN|978-1577316695}}, p. 17; for Sanskrit, see: [https://archive.org/stream/SriSkandaPuranam-SankaraSamhitaPart1#page/n31/mode/2up Skanda Purana] Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20–21 (Sanskrit)</ref>}}

Both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity.<ref>{{cite book|author=Saroj Panthey|title=Iconography of Śiva in Pahāṛī Paintings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GUBXNueBQo0C|year=1987|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-8170990161|page=94|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131652/https://books.google.com/books?id=GUBXNueBQo0C|url-status=live}}</ref> The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author=Barbara Holdrege|editor=Hananya Goodman|title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XF_a3cfrcLQC&pg=PA122|year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1438404370|pages=120–125 with footnotes}}</ref> that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.<ref>{{cite book|author=Charles Johnston|title=The Atlantic Monthly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGACAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA835|volume=CXII|year=1913|publisher=Riverside Press, Cambridge|pages=835–836}}</ref>

=== Shaktism ===
[[File:Khajuraho Ardharnareshvar.jpg|thumb|Ardhanarishvara sculpture, [[Khajuraho]], depicting Shiva with goddess [[Parvati]] as his equal half.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=43}} In the [[Ardhanarisvara]] concept, the icon is presented as half-man and half woman.]]
The goddess-oriented [[Shakti]] tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female ([[Devi]]),{{Sfn|Coburn|2002|pp=1, 53–56, 280}}{{Sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=426}}{{Sfn|Kinsley|1988|pp=101–105}} but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner.{{sfnm|Kinsley|1988|1pp=50, 103–104|Pintchman|2015|2pp=113, 119, 144, 171}} This partner is Shiva.{{sfn|Pintchman|2014|pp=85–86, 119, 144, 171}}{{Sfn|Coburn|1991|pp=19–24, 40, 65, Narayani p. 232}}

The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture ''[[Rigveda]]'', in a hymn called the Devi Sukta.{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}{{Sfn| McDaniel |2004|p=90}}{{Sfn| Brown |1998|p=26}}<ref name="Hymn 125">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ|title = The Rigveda|isbn = 978-0190633394|last1 = Jamison|first1 = Stephanie|last2 = Brereton|first2 = Joel|date = 2020|publisher = Oxford University Press|access-date = 17 September 2020|archive-date = 10 October 2023|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231010004628/https://books.google.com/books?id=1LTRDwAAQBAJ|url-status = live}}</ref>

The ''[[Devi Upanishad]]'' in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19.{{Sfn|Brown|1998|p=77}}{{Sfn|Warrier|1967|pp=77–84}} Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'', a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|p=193}}<ref>{{cite book|author=David R. Kinsley|title=The Sword and the Flute: Kālī and Kṛṣṇa, Dark Visions of the Terrible and the Sublime in Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih1By08_Yj0C |year=1975|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520026759|pages=102 with footnote 42}}, Quote: "In the Devi Mahatmya, it is quite clear that [[Durga]] is an independent deity, great in her own right, and only loosely associated with any of the great male deities. And if any one of the great gods can be said to be her closest associate, it is Visnu rather than Siva".</ref> The [[Ardhanarisvara]] concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half-man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gupteshwar Prasad|title=I.A. Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmy5cnSbsWYC&pg=PA117 |year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-8185431376|pages=117–118}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791410738|page=xix}}</ref>

=== Smarta tradition ===
{{Main|Panchayatana puja}}
[[File:Traditional Indian Print by Artist Raja Ravi Varma.jpg|thumb|Oleograph by [[Raja Ravi Varma]] depicting a Shiva-centric Panchayatana. A bearded Shiva sits in the centre with his wife Parvati and their infant son Ganesha; surrounded by (clockwise from left upper corner) Ganesha, Devi, Vishnu, and Surya. Shiva's mount is the bull Nandi below Shiva.]]
In the [[Smarta tradition]] of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its [[Panchayatana puja]].<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60">{{cite book|author=Gudrun Bühnemann|author-link=Gudrun Bühnemann|title=Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60|year=2003|publisher=Brill Academic|isbn=978-9004129023|page=60|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=16 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116175701/https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent,<ref name="Bühnemann2003p60" /> set in a [[quincunx]] pattern.<ref name="Harle1994p141">{{cite book|author=James C. Harle|title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent| url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300062175|pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/140 140]–142, 191, 201–203}}</ref> Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, [[Devi]] (such as [[Parvati]]), [[Surya]] and [[Ganesha]] or [[Kartikeya|Skanda]] or any personal god of devotee's preference ([[Ishta Devata]]).{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/17 17]}}

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasises that all idols ([[murti]]) are icons to help focus on and visualise aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognise the Absolute symbolised by the icons,<ref>{{cite book|author=J. N. Farquhar|title=Outline of the Religious Literature of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwggjSPrjxUC |year=1984|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120820869|page=180}}</ref> on the path to realising the [[Advaita Vedanta|nondual]] identity of one's Atman (Self) and the Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=Edwin F. Bryant|title=Krishna: A Sourcebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2n4VDAAAQBAJ |year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199724314|pages=313–314}}</ref> Popularized by [[Adi Shankara]], many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the [[Gupta Empire]] period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometres from [[Ajmer]]) has been dated to belong to the [[Kushan Empire]] era (pre-300 CE).{{sfn|Williams|1981|pp=1–4}} The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.{{sfn|Williams|1981|pp=1–4}}

=== Yoga ===
Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of [[Yogi]]s, and the teacher of [[Yoga]] to sages.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=[https://archive.org/details/manifestationsof00kram/page/22 22]}} As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme [[guru]] who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self (''atman'') with the ultimate reality (''Brahman'')."{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=[https://archive.org/details/manifestationsof00kram/page/23 23] }} Shiva is also an archetype for ''samhara'' ({{langx|sa|संहार}}) or ''dissolution'' which includes transcendence of human misery by the dissolution of ''[[Maya (religion)|maya]]'', which is why Shiva is associated with [[Yoga]].<ref name="inv07">{{cite book|first1=Krishnan|last1=Ramaswamy|first2=Antonio|last2=de Nicolas|first3=Aditi|last3=Banerjee|title=Invading the Sacred|page=59|isbn=978-8129111821|publisher=Rupa Publication|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/samhara|title=Samhara, Saṃhāra: 18 definitions|date=3 August 2014|access-date=12 August 2021|archive-date=12 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812235650/https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/samhara|url-status=live}}</ref> 
[[File:Sivan Isha.jpg|thumb|Adiyogi Shiva (the first Yogi) statue in Coimbatore]]
The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts.<ref name=shivayoga1 /><ref name=shivayoga2 /> These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the ''Isvara Gita'' (literally, 'Shiva's song'), which [[Andrew J. Nicholson|Andrew Nicholson]] – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".<ref>{{cite book|author=Andrew J. Nicholson|title=Lord Siva's Song: The Isvara Gita|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IAEvAwAAQBAJ|year=2014| publisher= State University of New York Press|isbn= 978-1438451022|pages= 1–2}}</ref>

Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced [[Hatha Yoga]], integrated monistic (''Advaita Vedanta'') ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of [[Indian classical dance]]. These include the ''Shiva Sutras'', the ''Shiva Samhita'', and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar [[Abhinavagupta]].<ref name=shivayoga1>[a] {{cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=Śiva Sūtras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j4SOIISR9PUC|year=1979|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120804074|pages=xv–xx}};<br />[b] {{cite book|author=James Mallinson|title=The Shiva Samhita: A Critical Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlQRnDOr178C|year=2007|publisher=Yoga|oclc= 76143968 |isbn=978-0971646650|pages=xiii–xiv}}</ref><ref name=shivayoga2>[a] {{cite book|author=Jaideva Vasugupta|title=The Yoga of Delight, Wonder, and Astonishment: A Translation of the Vijnana-bhairava with an Introduction and Notes by Jaideva Singh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVc5JCnO1VgC|year=1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791410738|pages=xii–xvi}};<br />[b] {{cite book|author1=Vasugupta|author2=Jaideva|title=The Yoga of Vibration and Divine Pulsation: A Translation of the Spanda Karika with Ksemaraja's Commentary, the Spanda Nirnaya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQwtCrGERjkC |year=1980|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791411797|pages=xxv–xxxii, 2–4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=David Smith|title=The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fTLlcGlkdjkC&pg=PA237 |year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521528658|pages=237–239}}</ref> Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jaideva Vasugupta|author2=Mark S. G. Dyczkowski|title=The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara's Commentary, the Varttika|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-n4ulAsdIC|year=1992|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791412640|pages=7–8}}</ref>

=== Trimurti ===
{{Main|Trimurti}}
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of [[Brahma]] the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer.<ref>For quotation defining the Trimurti see Matchett, Freda. "The {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Purāṇas}}", in: {{harvnb|Flood|2003|p=139}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ralph Metzner|title=Opening to Inner Light: The Transformation of Human Nature and Consciousness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ke0RAQAAIAAJ|year=1986|publisher=J.P. Tarcher|isbn=978-0874773538|page=61}};<br />{{cite book|author=David Frawley|title=Inner Tantric Yoga: Working with the Universal Shakti: Secrets of Mantras, Deities and Meditation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T6Vp_rTWkAAC&pg=PA25|year=2009|publisher=Lotus|isbn=978-0940676503|page=25}}</ref> These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"<ref>For definition of Trimurti as "the unified form" of Brahmā, {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Viṣṇu}} and Śiva and use of the phrase "the Hindu triad" see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=485}}.</ref> or the "Great Triple deity".<ref>For the term "Great Trinity" in relation to the Trimurti see: {{harvnb|Jansen|1993|p=83}}.</ref> However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.<ref>The Trimurti idea of Hinduism, states [[Jan Gonda]], "seems to have developed from ancient cosmological and ritualistic speculations about the triple character of an individual god, in the first place of ''Agni'', whose births are three or threefold, and who is threefold light, has three bodies and three stations". See: {{harvnb|Gonda|1969|pp=218–219}}; Other trinities, beyond the more common "Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva", mentioned in ancient and medieval Hindu texts include: "Indra, Vishnu, Brahmanaspati", "Agni, Indra, Surya", "Agni, Vayu, Aditya", "Mahalakshmi, Mahasarasvati, and Mahakali", and others. See: [a] David White (2006), Kiss of the Yogini, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226894843}}, pp. 4, 29<br />[b] {{harvnb|Gonda|1969}}</ref>

== Attributes ==
[[File:6 Śiva and Pārvatī seated on a terrace. 1800 (circa) BM.jpg|thumb|Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the [[Ganges]] flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a [[Mundamala|skull garland]], covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin.]]
[[File:Indian - Festival Image of Shiva - Walters 543084.jpg|thumb|A seated Shiva holds an axe and deer in his hands.]]
[[File:Siva With Moustache From Archaeological Museum GOA IMG 20141222 122455775.jpg|thumb|Siva with Moustache from Archaeological Museum GOA.]]Shiva is traditionally represented with distinctive attributes and symbols:
* '''Third eye''': Shiva is often depicted with a [[third eye]], with which he burned Desire ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[Kamadeva|Kāma]]}}) to ashes,<ref>For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=151}}.</ref> called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|त्र्यम्बकम्}}), which occurs in many scriptural sources.<ref>For a review of 4 theories about the meaning of ''tryambaka'', see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=37–39}}.</ref>
* '''Crescent moon''': Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.<ref>For the moon on the forehead see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=109}}.</ref> The epithet {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Candraśekhara}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|चन्द्रशेखर}} "Having the moon as his crest" – ''[[chandra|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|candra}}]]'' = "moon"; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śekhara}}'' = "crest, crown")<ref>For ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śekhara}}'' as crest or crown, see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=926}}.</ref><ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Candraśekhara}} as an iconographic form, see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976a|p=56}}.</ref><ref>For translation "Having the moon as his crest" see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=472}}.</ref> refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.<ref>For the moon iconography as marking the rise of Rudra-Shiva, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=58}}.</ref> The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.<ref>For discussion of the linkages between Soma, Moon, and Rudra, and citation to RV 7.74, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=57–58}}.</ref>
* '''Ashes''': Shiva iconography shows his body covered with ashes (bhasma, [[vibhuti]]).{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}<ref>This smearing of cremation ashes emerged into a practice of some Tantra-oriented ascetics, where they would also offer meat, alcohol and sexual fluids to Bhairava (a form of Shiva), and these groups were probably not of [[Brahmanism|Brahmanic]] origin. These ascetics are mentioned in the ancient Pali Canon of Thervada Buddhism. See: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=92, 161}}</ref> The ashes represent a reminder that all of material existence is impermanent, comes to an end becoming ash, and the pursuit of eternal Self and spiritual liberation is important.<ref>Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004178960}}, pp. 182–183</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Deussen|title=Sechzig Upaniṣad's des Veda|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC|year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-8120814677|pages=775–776, 789–790, 551|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131653/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Matted hair''': Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Jaṭin}}, "the one with matted hair",{{sfn|Chidbhavananda|1997|p=22}} and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"<ref>For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=279}}.</ref> or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".<ref>{{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=475}}.</ref> A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.<ref>For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, {{harvnb|Macdonell|1996|p=62}}.</ref>
* '''Blue throat''': The epithet {{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī|Nīlakaṇtha]]}} (Sanskrit {{lang|sa|नीलकण्ठ}}; ''nīla'' = "blue", ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|kaṇtha}}'' = "throat").<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=290}}</ref><ref>See: name #93 in {{harvnb|Chidbhavananda|1997|p=31}}.</ref> Since Shiva drank the [[Halahala]] poison churned up from the [[Samudra manthan|Samudra Manthana]] to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Parvati squeezed his neck and stopped it in his neck to prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.<ref>For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=78}}</ref>{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=473}}
* '''Meditating yogi''': Shiva is often shown in a [[Yoga]] pose, meditating, sometimes seated on [[Mount Kailash]] as the Lord of Yoga.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}
* '''Sacred Ganga''': The epithet ''Gangadhara'', "Bearer of the river [[Ganga]]" (Ganges). The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva.<ref>For alternate stories about this feature, and use of the name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṅgādhara}} see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=59 and 109}}.</ref><ref>For description of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṅgādhara}} form, see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976a|p=8}}.</ref> The ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṅgā}}'' (Ganga), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.<ref>For Shiva supporting {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṅgā}} upon his head, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=473}}.</ref>
* '''Tiger skin''': Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}
* '''Vasuki''': Shiva is often shown garlanded with the serpent [[Vasuki]]. Vasuki is the second [[Nagaraja|king of the nāgas]] (the first being [[Vishnu]]'s mount, [[Shesha]]). According to a legend, Vasuki was blessed by Shiva and worn by him as an ornament after the [[Samudra Manthana]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}}
* '''Trident''': Shiva typically carries a [[trident]] called ''[[Trishula]]''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} The trident is a weapon or a symbol in different Hindu texts.{{sfn | Wayman | Singh | 1991 | p=266}} As a symbol, the ''Trishul'' represents Shiva's three aspects of "creator, preserver and destroyer",{{sfn|Suresh Chandra|1998|p=309}} or alternatively it represents the equilibrium of three ''[[guṇa]]s'' of ''[[sattva]]'', ''[[rajas]]'' and ''[[tamas (philosophy)|tamas]]''.{{sfn|Sitansu S. Chakravarti|1991|p=51}}
* '''Drum''': A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a ''[[damaru]]''.{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=218}}<ref>For definition and shape, see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=461}}.</ref> This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation{{sfn|Jansen|1993|p=44}} known as [[Nataraja]]. A specific hand gesture ([[mudra]]) called ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|ḍamaru-hasta}}'' (Sanskrit for "{{transliteration|sa|ISO|ḍamaru}}-hand") is used to hold the drum.{{sfn|Jansen|1993|p=25}}
* '''Axe''' (''[[Parashu]]'') and '''Deer''' are held in Shiva's hands in Odisha & south Indian icons.<ref>{{Cite book|title=South Indian Bronzes|last=C. Sivaramamurti|publisher=Lalit Kalā Akademi|year=1963|page=41}}</ref>
* '''Rosary beads''': he is garlanded with or carries a string of rosary beads in his right hand, typically made of ''[[Rudraksha]]''.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}} This symbolises grace, mendicant life and meditation.<ref>{{cite book|author=John A. Grimes|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qcoUFYOX0bEC&pg=PA257 |year=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791430675|page=257}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Prabhavati C. Reddy|title=Hindu Pilgrimage: Shifting Patterns of Worldview of Srisailam in South India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkUsAwAAQBAJ |year=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317806318|pages=114–115}}</ref>
* '''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nandī}}:''' [[Nandi (bull)|Nandī]], (Sanskrit: [[wikt:नन्दिन्|नन्दिन्]] (nandin)), is the name of the [[Bull (mythology)|bull]] that serves as Shiva's mount.<ref>For a review of issues related to the evolution of the bull (Nandin) as Shiva's mount, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=99–105}}.</ref><ref>For spelling of alternate proper names {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Nandī}} and Nandin see: {{harvnb|Stutley|1985|p=98}}.</ref> Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Paśupati}}, or [[Pashupati]] (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"<ref>{{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=291}}</ref> and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=479}}
* '''Mount {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kailāsa}}:''' [[Kailasa]] in the [[Himalayas]] is his traditional abode.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=151}}<ref>For the name ''Kailāsagirivāsī'' (''Sanskrit'' कैलासिगिरवासी), "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa", as a name appearing in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=281}}.</ref> In Hindu mythology, Mount {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kailāsa}} is conceived as resembling a ''[[Linga]]'', representing the center of the universe.<ref>For identification of Mount {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kailāsa}} as the central ''linga'', see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Stutley|1985}}, p. 62.</ref>
* '''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṇa}}:''' The [[Gana|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Gaṇa}}s]] are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. His son [[Ganesha]] was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|gaṇa-īśa}}'' or ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|gaṇa-pati}}'', "lord of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|gaṇas}}".<ref>[[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend]] ({{ISBN|0500510881}}) by Anna L. Dallapiccola</ref>
* '''Varanasi:''' [[Varanasi]] (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=33}}

== Forms and depictions ==
Shiva is often depicted as embodying attributes of ambiguity and paradox. His depictions are marked by the opposing themes including fierceness and innocence. This duality can be seen in the diverse epithets attributed to him and the rich tapestry of narratives that delineate his persona within Hindu mythology.<ref>For quotation "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=150}}</ref> 

=== Destroyer and Benefactor ===
{{multiple image
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| image2            = Shiva meditating Rishikesh.jpg
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| footer            = Shiva is represented in many aspects.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Michell|title=The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC|year=1977|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0226532301|pages=25–26|access-date=6 October 2016|archive-date=13 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813201531/https://books.google.com/books?id=ajgImLs62gwC|url-status=live}}</ref> Left: [[Bhairava]], the fierce form of Shiva, 16th century Nepal; Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in [[Rishikesh]].
}}

In [[Yajurveda]], two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|rudra}}'') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|śiva}}'') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here".<ref>For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later sect forms, see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Chakravarti|1986}}, p. 7.</ref> In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honour, delight, and brilliance.<ref>For summary of Shiva's contrasting depictions in the Mahabharata, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1988|pp=20–21}}.</ref>

The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name ''Rudra'' is derived from the root ''rud-'', which means "to cry, howl".<ref>For ''rud-'' meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramrisch|1981|p=5}}.</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]] notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form ''raudra'', which means "wild, of ''rudra'' nature", and translates the name ''[[Rudra]]'' as "the wild one" or "the fierce god".<ref>Citation to M. Mayrhofer, ''Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "rudra", is provided in: {{Harvard citation no brackets|Kramrisch|1981}}, p. 5.</ref> R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=301}} Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the ''[[Shiva Sahasranama|Shiva sahasranama]]'', where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=314}} Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=473}} Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāla}} "time" and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Mahākāla}} "great time", which ultimately destroys all things.{{sfnm|Kramrisch|1994a|1p=476|Kramrisch|1981|2p=474}} The name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Kāla}} appears in the ''Shiva Sahasranama'', where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time".{{sfn|Sharma|1996|p=280}} [[Bhairava]] "terrible" or "frightful"{{sfn|Apte|1965|p=727|loc=left column}} is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śaṇkara}}, "beneficent"{{Sfn|Sharma| 1996| p=306}} or "conferring happiness"{{sfn|Kramrisch|1981|p=481}} reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great [[Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] ({{Circa|788|820}}),{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=92}} who is also known as Shankaracharya.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}} The name {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śambhu}} (Sanskrit: {{lang|sa|शम्भु}} swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=476}}{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986| pp= 28 (note 7), and p. 177}}

=== Ascetic and householder ===
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| image2            = The Holy Family, Shiva, Parvati, with their sons Ganesha and Karttikeya, National Museum, New Delhi (cropped2).jpg
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| footer            = Shiva is depicted both as an ascetic mendicant (left as [[Bhikshatana]]) and as a householder with his wife Parvati and sons Ganesha and Kartikeya (right).
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Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic [[yogi]] and as a householder ([[grihasta]]), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.<ref>For the contrast between ascetic and householder depictions, see: {{harvnb|Flood|1996|pp=150–151}}</ref> When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating.<ref>For Shiva's representation as a yogi, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=32}}.</ref> His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Mahā}}'' = "great", ''Yogi'' = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga.<ref>For name Mahāyogi and associations with yoga, see, {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|pp=23, 32, 150}}.</ref> While [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the [[Indian epic poetry|Epic period]] that the concepts of [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]], yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.<ref>For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=32}}.</ref>

As a family man and householder, he has a wife, [[Parvati]], and two sons, [[Ganesha]] and [[Kartikeya]]. His epithet {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umāpati}} ("The husband of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umā}}") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umākānta}} and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umādhava}}, also appear in the ''sahasranama''.<ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umāpati}}, {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umākānta}} and {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umādhava}} as names in the Shiva Sahasranama literature, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=278}}.</ref> {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umā}} in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Pārvatī}}.<ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Umā}} as the oldest name, and variants including {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Pārvatī}}, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=40}}.</ref><ref>For {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Pārvatī}} identified as the wife of Shiva, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=479}}</ref> She is identified with [[Devi]], the Divine Mother; [[Shakti]] (divine energy) as well as goddesses like [[Tripura Sundari]], [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Kamakshi]] and [[Minakshi]]. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe.<ref name="Search for Meaning">Search for Meaning By Antonio R. Gualtieri</ref> His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout [[India]] and [[Nepal]] as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in [[South India|Southern India]] (especially in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Kerala]] and [[Karnataka]]) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in [[North India|Northern India]] by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.<ref>For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: {{harvnb|Gupta|1988|loc=''Preface''}}.</ref>

Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of [[Mohini]], Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, [[Shasta (deity)|Shasta]] – identified with regional deities [[Ayyappan]] and [[Aiyanar]] – is born.<ref>{{cite book|last=Doniger|first=Wendy|title=Splitting the difference: gender and myth in ancient Greece and India|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=London|year=1999|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&q=mohini+Vishnu&pg=PA263|pages=263–265|isbn=978-0226156415|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131654/https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ8qfQbEJB4C&q=mohini+Vishnu&pg=PA263|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Vanita69>{{cite book |title= Same-sex love in India: readings from literature and history|last= Vanita|first= Ruth |author2=Kidwai, Saleem  |year= 2001|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0312293246|page = 69}}</ref><ref name="P71">{{cite book|title= The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore|last= Pattanaik|first= Devdutt|year= 2001|publisher= Routledge|isbn= 978-1560231813|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&q=mohini&pg=PA71|page= 71|access-date= 7 November 2020|archive-date= 31 March 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131655/https://books.google.com/books?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&q=mohini&pg=PA71|url-status= live}}</ref><ref>See [[Mohini#Relationship with Shiva]] for details</ref> In outskirts of Ernakulam in [[Kerala]], a deity named [[Vishnumaya]] is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese" style rituals, states Saletore.<ref name=Saletore>{{cite book|author=RN Saletore|title=Indian Witchcraft|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ETz3_bv8t0cC&pg=PA93 |year=1981| publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0391024809|pages=93}}</ref> In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess [[Manasa]] and [[Ashokasundari]].{{sfn|McDaniel|2004|p=[https://archive.org/details/offeringflowersf00mcda/page/n166 156]}}<ref name="mani">{{cite book |title = Puranic Encyclopaedia: a Comprehensive Dictionary with Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature |url = https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publishers |year = 1975| isbn = 978-0842608220 | author = Vettam Mani|pages= [https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00maniuoft/page/62 62], 515–516}}</ref> According to Doniger, two regional stories depict demons [[Andhaka]] and [[Jalandhara]] as the children of Shiva who war with him, and are later destroyed by Shiva.<ref name=doniger1>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger|title=The Bedtrick: Tales of Sex and Masquerade|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KfA9ByNVjZ8C&pg=PA72 |year=2005|publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0226156439|pages=72, 206}}</ref>

=== Iconographic forms ===
[[File:Shiva as the Lord of Dance LACMA edit.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Chola dynasty]] statue depicting Shiva dancing as [[Nataraja]] ([[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]])]]
The depiction of Shiva as [[Nataraja]] ([[Sanskrit]] नटराज; ''Naṭarāja'') is a form (''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|mūrti}}'') of Shiva as "Lord of Dance".<ref>For description of the nataraja form see: {{harvnb|Jansen|1993|pp=110–111}}.</ref><ref>For interpretation of the ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|naṭarāja}}'' form see: {{harvnb|Zimmer|1972|pp=151–157}}.</ref> The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.<ref>For names Nartaka (''Sanskrit'' नर्तक) and Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) as names of Shiva, see: {{Harvnb|Sharma|1996|p=289}}.</ref> His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the [[Puranas|Puranic]] period.<ref>For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=62}}.</ref> In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|nṛtyamūrti}}'') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.<ref>For popularity of the ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|nṛtyamūrti}}'' and prevalence in South India, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=63}}.</ref> The two most common forms of the dance are the [[Tandava]], which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava,{{sfnm|Kramrisch|1994a|1p=439|Klostermaier|1984|2p=151|2loc=''Shiva the Dancer''}} and [[Lasya]], which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.<ref>{{cite book|last=Massey|first=Reginald |title=India's Kathak Dance, Past Present, Future|publisher=Abhinav Publications|page=8|chapter=India's Kathak Dance}}</ref><ref name="VMoorthy">{{cite book|last=Moorthy|first=Vijaya |title=Romance of the Raga|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=2001|page=96}}</ref> ''Lasya'' is regarded as the female counterpart of ''Tandava''.<ref name="VMoorthy" /> The ''Tandava''-''Lasya'' dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Leeming|first=David Adams |title=A Dictionary of Asian Mythology|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2001|page=45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Radha|first=Sivananda |title=Kuṇḍalinī Yoga|publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]]|year=1992|page=304|chapter=Mantra of Muladhara Chakra}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123213949/http://vedabase.net/sb/1/2/23/en|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 November 2010|title=Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 1 Chapter 2 Verse 23|date=23 November 2010}}</ref>

[[Dakshinamurthy|Dakshinamurti]] ([[Sanskrit]] दक्षिणामूर्ति; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, "[facing] south form")''<ref>For iconographic description of the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} form, see: {{harvnb|Sivaramamurti|1976a|p=47}}.</ref> represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the ''shastras''.<ref>For description of the form as representing teaching functions, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=472}}.</ref> Dakshinamurti is depicted as a figure seated upon a deer-throne surrounded by sages receiving instruction.<ref>For the deer-throne and the audience of sages as {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}}, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=155}}.</ref> Dakshinamurti's depiction in Indian art is mostly restricted to Tamil Nadu.<ref>For characterization of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Dakṣiṇāmūrti}} as a mostly south Indian form, see: {{harvnb|Chakravarti|1986|p=62}}.</ref>

[[Bhikshatana]] ([[Sanskrit]] भिक्षाटन; ''Bhikṣāṭana'', "wandering about for alms, mendicancy"<ref>{{cite book |last=Monier-Williams |first=Monier |title=Sanskrit-English Dictionary |publisher=Universität zu Köln |year=2008 |orig-year=1899 |page=756}}</ref>) depicts Shiva as a divine medicant. He is depicted as a nude four-armed man adorned with ornaments who holds a begging bowl in his hand and is followed by demonic attendants. He is associated with his penance for committing brahmicide as Bhirava and with his encounters with the sages and their wives in the Deodar forest.

[[Tripurantaka]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] त्रिपुरांतक; ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tripurāntaka}}'', "ender of Tripura"{{sfn|Sivaramamurti|1976a|pp=34, 49}})  is associated with his destruction of the three cities ([[Tripura (mythology)|Tripura]]) of the [[Asura]]s.<ref>For evolution of this story from early sources to the epic period, when it was used to enhance Shiva's increasing influence, see: Chakravarti, p. 46.</ref> He is depicted with four arms, the upper pair holding an axe and a deer, and the lower pair wielding a bow and arrow. 

[[Ardhanarishvara]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: अर्धनारीश्वर; ''Ardhanārīśvara'', "the lord who is half woman"<ref>Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). {{harvp|Goldberg|2002|p=1}}.</ref>) is conjunct form of Shiva with Parvati. Adhanarishvara is depicted with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. Ardhanarishvara represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe (Purusha and Prakriti) and illustrates how [[Shakti]], the female principle of God, is inseparable from (or the same as, according to some interpretations) Shiva, the male principle of God, and vice versa.<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Ardhanārīśvara |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online  |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33339/Ardhanarisvara |access-date=26 January 2011 |archive-date=8 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110308210926/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33339/Ardhanarisvara |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Kalyanasundara]]-murti (Sanskrit कल्याणसुन्दर-मूर्ति, literally "icon of beautiful marriage") is the depiction of Shiva's marriage to Parvati. The divine couple are often depicted performing the ''[[Hindu wedding#Panigrahana|panigrahana]]'' (Sanskrit "accepting the hand") ritual from traditional Hindu wedding ceremonies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rao, (1916). Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. 2: Part I. Madras: Law Printing House |first=T.A. Gopinatha |title=Elements of Hindu Iconography. Vol. 2: Part I |publisher=Law Printing House |year=1916 |location=Madras |pages=338–343}}</ref> The most basic form of this ''murti'' consists of only Shiva and Parvati together, but in more elaborate forms they are accompanied by other persons, sometimes including Parvati's parents, as well as deities (often with Vishnu and Lakshmi standing as Parvati's parents, Brahma as the officiating priest, and various other deities as attendants or guests).

[[Somaskanda]] is the depiction of Shiva, Parvati, and their son Skanda ([[Kartikeya]]), popular during the [[Pallava dynasty|Pallava]] Dynasty in southern India.

[[Astamurti]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: अष्टमूर्ति) is an iconographic depiction of Shiva as composed of eight attributes: Rudra, Śarva, Paśupati, Ugra, Aśani, Bhava, Mahādeva, and Īśāna—some of which overlap with Pañcānana, described below.

[[Pañcānana]] ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: पञ्चानन), also called the ''pañcabrahma'', is a form of Shiva depicting him as having five faces which correspond to his five divine activities (''pañcakṛtya''): creation (''sṛṣṭi''), preservation (''sthithi''), destruction (''saṃhāra''), concealing grace (''tirobhāva''), and revealing grace (''anugraha''). Five is a sacred number for Shiva.<ref>For five as a sacred number, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref> One of his most important mantras has five syllables ({{transliteration|sa|ISO|namaḥ śivāya}}).<ref>It is first encountered in an almost identical form in the Rudram. For the five syllable mantra see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref>
[[File:10th century five headed Shiva Sadashiva Cambodia Metmuseum.jpg|thumb|The 10th century five headed Shiva, Sadashiva, Cambodia]]
{| border="0pt"
||
* [[Sadyojata|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Sadyojāta}}]]
* [[Vamadeva|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Vāmadeva}}]]
* [[Bhairava|Aghora]]
* [[Tatpuruṣa|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Tatpuruṣa}}]]
* [[Ishana|{{transliteration|sa|ISO|Īsāna}}]]
|}
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the {{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcabrahman]]}}.<ref>For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|pp=182–189}}.</ref> As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:<ref>For distinct iconography, see {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=185}}.</ref> These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.<ref>For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref><ref>For the epithets ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcamukha]]}}'' and ''{{transliteration|sa|ISO|[[pañcavaktra]]}}'', both of which mean "five faces", as epithets of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}}, see: {{harvnb|Apte|1965|p=578}}, middle column.</ref> Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.<ref>For variation in attributions among texts, see: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=187}}.</ref> The overall meaning of these associations is summarised by Stella Kramrisch,
{{blockquote|Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=184}}}}

According to the ''[[Pañcabrahma Upanishad]]'':

{{blockquote|One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of {{transliteration|sa|ISO|Śiva}} is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31)<ref>Quotation from ''Pañcabrahma Upanishad'' 31 is from: {{harvnb|Kramrisch|1981|p=182}}.</ref>}}

In the hymn of [[Manikkavacakar]]'s [[Thiruvasagam]], he testifies that [[Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram]] had, by the pre-[[Chola]] period, an abstract or 'cosmic' symbolism linked to [[Pancha Bhoota|five elements (Pancha Bhoota)]] including ether.{{sfn|Srinivasan|2004|p=446}} Nataraja is a significant visual interpretation of [[Brahman]] and a dance posture of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book |author=James C. Harle |title=The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl |url-access=registration |year=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300062175 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/309 309]–310}}</ref> [[Sharada Srinivasan]] notes that, [[Nataraja]] is described as [[Satcitananda]] or "Being, Consciousness and Bliss" in the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] text ''Kunchitangrim Bhaje'', resembling the [[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita doctrine]], or "abstract monism," of [[Adi Shankara]], "which holds the individual Self ([[Jiva|Jīvātman]]) and supream Self ([[Paramatman|Paramātmā]]) to be one," while "an earlier hymn to Nataraja by Manikkavachakar identifies him with the unitary supreme consciousness, by using Tamil word '''Or Unarve''', rather than [[Sanskrit]] '''Chit'''." This may point to an "osmosis" of ideas in [[medieval India]], states Srinivasan.{{sfn|Srinivasan|2004|pp=447}}<!-- Major other forms list needed: Other forms include [[Virabhadra]] and [[Sharabha]]. -->

[[File:Shiv lingam Tripundra.jpg|thumb|232x232px|[[Lingam|Shiva Lingam]] with [[tripundra]]]]

=== Lingam ===
{{Main|Lingam}}The ''Linga Purana'' states, "Shiva is signless, without color, taste, smell, that is beyond word or touch, without quality, motionless and changeless".<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/> The source of the universe is the signless, and all of the universe is the manifested Linga, a union of unchanging Principles and the ever changing nature.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/> The ''Linga Purana'' and the ''[[Ishvara Gita|Shiva Gita]]'' texts builds on this foundation.{{Sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|pp=171–185}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Anantharaman|last=K.V|title=Siva Gita A Critical Study|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/295754|chapter=Chapter X – Omnipotence of Siva Linga|hdl=10603/295754|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=30 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230125037/https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/295754|url-status=live}}</ref> Linga, states [[Alain Daniélou]], means sign.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222">{{cite book|author=Alain Daniélou|title=The Myths and Gods of India |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani|url-access=registration|series=Princeton Bollingen Series|year=1991|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=978-0892813544|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani/page/222 222]–224}}</ref> It is an important concept in Hindu texts, wherein Linga is a manifested sign and nature of someone or something. It accompanies the concept of [[Brahman]], which as invisible signless and existent Principle, is formless or linga-less.<ref name="Daniélou1991p222"/>

The ''[[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]]'' states one of the three significations, the primary one, of ''Lingam'' as "[[Purusha|the imperishable Purusha]]", [[Brahman|the absolute reality]], where says the ''linga'' as "sign", a mark that provides the existence of [[Brahman]], thus the original meaning as "sign".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=221}} Furthermore, it says "Shiva, the Supreme Lord, has no liūga", ''liuga'' ({{langx|sa|लिऊग}} {{IAST3|liūga}}) meaning Shiva is transcendent, beyond any characteristic and, specifically the sign of gender.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=221}}

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam.{{sfnm|1a1=Michaels|1y=2004|1p=216|2a1=Flood|2y=1996|2p=29|3a1=Tattwananda|3y=1984|3pp=49–52}} These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the ''yoni'', symbolism for the goddess Shakti.<ref name=britannicalingam>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam Lingam: Hindu symbol] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011224444/https://www.britannica.com/topic/lingam |date=11 October 2016 }} Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> In Shiva temples, the ''linga'' is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice.<ref name=britannicalingam /> According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, ''linga'' literally means 'mark, sign or emblem', and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolised by Shiva.<ref>Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit to English Dictionary, लिङ्ग, p. 901</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Yudit Kornberg Greenberg|title=Encyclopedia of Love in World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nGoag6b3JvYC&pg=PA572 |year=2008|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1851099801|pages=572–573}}</ref>

Some scholars, such as [[Wendy Doniger]], view ''linga'' as merely a phallic symbol,<ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=Śiva, the erotic ascetic|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1981|isbn=0195202503|location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=On Hinduism|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0199360079|location=Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger|title=The Hindus: An Alternative History|publisher=Viking Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0143116691|location=United States}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rohit Dasgupta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHytBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107|title=Cultural Encyclopedia of the Penis|date=2014|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0759123144|editor1=Michael Kimmel|page=107|editor2=Christine Milrod|editor3=Amanda Kennedy|access-date=14 July 2021|archive-date=19 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019091517/https://books.google.com/books?id=bHytBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> although this interpretation is criticised by others, including [[Swami Vivekananda]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amiya P.|title=The Indispensable Vivekananda|publisher=Orient Blackswan|year=2006|pages=25–26|chapter=Editor's Introduction}}</ref> [[Sivananda Saraswati]],<ref name="Sivananda 1996">{{cite book|last=Sivananda|first=Swami|title=Lord Siva and His Worship|publisher=The Divine Life Trust Society|year=1996|chapter=Worship of Siva Linga|chapter-url=http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80|access-date=18 January 2009|archive-date=18 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218010322/http://www.dlshq.org/download/lordsiva.htm#_VPID_80|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Stella Kramrisch]],{{sfn|p=26|Kramrisch|1994a}} [[Swami Agehananda Bharati]],<ref name="abha70">{{cite book|title=The Tantric Tradition|author=Swami Agehananda Bharati|year=1970|isbn=0877282536|publisher=Red Wheel/Weiser|page=294}}</ref> [[S. N. Balagangadhara]],<ref name="Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout 118–143">{{cite journal|last1=Balagangadhara |first1=S. N. |last2=Claerhout |first2=Sarah |date=Spring 2008|title=Are Dialogues Antidotes to Violence? Two Recent Examples From Hinduism Studies|url=http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies|volume=7|issue=19|pages=118–143|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820023251/http://www.jsri.ro/new/?download=19_balagangadhara_claerhout.pdf|archive-date=20 August 2009|access-date=18 January 2009}}</ref> and others.<ref name="Balagangadhara, S.N., Sarah Claerhout 118–143"/><ref name="acahin">{{cite book|isbn=978-9385485015|author=Rajiv Malhotra|title=Academic Hinduphobia: A critique of Wendy Doniger's erotic school of Indology|year=2016|publisher=Voice of India}}</ref><ref name="inreinter">{{cite book|title=Invading the Sacred: An Analysis of Hinduism Studies in America|publisher=Rupa & Co.|date=2007|isbn=978-8129111821|chapter=The Hindu Goddess Reinterpreted}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0412/features/|author=Amy M. Braverman|year=2004|publisher=University of Chicago|title=The interpretation of gods|access-date=19 July 2021|archive-date=10 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410205947/http://magazine.uchicago.edu/0412/features/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Moriz Winternitz]], the ''linga'' in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.<ref>{{cite book|last=Winternitz|first=Moriz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543|title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1|author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1981|isbn=978-8120802643|page=543 footnote 4|access-date=8 June 2020|archive-date=19 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019091516/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[Sivananda Saraswati]], westerners who are curiously passionate and have impure understanding or intelligence, incorrectly assume Siva Linga as a phallus or sex organ.<ref name="Sivananda 1996"/> Later on, [[Sivananda Saraswati]] mentions that, this is not only a serious mistake, but also a grave blunder.<ref name="Sivananda 1996"/>

The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the ''Atharva-Veda Samhitâ'' sung in praise of the ''Yupa-Stambha'', the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless ''[[Stambha]]'' or ''Skambha'', and it is shown that the said ''Skambha'' is put in place of the eternal [[Brahman]]. Just as the [[Yajna]] (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the ''Soma'' plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic sacrifice]] gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the ''Yupa-Skambha'' gave place in time to the ''Shiva-Linga''.<ref name="E.U.Harding">{{cite book  | last = Harding  | first = Elizabeth U.  | title = Kali: The Black Goddess of Dakshineswar  | chapter = God, the Father  | publisher = Motilal Banarsidass  | year = 1998  | pages = 156–157  | isbn = 978-8120814509}}</ref><ref name="paris_congress">{{cite book  | last = Vivekananda  | first = Swami  | title = The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda  | chapter = The Paris congress of the history of religions  | chapter-url = http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm  | volume = 4  | access-date = 17 January 2009 | archive-date = 24 February 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162216/http://www.ramakrishnavivekananda.info/vivekananda/volume_4/translation_prose/the_paris_congress.htm  | url-status = live  }}</ref> In the text ''Linga Purana'', the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.<ref name="paris_congress" />

The oldest known archaeological ''linga'' as an icon of Shiva is the [[Gudimallam Lingam|Gudimallam lingam]] from 3rd-century BCE.<ref name=britannicalingam /> In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called [[Jyotirlinga]], which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.<ref>{{cite book|author=Swati Mitra|title=Omkareshwar and Maheshwar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_0RpUoGiou4C&pg=PA25|year=2011|publisher=Eicher Goodearth and Madhya Pradesh Government|isbn=978-9380262246|page=25}}</ref>

=== Avatars ===
[[Puranas|Puranic scriptures]] contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally 'portion, or avatars of Shiva', but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in [[Shaivism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |page= 88 |isbn=0195203615 }}</ref> The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars,<ref>{{cite book| last=Winternitz| first=Moriz| author2=V. Srinivasa Sarma| title=A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| year=1981| pages=543–544| isbn=978-8120802643| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543| access-date=8 June 2020| archive-date=19 October 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019091516/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRfuJFRV_O8C&pg=PA543#v=onepage&q&f=false| url-status=live}}</ref> however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasised concept of Vishnu avatars in [[Vaishnavism]].<ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shiva" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0823922871}}, p. 635</ref>{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=474}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Parrinder| first= Edward Geoffrey |title=Avatar and incarnation |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1982 |pages= 87–88 |isbn=0195203615 }}</ref>
Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its Puranas. For example, in the ''[[Hanuman Chalisa]]'', [[Hanuman]] is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lutgendorf|first=Philip|title=Hanuman's tale: the messages of a divine monkey|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=2007|page=44|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=avatara+Hanuman&pg=PT333|isbn=978-0195309218|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131656/https://books.google.com/books?id=fVFC2Nx-LP8C&q=avatara+Hanuman&pg=PT333#v=snippet&q=avatara%20Hanuman&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Catherine Ludvík|title=Hanumān in the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki and the Rāmacaritamānasa of Tulasī Dāsa|pages=10–11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&q=Hanuman+Rudra&pg=PA10|isbn=978-8120811225|year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331131657/https://books.google.com/books?id=KCXQN0qoAe0C&q=Hanuman+Rudra&pg=PA10#v=snippet&q=Hanuman%20Rudra&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5</ref> The ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and the ''[[Vishnu Purana]]'' claim sage [[Durvasa]] to be a portion of Shiva.<ref name="Footnote 1 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp044.htm#fn_229 | title= Footnote 70:1 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I – Chapter IX | access-date= 17 July 2012 | archive-date= 9 September 2006 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060909124522/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp044.htm#fn_229 | url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="Footnote 2 HH Wilson">{{cite web | url= http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp045.htm#fn_243 | title= Footnote 83:4 to Horace Hayman Wilson's English translation of The Vishnu Purana: Book I – Chapter X | access-date= 17 July 2012 | archive-date= 5 August 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120805200504/http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp045.htm#fn_243 | url-status= live }}</ref><ref name="Bhagavata Purana 4.1">{{cite web | url= http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | title= Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Chapter 1 – English translation by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada | url-status=dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120829232539/http://vedabase.net/sb/4/1/en1 | archive-date= 29 August 2012}}</ref> Some medieval era writers have called the [[Advaita Vedanta]] philosopher [[Adi Shankara]] an incarnation of Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|translator-first=Sengaku |translator-last=Mayeda |title=A Thousand Teachings: The Upadesasahasri of Sankara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8fkLggRFFBwC |year=1979 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0791409435 |page=4}}</ref>

== Temple ==
{{For|list of the temples by nation|List of Shiva temples in India|List of Shiva Temples in Pakistan|label 2=Pakistan}}

== Festivals ==
{{Main|Maha Shivaratri}}

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There is a ''Shivaratri'' in every lunar month on its 13th night/14th day,<ref name="Raj2012p152">{{cite book|author=Karen Pechilis|editor=Selva J. Raj|title=Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h80yOTwlAUcC&pg=PA152 |year=2012|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791482001|pages=152–153}}</ref> but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks ''Maha Shivaratri'' which means "the Great Night of Shiva".{{sfnm|Dalal|2010|1pp=137, 186|2a1=Jones|2a2=Ryan|2y=2006|2p=269}}

Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world,{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=269}} and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind.<ref name="Raj2012p152" /> It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing [[Yoga]] and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva.{{sfnm|1a1=Jones|1a2=Ryan|1y=2006|1p=269|Long|1982|2pp=189–217}} The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to [[Jyotirlingam]] shrines. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|pp=137, 186}} Some communities organise special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cath Senker|title=My Hindu Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lGZ5dWKRw5EC&pg=PA12|year=2007|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1404237315|pages=12–13}}</ref> According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=269}}

Another major festival involving Shiva worship is [[Kartik Purnima]], commemorating [[Tripurantaka|Shiva's victory]] over the three demons known as [[Tripurasura]]. Across India, various Shiva temples are illuminated throughout the night. Shiva icons are carried in procession in some places.<ref>{{cite book|author=Muriel Marion Underhill|title=The Hindu Religious Year|year=1991|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=8120605233| pages=95–96}}</ref>

[[Thiruvathira]] is a festival observed in Kerala dedicated to Shiva. It is believed that on this day, Parvati met Shiva after her long penance and Shiva took her as his wife.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/tubers-are-the-veggies-of-the-day-to-celebrate-thiruvathira-in-kerala/article30522721.ece|title=Tubers are the veggies of choice to celebrate Thiruvathira|access-date=6 March 2020|archive-date=10 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110145431/https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/tubers-are-the-veggies-of-the-day-to-celebrate-thiruvathira-in-kerala/article30522721.ece|url-status=live}}</ref> On this day Hindu women performs the Thiruvathirakali accompanied by Thiruvathira paattu (folk songs about Parvati and her longing and penance for Shiva's affection).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.manoramaonline.com/travel/essential-kerala/thiruvathira-and-its-unique-traditions.html|title=Thiruvathira – Kerala's own version of Karva Chauth|publisher=Manorama|access-date=6 March 2020|archive-date=7 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207112618/http://travel.manoramaonline.com/travel/essential-kerala/thiruvathira-and-its-unique-traditions.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the [[Chithirai festival]] in [[Madurai]] around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of [[Minakshi]] (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|pp=112–113}}

Some Shaktism-related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to [[Annapurna (goddess)|Annapurna]] such as ''Annakuta'' and those related to Durga.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|pp=39, 140}} In [[Himalayas|Himalayan regions]] such as [[Nepal]], as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of [[Teej]] is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honour of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Manju Bhatnagar| title=The Monsoon Festival Teej in Rajasthan| year=1988|volume=47|number=1| jstor=1178252| journal=Asian Folklore Studies|pages=63–72| doi=10.2307/1178252}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Skinner | first1=Debra | last2=Holland | first2=Dorothy | last3=Adhikari | first3=G. B. | title=The Songs of Tij: A Genre of Critical Commentary for Women in Nepal | journal=Asian Folklore Studies | volume=53 | issue=2 | year=1994 | pages=259–305 | doi=10.2307/1178647 | jstor=1178647 }}</ref>

The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became [[Sannyasa#Warrior ascetics|ascetic warriors]] during the Islamic rule period of India,<ref name=david>David N. Lorenzen (1978), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/600151 Warrior Ascetics in Indian History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105162150/https://www.jstor.org/stable/600151 |date=5 November 2020 }}, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 98(1): 61–75</ref><ref name=pinch>William Pinch (2012), Warrior Ascetics and Indian Empires, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-1107406377}}</ref> celebrate the [[Kumbha Mela]] festival.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=301}} This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in [[Prayagraj|Prayaga]] (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers [[Ganges]] and [[Yamuna]]. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors (''Nagas'') get the honour of starting the event by entering the ''Sangam'' first for bathing and prayers.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2006|p=301}}

In [[Pakistan]], major Shivaratri celebration occurs at the [[Umarkot Shiv Mandir]] in the [[Umerkot District|Umarkot]]. The three-day [[Shivarathri]] celebration at the temple is attended by around 250,000 people.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1392074 |title=The thriving Shiva festival in Umarkot is a reminder of Sindh's Hindu heritage |date=27 February 2018 |first1=Zulfiqar Ali |last1=Kalhoro |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] |access-date=5 August 2020 |archive-date=16 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516110256/https://www.dawn.com/news/1392074 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Beyond the Indian subcontinent and Hinduism ==

=== Indonesia ===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Beeld van Shiva Dijeng-plateau TMnr 60037355.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Shiva sculpture, [[Dieng Plateau]] in [[Java]], [[Indonesia]]]]
In [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Indonesian Shaivism]] the popular name for Shiva has been ''[[Batara Guru]]'', which is derived from Sanskrit ''Bhattāraka'' which means "noble lord".{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=16, 123, 494–495, 550–552}} He is conceptualised as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all [[Guru]]s in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=130–131, 550–552}} However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru's wife in [[Southeast Asia]] is the same Hindu deity [[Durga]], who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualised with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.<ref>Hariani Santiko (1997), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1178725 The Goddess Durgā in the East-Javanese Period] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822214426/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1178725 |date=22 August 2018 }}, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 209–226</ref>{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=15–17}} In contrast to Hindu religious texts, whether Vedas or Puranas, in [[wayang|Javanese puppetry (wayang)]] books, Batara Guru is the king of the gods who regulates and creates the world system. In the classic book that is used as a reference for the puppeteers, it is said that Sanghyang Manikmaya or Batara Guru was created from a sparkling light by Sang Hyang Tunggal, along with the blackish light which is the origin of Ismaya.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ensiklopedi wayang Indonesia: A-B |volume=1 |editor=Sena Wangi |publisher=Sekretariat Nasional Pewayangan Indonesia |year=1999 |isbn=9799240018 |language=id |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pN9kAAAAMAAJ |page=259}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IytwAAAAMAAJ |page=525 |title=The British in Java, 1811–1816: a Javanese account |volume=10 |series=Oriental documents |editor=P. B. R. Carey |publisher=Oxford University Press, for British Academy |year=1992 |isbn=0197260624}}</ref> Shiva has been called Sadāśiva, Paramasiva, Mahādeva in benevolent forms, and Kāla, Bhairava, Mahākāla in his fierce forms.{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=15–17}}

The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivite traditions found in the Indian subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=155–157, 462–463}}

During the pre-Islamic period on the island of [[Java]], Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions.{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=160–165}} The medieval-era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu).<ref>J.L. Moens (1974), ''Het Buddhisme Java en Sumatra in Zijn laatste boeiperiods'', T.B.G., pp. 522–539, 550; {{oclc|10404094}}</ref> This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.{{sfn|Ghose|1966|pp=4–6, 14–16, 94–96, 160–161, 253}}

=== Central Asia ===
The worship of Shiva became popular in [[Central Asia]] through the influence of the [[Hephthalite Empire]]<ref name="ReferenceA">P. 377 ''Classical Hinduism'' By Mariasusai Dhavamony</ref> and [[Kushan Empire]]. Shaivism was also popular in [[Sogdia]] and the [[Kingdom of Yutian]] as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.<ref name="ReferenceB">Puri, P. 133 Buddhism in Central Asia</ref> In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread (''Yajnopavita'').<ref name="ReferenceB" /> He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> A panel from [[Dandan Oilik]] shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.<ref name="ReferenceB" /><ref name="unesco427">{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_III%20silk%20road_religions%20and%20religious%20movements%20II.pdf|title=|access-date=29 December 2019|archive-date=28 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028122432/http://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/silkroad/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_III%20silk%20road_religions%20and%20religious%20movements%20II.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Another site in the [[Taklamakan Desert]] depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.<ref name="ReferenceB" /> It is also noted that the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] wind god [[Vayu-Vata]] took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.<ref name="unesco427" />

=== Sikhism ===
The Japuji Sahib of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]] says: "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."<ref>{{cite book|title=Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions|page=377|author=Winfried Corduan|publisher=InterVarsiry Press}}</ref> In the same chapter, it also says: "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen." In [[Dasam Granth]], [[Guru Gobind Singh]] has mentioned two avatars of Rudra: [[Dattatreya]] Avatar and [[Parasnath]] Avatar.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-h8ptzp0lUC&q=chaubis+avtar&pg=PA16|title=Dasam Granth|publisher=Hemkunt Press|isbn=978-8170103257|access-date=7 November 2020|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331132114/https://books.google.com/books?id=8-h8ptzp0lUC&q=chaubis+avtar&pg=PA16#v=snippet&q=chaubis%20avtar&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Buddhism ===
[[File:Tibetan thangka from AD 1500, Mahakala, Protector of the Tent, Central Tibet. Distemper on cloth- (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Mahakala]], {{Circa|1500 CE}} Tibetan Thangka]]
The Siva Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya depicts Shiva as conversing with the Buddha and reciting a gatha.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://suttacentral.net/sn2.21/en/sujato?lang=mn&layout=sidebyside&reference=none&notes=asterisk&highlight=false&script=latin|title=Samyutta-nikāya 221 (Siva Sutta): English translation by Bhikkhu Sujato|website= SuttaCentral|language= en|access-date= 2025-08-15}}</ref>Shiva is mentioned in the [[Buddhist Tantras]] and worshipped as the fierce deity [[Mahākāla]] in [[Vajrayana]], [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism|Chinese Esoteric]], and [[Tibetan Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Bryson |author-first=Megan |year=2017 |chapter=Between China and Tibet: Mahākāla Worship and Esoteric Buddhism in the Dali Kingdom |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mz-9DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA402 |editor1-last=Bentor |editor1-first=Yael |editor2-last=Shahar |editor2-first=Meir |title=Chinese and Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism |location=Leiden and Boston |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Studies on East Asian Religions |volume=1 |pages=402–428 |doi=10.1163/9789004340503_019 |isbn=978-9004340497 |issn=2452-0098 |access-date=8 August 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331132129/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mz-9DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA402#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> In the cosmologies of Buddhist Tantras, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart: Shiva as ''[[Prajñā (Buddhism)|Prajña]]'' and Shakti as ''[[Upaya|Upāya]]''.<ref name="Kalupahana 2001">{{cite book |last=Kalupahana |first=David J. |author-link=David Kalupahana |year=2001 |orig-year=1991 |chapter=Integration of Sūtra and Tantra: Śiva, Śakti interpreted as ''Prajña'', ''Upāya'' |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_FJcRDXhfQC&pg=PA95 |title=Buddhist Thought and Ritual |location=New Delhi |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] |page=95 |isbn=978-8120817739 |oclc=487199178}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aWyaaw9pC0C&pg=PA43 | title=What Is Tantric Practice? | author=Barnaby B. Dhs | page=43 |access-date=13 October 2013| isbn=978-1465330093 | date=2006| publisher=Xlibris Corporation }}</ref>

In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], Shiva is depicted as [[Maheśvara (Buddhism)|Maheshvara]], a deva living in [[Akaniṣṭha|Akanishta Devaloka]]. In [[Theravada Buddhism]], Shiva is depicted as [[Ishana]], a deva residing in the 6th heaven of [[Kamadhatu]] along with [[Sakra (Buddhism)|Sakra Indra]]. In [[Vajrayana Buddhism]], Shiva is depicted as [[Mahakala]], a dharma protecting [[Bodhisattva]]. In most forms of Buddhism, the position of Shiva is lesser than that of [[Mahabrahma]] or [[Sakra (Buddhism)|Sakra Indra]]. In Mahayana Buddhist texts, Shiva (Maheshvara) becomes a buddha called Bhasmeshvara Buddha ("Buddha of ashes").<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davidson |first=Ronald M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nwyeIyWTlEMC |title=Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement |date=18 December 2002 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-50102-6 |page=151 |language=en}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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In [[China]] and [[Taiwan]], Shiva, better known there as [[Maheśvara (Buddhism)|Maheśvara]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 大自在天; [[pinyin]]: Dàzìzàitiān; or [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 摩醯首羅天 [[pinyin]]: Móxīshǒuluótiān) is considered one of the ''[[Twenty-Four Protective Deities|Twenty Devas]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 二十諸天, [[pinyin]]: Èrshí Zhūtiān) or the ''[[Twenty-Four Protective Deities|Twenty-Four Devas]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 二十四諸天, [[pinyin]]: Èrshísì zhūtiān) who are a group of ''[[dharmapala]]s'' that manifest to protect the Buddhist dharma.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms: with Sanskrit and English equivalents and a Sanskrit-Pali index|date=2004|publisher=RoutledgeCurzon|first1=Lewis|last1=Hodous|first2=William Edward|last2=Soothill|isbn=0203641868|location=London|oclc=275253538}}</ref> Statues of him are often enshrined in the [[Mahavira Hall]]s of [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] [[Buddhist temple|temples]] along with the other ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]]''. In [[Kizil Caves]] in [[Xinjiang]], there are numerous caves that depict Shiva in the buddhist shrines through wall paintings.<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Kieschnick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uM8eAgAAQBAJ |title=India in the Chinese Imagination: Myth, Religion, and Thought |author2=Meir Shahar |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-8122-4560-8 |pages=79–80 |access-date=29 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329150333/https://books.google.com/books?id=uM8eAgAAQBAJ |archive-date=29 March 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kumāra |first=Braja Bihārī |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lJI9avHstYC |title=India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods |date=2007 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-8069-457-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Junghee |date=1993 |title=The Origins and Development of the Pensive Bodhisattva Images of Asia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3250524 |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=53 |issue=3/4 |pages=311–357 |doi=10.2307/3250524 |jstor=3250524 |issn=0004-3648|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In addition, he is also regarded as one of thirty-three manifestations of [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokitesvara]] in the [[Lotus Sutra]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Watson, Burton|title=The lotus sutra|date=1999|publisher=Sri Satguru Publications|isbn=8170306337|oclc=247391640}}</ref> In [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhist cosmology]], Maheśvara resides in [[Akaniṣṭha]], highest of the Śuddhāvāsa ("[[Pure Abodes]]") wherein [[Anāgāmi]] ("Non-returners") who are already on the path to [[Arhat]]hood and who will attain enlightenment are born. 

[[Daikokuten]], one of the [[Seven Lucky Gods]] in [[Japan]], is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jeremy|last=Roberts|title=Japanese Mythology A to Z|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|page=28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdfgjV2kw6oC|isbn=978-1438128023}}</ref> The name is the Japanese equivalent of [[Mahākāla]], the Buddhist name for Shiva.<ref>{{cite book|first=Pratapaditya|last=Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: 700–1800|publisher=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|page=180}}</ref>

{{gallery
|title = Shiva has been [[Syncretism|merged]] with [[Deva (Buddhism)|Buddhist deities]] in [[East Asia]]n Buddhism
|mode = nolines
|align = center
|File:Daikoku.jpg|[[Daikokuten]] is a Shiva-[[Ōkuninushi]] fusion deity in [[Japan]]<ref>{{cite book|author=Ronald Morse|title=Folk Legends from Tono: Japan's Spirits, Deities, and Phantastic Creatures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkmwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 |year=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442248236|page=131}}</ref>
|File:2016 Singapur, Chinatown, Świątynia i Muzeum Relikwi Zęba Buddy (30).jpg|[[Acala]] is a fierce Shiva adaptation in both [[China]] and Japan<ref>{{cite book|author1=Charles Russell Coulter|author2=Patricia Turner|title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sEIngqiKOugC&pg=PA182 |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135963903|page=182}}</ref>
|File:60523bb7ly1goo37whi2rj20u0140125.jpg|Statue of Shiva depicted as a [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] ''[[Deva (Buddhism)|deva]]'' on [[Mount Putuo]] Guanyin Dharma Realm in [[Zhejiang]], China
}}

== In popular culture ==
In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in art, films, and books. He has been referred to as "the god of cool things"<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/lord-shiva-god-of-cool-things-wendy-doniger/1/261983.html|title=Shiva, the god of cool things|access-date=11 April 2017|archive-date=11 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411220806/http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/lord-shiva-god-of-cool-things-wendy-doniger/1/261983.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and a "bonafide rock hero".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/onmyplate/shiva-the-brand-god-who-never-fails/|title=Shiva, the brand God who never fails|work=Economic Times Blog|access-date=11 April 2017|language=en-US|archive-date=23 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323221439/http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/onmyplate/shiva-the-brand-god-who-never-fails/|url-status=live}}</ref> One popular film was the 1967 Kannada movie ''[[Gange Gowri]]''.<ref name="Cinema">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsKR1RKoJKUC&pg=PA50|title=Filming the Gods: Religion and Indian Cinema|last=Dwyer|first=Rachel|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134380701|language=en|access-date=11 September 2017|archive-date=31 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331132117/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsKR1RKoJKUC&pg=PA50#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

A 1990s television series of [[DD National]] titled ''[[Om Namah Shivay (1997 TV series)|Om Namah Shivay]]'' was also based on legends of Shiva.<ref>{{cite news |title=TV series ''Om Namah Shivay'' had 52 songs by top singers: Director Dheeraj Kumar |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/tv-series-om-namah-shivay-had-52-songs-by-top-singers-director-dheeraj-kumar/1868023 |access-date=2 December 2021 |work=www.outlookindia.com/ |agency=IANS |date=16 June 2020 |language=en |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202134054/https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/tv-series-om-namah-shivay-had-52-songs-by-top-singers-director-dheeraj-kumar/1868023 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Amish Tripathi]]'s 2010 book ''[[Shiva Trilogy]]'' has sold over a million copies.<ref name=":1" /> ''[[Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev]]'' (2011–2014), a television serial about Shiva on the [[Life OK]] channel was among the most watched shows at its peak popularity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Mahadev-tops-TRP-charts-with-a-new-record-of-8-2-TVR/articleshow/16488940.cms|title=Mahadev tops TRP charts with a new record of 8.2 TVR|work=The Times of India|access-date=11 April 2017|archive-date=6 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406104803/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/tv/news/hindi/Mahadev-tops-TRP-charts-with-a-new-record-of-8-2-TVR/articleshow/16488940.cms|url-status=live}}</ref> Another popular film was the 2022 Gujarati language movie ''[[Har Har Mahadev]]''.<ref name="Cinema"/>

Shiva was also featured in the [[manga]] ''[[Record of Ragnarok]]'' ({{langx|ja|終末のワルキューレ}}, ''Shūmatsu no Warukyūre'') by Shinya Umemura and Takumi Fukui. In the series, Shiva serves as a fighter for the Gods.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sushphile |first=Bilbio |date=2022-02-22 |title=Everything To Know About Shiva From Record of Ragnarok! |website=The Anime Daily |url=https://www.theanimedaily.com/everything-to-know-about-shiva-from-record-of-ragnarok/ |access-date=2025-11-13}}</ref> Despite making an appearance in the series, the show was banned in [[India]] due to the series's controversial portrayal of Shiva.<ref>{{Cite web |last=TOI Entertainment Desk |date=2025-04-26 |title=Is Record of Ragnarök anime banned in India? A look at one of the most controversial anime |website=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/anime/is-record-of-ragnark-anime-banned-in-india-a-look-at-one-of-the-most-controversial-anime/articleshow/120648655.cms |access-date=2025-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ashcraft |first=Brian |date=2021-06-21 |title=Record of Ragnarök Isn't Streaming on Netflix India |website=Kotaku |url=https://kotaku.com/record-of-ragnarok-isnt-streaming-on-netflix-india-1847139269 |access-date=2025-11-13}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[:Category:Shiva temples|Shiva temples]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist|group=note|refs=
{{refn|name="ilph_rep_l"|group=note|
The ithyphallic representation of the erect shape connotes the very opposite in this context.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=218}} It contextualise "[[Tantric sex|seminal retention]]", practice of [[Celibacy#Hinduism|celibacy]] ([[Brahmacarya]])<ref name="govind52">{{cite journal|author=Ghurye, G.S.|year= 1952|title= Ascetic Origins|journal= Sociological Bulletin|volume= 1|issue= 2|publisher= Sociological Bulletin, 1(2)|pages= 162–184|doi=10.1177/0038022919520206|s2cid= 220049343}}</ref> and illustration of ''Urdhva Retas''{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=26}}<ref name="brill72">Pensa, Corrado. "Some Internal and Comparative Problems in the Field of Indian Religions." Problems and Methods of the History of Religions. Brill, 1972. 102–122.</ref><ref name="patt06" >Pattanaik, Devdutt. Shiva to Shankara: Decoding the phallic symbol. Indus Source, 2006.</ref><ref>Ghurye, G.S., 1952. Ascetic Origins. Sociological Bulletin, 1(2), pp. 162–184.</ref> and represents Shiva as "he stands for complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation".{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=218}}}}
}}

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{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Chatterji |first=J.C. |title=Kashmir Shaivism |year=1986 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=8176254274}}
* {{Cite book |last=Davidson |first=Ronald M. |year=2004 |title=Indian Esoteric Buddhism: Social History of the Tantric Movement |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass}}
* {{cite book |last=Debnath |first=Sailen |title=The Meanings of Hindu Gods, Goddesses and Myths |year=2009 |publisher=Rupa & Co. |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-8129114815}}
* {{cite book |title=A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |author-link=Klaus Klostermaier |year=2007 |isbn=978-0791470824 |publisher=State University of University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C |access-date=6 October 2016 |archive-date=19 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019092030/https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Mahony |first=William K. |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0791435793}}
* {{cite book |last=Mathpal |first=Yashodhar |author-link=Yashodhar Mathpal |title=Prehistoric Rock Paintings of Bhimbetka, Central India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GG7-CpvlU30C |year=1984 |publisher=Abhinav Publications |isbn=978-8170171935}}
* {{cite book |last=Marshall |first=John |title=Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization |year=1996 |publisher=Asian Educational Services; Facsimile of 1931 ed edition |isbn=8120611799}}
* {{cite book |last=Parmeshwaranand |first=Swami |title=Encyclopaedia of the Śaivism, in three volumes |year=2004 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |location=New Delhi |isbn=8176254274}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Rajarajan |first=R.K.K. |year=1996 |title=Vṛṣabhavāhanamūrti in Literature and Art |url=https://www.academia.edu/12964639 |journal=Annali del Istituto Orientale, Naples |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=305–310 |access-date=21 March 2017 |archive-date=13 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220613142619/https://www.academia.edu/12964639 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Tulsidas |first=Goswami |title=Hanuman Chalisa |year=1985 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |location=Chennai |isbn=8171200869 |postscript=none}}; original text, transliteration, English translation and notes.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
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* [http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0051.xml Shaivism], Peter Bisschop
* {{Britannica|546894}}

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