View source for Shoshoni language

{{Short description|Uto-Aztecan language spoken in western US}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Shoshoni
| nativename       = ''{{Lang|shh|Sosoni' ta̲i̲kwappe}}, {{Lang|shh|Neme ta̲i̲kwappeh}}''
| states           = United States
| region           = [[Wyoming]], [[Utah]], [[Nevada]], [[Idaho]]
| ethnicity        = [[Shoshone]]s
| speakers         = ~1,000
| speakers2        = 1,000 additional non-fluent speakers (2007)<ref name=e18/>
| date             = 2007
| ref              = e18
| familycolor      = Uto-Aztecan
| fam2             = Northern
| fam3             = [[Numic languages|Numic]]
| fam4             = Central
| ancestor         = Proto-Numic
| dia1             = Western Shoshoni
| dia2             = Northern Shoshoni
| dia3             = [[Gosiute dialect|Gosiute]]
| dia4             = Eastern Shoshoni
| script           = Latin
| iso3             = shh
| glotto           = shos1248
| glottorefname    = Shoshoni
| notice           = IPA
| map              = Shoshone map.svg
| mapcaption       = Map of the Shoshoni (and [[Timbisha language|Timbisha]]) languages prior to European contact
| map2             = Lang Status 40-SE.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|Shoshoni is classified as Severely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.}}
}}
{{Infobox ethnonym|root=Neme / Newe<br/><small>"People"</small>|people=[[Shoshone|Neme<br />Newe]]|language= [[Shoshoni language|Neme Ta̲i̲kwappeh<br />Newe Ta̲i̲kwappe]]|country= Neme Segobia<br />Newe Segobia}}

'''Shoshoni''', also written as '''Shoshoni-Gosiute''' and '''Shoshone''' ({{IPAc-en|ʃ|oʊ|ˈ|ʃ|oʊ|n|i}} {{respell|shoh|SHOH|nee}};<ref>Bauer, Laurie. (2007). ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.</ref> Shoshoni: soni''<nowiki/>' ta̲i̲kwappe'', ''newe ta̲i̲kwappe'' or ''neme ta̲i̲kwappeh''), is a [[Numic]] language of the [[Uto-Aztecan]] family, spoken in the [[Western United States]] by the [[Shoshone]] people. Shoshoni is primarily spoken in the [[Great Basin]], in areas of [[Wyoming]], [[Utah]], [[Nevada]], and [[Idaho]].<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|1}}

The consonant inventory of Shoshoni is rather small, but a much wider range of surface forms of these phonemes appear in the spoken language. The language has six vowels, distinguished by length.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Shoshoni Grammar|last=McLaughlin|first=John E.|publisher=Lincom Europa|year=2012|isbn=9783862883042|location=Munich|oclc=793217272}}</ref>{{Rp|3}} Shoshoni is a strongly suffixing language, and it inflects for nominal number and case and for verbal aspect and tense using suffixes. Word order is relatively free but shows a preference toward [[Subject-object-verb|subject-object-verb]] (SOV) order.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_sho|title=WALS Online - Language Shoshone|website=The World Atlas of Language Structures Online|language=en|access-date=2018-01-25}}</ref>

The endonyms ''newe ta̲i̲kwappe'' and ''Sosoni' ta̲i̲kwappe'' mean "the people's language" and "the Shoshoni language", respectively.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=An Introduction to the Shoshoni Language: Dammen Da̲igwape|last1=Gould|first1=Drusilla|last2=Loether|first2=Christopher|publisher=University of Utah Press|year=2002|isbn=0874807301|location=Salt Lake City|oclc=50114343}}</ref>{{Rp|5,176}} Shoshoni is classified as threatened, although attempts at revitalization are underway.<ref name=":1" />

==Classification and dialects==
Shoshoni is the northernmost member of the large [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan language]] family, which includes nearly sixty living languages, spoken in the Western United States down through [[Mexico–United States border|Mexico]] and into [[El Salvador]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/family|title=Summary by language family|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-04-18|language=en}}</ref> Shoshoni belongs to the [[Numic languages|Numic]] subbranch of Uto-Aztecan.<ref name=":1" /> The word ''Numic'' comes from the cognate word in all Numic languages for "person". For example, in Shoshoni the word is ''neme'' {{IPA|[nɨw̃ɨ]}} or, depending on the dialect, ''newe'' {{IPA|[nɨwɨ]}}, in Timbisha it is ''nümü'' {{IPA|[nɨwɨ]}}, and in Southern Paiute, ''nuwuvi'' {{IPA|[nuwuβi]}}.

Shoshoni's closest relatives are the Central Numic languages [[Timbisha language|Timbisha]] and [[Comanche language|Comanche]]. Timbisha, or Panamint, is spoken in southeastern [[California]] by members of the [[Timbisha|Timbisha Shoshone Tribe]], but it is considered a distinct language from Shoshoni.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aboutworldlanguages.com/uto-aztecan-language-family|title=Uto-Aztecan Language Family {{!}} About World Languages|website=aboutworldlanguages.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-04-18}}</ref> The [[Comanche]] split from the Shoshone around 1700, and consonant changes over the past few centuries have limited mutual intelligibility of Comanche and Shoshoni.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McLaughlin|first=John E.|date=1992|title=A Counter-Intuitive Solution in Central Numic Phonology|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics|volume=58|issue=2|pages=158–181|doi=10.1086/ijal.58.2.3519754|s2cid=148250257}}</ref>

Principal dialects of Shoshoni are Western Shoshoni in Nevada, Gosiute in western Utah, Northern Shoshoni in southern Idaho and northern Utah, and Eastern Shoshoni in Wyoming.<ref name=":1" /> The main differences between these dialects are phonological.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|1}}

==Status==
The number of people who speak Shoshoni has been steadily dwindling since the late 20th century. In the early 21st century, fluent speakers number only several hundred to a few thousand people, while an additional population of about 1,000 know the language to some degree but are not fluent.<ref name=":1" /> The [[Duck Valley Indian Reservation|Duck Valley]] and [[Goshute|Gosiute]] communities have established programs to teach the language to their children. [[Ethnologue]] lists Shoshoni as "threatened" as it notes that many of the speakers are 50 and older.<ref name=":1" /> [[UNESCO]] has classified the Shoshoni language as "severely endangered" in Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger
| access-date = 2012-09-29
| url = http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php
}}</ref> The language is still being taught to children in a small number of isolated locations. The tribes have a strong interest in language revitalization, but efforts to preserve the language are scattered, with little coordination. However, literacy in Shoshoni is increasing. Shoshoni dictionaries have been published and portions of the [[Bible]] were translated in 1986.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/shh|title=Shoshoni|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-01-22}}</ref>

As of 2012, [[Idaho State University]] offers elementary, intermediate, and conversational Shoshoni language classes, in a 20-year project to preserve the language.<ref>{{Cite web
 |title       = Native American Academic Services – Diversity Resource Center
 |work        = Idaho State University
 |access-date  = 2012-08-29
 |url         = http://www.isu.edu/drc/naas/academics.shtml
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20121108020145/http://www.isu.edu/drc/naas/academics.shtml
 |archive-date = 2012-11-08
}}</ref> Open-source Shosoni audio is available online to complement classroom instruction, as part of the university's long-standing Shoshoni Language Project.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Idaho State University Shoshoni Language Project still going strong after 20 years
| work = Idaho State University
| access-date = 2012-08-29
| url = http://www2.isu.edu/headlines/?p=1857
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web
| title = An Introduction to the Shoshoni Language : University Press Catalog
| work = Utah University Press
| access-date = 2012-08-29
| url = http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/upcat/id/1344/rec/1
}}</ref>

The [[Bannock people|Shoshone-Bannock Tribe]] teaches Shoshoni to its children and adults as part of its Language and Culture Preservation Program.<ref>
{{Cite web
| title = Language and Culture Preservation Program
| work = Shoshone-Bannock tribe
| access-date = 2012-08-29
| url = http://www.shoshonebannocktribes.com/language/language.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111001013623/http://www.shoshonebannocktribes.com/language/language.html
| archive-date = 2011-10-01
| url-status = dead
}}
</ref> On the [[Wind River Reservation]] in Wyoming, elders have been active in digital language archiving. Shoshoni is taught using Dr. Steven Greymorning's Accelerated Second Language Acquisition techniques.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wyofile.com/fort-washakie-school-applies-for-300000-grant-to-create-shoshone-language-software/|title=As elders pass, Wind River Indian Reservation teachers turn to technology to preserve Shoshone language|last=Dunlap|first=Tetona|date=2012-02-28|work=WyoFile|access-date=2018-04-18}}</ref>

A summer program known as the Shoshone/Goshute Youth Language Apprenticeship Program (SYLAP), held at the [[University of Utah]]'s [[Center for American Indian Languages]] since 2009, has been featured on [[NPR]]'s ''[[Weekend Edition]].''<ref name = "cail">{{Cite web
| title = Shoshone/Goshute Youth Language Apprenticeship Program
| work = Center for American Indian Languages, University of Utah
| access-date = 2012-08-30
| url = http://www.cail.utah.edu/?pageId=5750
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700049920/University-of-Utah-program-helps-Shoshone-youths-keep-language-alive.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123021205/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/700049920/University-of-Utah-program-helps-Shoshone-youths-keep-language-alive.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 23, 2010|title=University of Utah program helps Shoshone youths keep language alive|last=Koepp|first=Paul|date=2010-07-21|work=Deseret News|access-date=2012-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=106783656|title=Ten Teens Study To Guard Their Native Language|last=Brundin|first=Jenny|date=2009-07-18|work=Morning Edition, NPR|access-date=2012-08-30}}</ref> Shoshoni youth serve as interns, assisting with digitization of Shoshoni language recordings and documentation from the Wick R. Miller collection, in order to make the materials available for tribal members.<ref name = "cail" /> The program released the first Shoshone language [[video game]] in August 2013.<ref>{{Cite web
| title = First Shoshone Language Video Game
| work = ScienceBlog.com
| access-date = 2013-08-20
| date = 2013-08-14
| url = http://scienceblog.com/65584/first-shoshone-language-video-game/#UHS19F9xCq3szm3D.99
}}</ref>

In July 2012, [[Blackfoot High School]] in Southeastern Idaho announced it would offer Shoshoni language classes. The Chief Tahgee Elementary Academy, a Shoshone-Bannock charter school teaching English and Shoshoni, opened at [[Fort Hall Indian Reservation|Fort Hall]] in 2013.<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Idaho district to offer Shoshoni classes
| work = Deseret News
| access-date = 2012-08-29
| url = http://www.deseretnews.com/article/765593086/Idaho-district-to-offer-Shoshoni-classes.html
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121204054703/http://www.deseretnews.com/article/765593086/Idaho-district-to-offer-Shoshoni-classes.html
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = December 4, 2012
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.localnews8.com/news/new-charter-school-in-fort-hall_20160825015827423/57748854|title=New charter school in Fort Hall|last=Cosgrove|first=Liz|date=2013-05-31|work=KIFI|access-date=2018-04-18|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
Shoshoni has a typical [[Numic]] [[vowel]] inventory of five vowels. In addition, there is the common [[diphthong]] {{IPA|/ai/}}, which functions as a simple vowel and varies rather freely with {{IPA|[e]}}; however, certain [[morphemes]] always contain {{IPA|[ai]}} and others always contain {{IPA|[e]}}. All vowels occur as short or long, but {{IPA|[aiː]}}/{{IPA|[eː]}} is rare.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|3}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | 
! rowspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! {{small|unrounded}}
! {{small|rounded}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Close vowel|High]]
! {{small|[[Vowel length|short]]}}
| {{IPAlink|i}}
| {{IPAlink|ɨ}}
| {{IPAlink|u}}
|-
! {{small|[[Vowel length|long]]}}
| {{IPAlink|iː}}
| {{IPAlink|ɨː}}
| {{IPAlink|uː}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
! {{small|short}}
| {{IPA|ai}}
| 
| {{IPAlink|o}}
|-
! {{small|long}}
| {{IPA|aiː}}
| 
| {{IPAlink|oː}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Open vowel|Low]]
! {{small|short}}
| 
| {{IPAlink|a}}
| 
|-
! {{small|long}}
| 
| {{IPAlink|aː}}
| 
|}

===Consonants===
Shoshoni has a typical [[Numic]] [[consonant]] inventory.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>[[Labialization|{{abbr|lab.|labialized}}]]</small>
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}} || {{IPAlink|n}} || || || ||
|-
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{IPAlink|p}} || {{IPAlink|t}} || || {{IPAlink|k}} || {{IPAlink|kʷ}} || {{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| || {{IPAlink|t͡s}} || || || ||
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| || {{IPAlink|s}} || || || || {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
! [[Semivowel]]
| || || {{IPAlink|j}} || || {{IPAlink|w}} ||
|}

=== Syllable structure ===
Shoshoni syllables are of the form (C)V(V)(C). For instance: ''nɨkka'' "dance" (CVC CV), ''ɨkkoi'' "sleep" (VC CVV), and ''paa'' "water" (CVV). Shoshoni does not allow onset clusters.

Typical Shoshoni roots are of the form CV(V)CV(V).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Survey of Shoshone Grammar with Reference to Eastern Shoshone|last=Shaul|first=David Leedom|publisher=National Science Foundation|year=2012|pages=13}}</ref> Examples include ''kasa'' "wing" and ''papi'' "older brother".

=== Stress ===
[[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] in Shoshoni is regular but not distinctive. Primary stress usually falls on the first [[syllable]] (more specifically, the first [[Mora (linguistics)|mora]]) of a word; however, primary stress tends to fall on the second syllable if that syllable is long.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|11}} For instance, ''natsattamahkantɨn'' [ˈnazattamaxandɨ] "tied up" bears primary stress on the first syllable; however, ''kottoohkwa'' {{IPA|[kotˈtoːxˌwa]}} "made a fire" bears primary stress on the second syllable, with long vowel {{IPA|[oː]}}, instead of the first syllable with short vowel {{IPA|[o]}}.

As in other Numic languages, stress in Shoshoni is distributed based on mora-counting. Short Shoshoni vowels have one mora, while [[Vowel length|long vowels]] and vowel clusters ending in {{IPA|[a]}} have two morae. Following the primary stress, every other mora receives secondary stress. If stress falls on the second mora in a long vowel, the stress is transferred to the first mora in the long vowel and mora counting continues from there. For example, ''natsattamahkantɨn'' "tied up" bears the stress pattern {{IPA|[ˈnazatˌtamaˌxandɨ]}}, with stress falling on every other mora.

With some dialectical variation, mora counting resets at the border between stems in compound words. Final syllables need not be stressed and may undergo optional final vowel devoicing.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|11}}

=== Phonological processes ===
Given here are a few examples of regular, well-documented phonological rules in Shoshoni:<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|3–9}}

* Short, unclustered, unstressed vowels, when part of final syllables and followed by {{IPA|/h/}}, are [[Voice (phonetics)|devoiced]]. These same vowels, when preceded by {{IPA|/h/}}, are usually devoiced. These processes represent Shoshoni "organic devoicing". For instance, ''tɨkkahkwan'' → {{IPA|[tɨkkḁxwa]}} "ate up".
* Final vowels may be devoiced optionally, representing Shoshoni "inorganic devoicing". If the final vowel is devoiced, the long or short consonant preceding it is also devoiced. Thus, ''kammu'' → {{IPA|[kamm̥u̥]}} "jackrabbit".
* Stops, affricates, and nasals are voiced and [[Lenition|lenited]] between vowels. The stops and affricate become voiced fricatives; the nasals become [[Nasalization|nasalized]] glides. Thus ''papi'' → {{IPA|[paβi]}} "brother", ''tatsa'' → {{IPA|[taza ~ tad͡za]}} "summer", and ''imaa'' → {{IPA|[iw̃aː]}} "tomorrow".
* Stops, affricates, and nasals are lenited, but remain unvoiced, when they are preceded by underlying {{IPA|/h/}}. This {{IPA|/h/}} is deleted in the surface form. Thus, ''paikkahkwa'' → {{IPA|[pekkḁxwa]}} "killed".
* Stops, affricates, and nasals are voiced when part of an intervocalic nasal cluster. Thus, ''pampi'' → {{IPA|[pambi]}} "head" and ''wantsi'' → {{IPA|[wand͡zi]}} "antelope".

==Morphology==
Shoshoni is a [[Synthetic language|synthetic]], [[agglutinative]] language, in which words, especially verbs, tend to be complex with several [[morpheme]]s strung together. Shoshoni is a primarily [[suffix]]ing language.

=== Nouns ===

==== Absolutive suffixes ====
Many nouns in Shoshoni have an absolutive suffix (unrelated to the [[absolutive case]]). The absolutive suffix is normally dropped when the noun is the first element in a compound, when the noun is followed by a suffix or postposition, or when the noun is incorporated into a verb. For instance, the independent noun ''sɨhɨpin'' "willow" has the absolutive suffix ''-pin''; the root loses this suffix in the form ''sɨhɨykwi'' "to gather willows". The correlation between any particular noun stem and which of the seven absolutive suffixes it has is irregular and unpredictable. The absolutive suffixes are as follows:<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|16}}

* ''-pin''
* ''-ppɨh''
* ''-ppɨ''
* ''-pittsih, -pittsɨh''
* ''-mpih''
* ''-pai''
* ''-ttsih''

==== Number and case ====
Shoshoni is a [[Nominative–accusative language|nominative-accusative]] language. Shoshoni nouns inflect for three [[Grammatical case|cases]] ([[Subjective case|subjective]], [[Objective case|objective]], and [[possessive]]) and for three [[Grammatical number|numbers]] (singular, dual, and plural).

Number is marked by suffixes on all human nouns and optionally on other animate nouns. The regular suffixes for number are listed in the table below. The Shoshoni singular is unmarked.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|26}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" |Number
|-
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! rowspan="3" |Case
! Subjective
| Ø ||-nɨwɨh||-nɨɨn
|-
! Objective
|Ø||-nihi||-nii
|-
! Possessive
| Ø
| -nɨhɨn || -nɨɨn
|}
Case is also marked by suffixes, which vary depending on the noun. Subjective case is unmarked. Many nouns also have a zero objective case marker; other possible objective markers are ''-tta'', ''-a'', and ''-i''. These suffixes correspond with the possessive case markers ''-n'', ''-ttan'' or ''-n'', ''-an'', or ''-n'' (in Western Shoshoni; this last suffix also appears as ''-an'' in Gosiute and is replaced by ''-in'' in Northern Shoshoni). These case markers can be predicted only to a degree based on phonology of the noun stem.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|27}}

==== Derivational morphology ====
Nominal derivational morphology is also often achieved through suffixing. For instance, the instrumental suffix ''-(n)nompɨh'' is used with verb stems to form nouns used for the purpose of the verb: ''katɨnnompɨh'' "chair" is derived from ''katɨ'' "sit"; ''puinompɨh'' "binoculars" is derived from ''pui'' "see".<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|17}} The characterization suffix ''-kantɨn'' be used with a root noun to derive a noun characterized by the root: ''hupiakantɨn'' "singer" is derived from ''hupia'' "song"; ''puhakantɨn'' "shaman" is derived from ''puha'' "power", as one characterized by power.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|18}}

=== Verbs ===

==== Number ====
Shoshoni verbs may mark for number, mainly through [[reduplication]] or [[suppletion]]. The dual is commonly marked through reduplication of the first syllable of the verb stem, so that singular ''kimma'' "come" becomes ''kikimma'' in the dual (and remains ''kima'' in the plural). A suppletive form is often used for the dual or plural forms of the verb; for instance, singular ''yaa'' "carry" becomes ''hima'' in both the dual and plural. Suppletion and reduplication frequently work in tandem to express number: singular ''nukki'' "run" becomes the reduplicated ''nunukki'' in the dual and the suppleted ''nutaa'' in the plural; singular ''yɨtsɨ'' "fly" is reduplicated, suppleted dual ''yoyoti'' and suppleted plural ''yoti''.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|39}}

==== Instrumental prefixes ====
Shoshoni uses prefixes to add a specific instrumental element to a verb. For instance, the instrumental prefix ''to-'' '"with the hand or fist" can be used with the verb ''tsima'' "scrape" to yield ''tottsima'' "wipe", as in ''pɨn puihkatti tottsimma yakaitɨn'' "he wiped at his eyes, crying".<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|48}}

Common instrumental prefixes include:<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|46–7}}

* ''kɨ"-'' "with the teeth or mouth"
* ''ku"-'' "by heat"
* ''ma-'' "with a non-grasping hand"
* ''mu"-'' "with the nose or front of body"
* ''ni"-'' "with the voice"
* ''pi"-'' "with the buttocks or back of body"
* ''sɨ"-'' "by cold"
* ''sun-'' "with the mind"
* ''ta"-'' "with the feet"
* ''ta"-'' "with a hard instrument or rock"
* ''to"- "''with the hand or fist"
* ''tsa"-'' "with a grasping hand"
* ''tsi"-'' "with a sharp point"
* ''tso"-'' "with the head"
* ''wɨ"-'' "with a long instrument or body"; generic instrumental

==Syntax==

=== Word order ===
Subject-object-verb (SOV) is the typical word order for Shoshoni.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|32–3}}<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|75}}

{{interlinear|indent=2
|nɨ hunanna puinnu
|I badger see
|"I saw a badger"}}

{{interlinear|indent=2
|nɨwɨ sakkuhtɨn paittsɨkkinna
|person there {was hollering}
|"the person was making a fuss there"<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|75–6}}}}

In [[Ditransitive verb|ditransitive]] sentences, the [[Direct object|direct]] and [[indirect object]] are marked with the objective case. The indirect object can occur before the direct object, or vice versa. For example, in ''nɨ tsuhnippɨha satiia uttuhkwa'' "I gave the bone to the dog", ''tsuhnippɨh'' "bone" and ''satii'' "dog" take the objective case suffix ''-a''.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|76}}

The [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] is not a mandatory component of a grammatical Shoshoni sentence. Therefore, impersonal sentences without subjects are allowed; those sentences have an object-verb word order.<ref name="Shaul">{{cite book|last1=Shaul|first1=David|title=Survey of Shoshone Grammar with Reference to Eastern Shoshone|date=2012|publisher=National Science Foundation|pages=112–113}}</ref>

{{interlinear|indent=2
|ɨtɨinna
|hot-{{gcl|CONT|continuative suffix -na}}
|"it [the weather] is hot"<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|83}}}}

In particular, it is common for the subject to be deleted when a [[Coreference|coreferential pronoun]] appears elsewhere in the sentence. For example, ''pɨnnan haintsɨha kai paikkawaihtɨn'' "he won't kill his (own) friend" uses the coreferential possessive pronoun ''pɨnnan'' and lacks a word for "he" as an explicit subject.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|77}} Likewise, the subject can be deleted from the sentence when the subject can be inferred from context. For example, in a narrative about one man who shoots another, ''u paikkahkwa'' "he killed him" (literally, "him killed") is acceptable, because the killer is clear from the context of the narrative.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|77}}

State-of-being sentences express “be” by excluding an overt verb, resulting in a basic subject-object order.

{{interlinear|indent=2
|usɨ um pii
|that his mother
|"that is his mother"<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|80}}}}

Sentence meaning is not dependent on word order in Shoshoni.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|32–33}}  For example, if the subject is an unstressed pronoun then it is grammatical for the subject to follow the object of the sentence.<ref name="Shaul" />

==== Constituent order ====
The basic order of constituent morphemes in Shoshoni verbs is as follows: <blockquote>(Valence) - (Instrumental) - Stem - (Causative/Benefactive) - (Secondary Verb) - (Directional) - (Prefinal Aspect) - (Aspect) - (Imperative) - (Number) - (Subordination)</blockquote>Any verb form must include a verb stem, but other prefixes and suffixes may not be present, depending on the particular verb form.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|42}}

=== Subordination ===

==== Relative clauses ====
Relative clauses tend to share the same head noun as the main clause, and the case of this noun must agree in both clauses. When the subject of the relative clause matches the subject of the main clause, the verb of the relative clause takes on the same-subject subordination suffix ''-tɨn'' or ''-h/kkantɨn'', depending on whether the events of the clauses occur simultaneously or not. These suffixes agree with the head noun of the main clause in both case and number.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|61}} For example, ''wa'ippɨ yakaitɨn pitɨnuh'' "the woman who was crying arrived", where the subject ''wa'ippɨ'' "woman" is the same for both clauses and ''yakai-'' "cry" in the relative clause takes the suffix ''-tɨn''.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|61}}

However, when the subject of the relative clause is not the head noun of the main clause, the subject of the relative clause takes the possessive case and a different set of verbal suffixes are used; the head noun may be deleted from the relative clause altogether. These different-subject subordinate suffixes also mark verb tense and aspect: in the nominative case, they are -''na'' if present'', -h/kkan'' if stative, -''h/kkwan'' if momentaneous, -''ppɨh'' if perfect, ''-tu'ih'' if future, and -ih if unmarked.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|62}}

{{interlinear|indent=2
|aitɨn painkwi nɨhɨn tɨkkanna pitsikkammanna
|this fish our eating tastes-rotten
|"this fish that we are eating tastes rotten"}}

The subject "we" of the relative clause appears as the possessive pronoun ''nɨhɨn'' "our", and ''tɨkka-'' "eat" takes the suffix ''-nna'' to indicate the present action of eating.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|62}}

==== Switch reference ====
Shoshoni exhibits [[Switch-reference|switch reference]], in which a non-relative, subordinate clause is marked when its subject is a pronoun that differs from the subject of the main clause. In such subordinate clauses, the subject takes the objective case and the verb takes on a switch reference suffix: -''ku'' if the events of both clauses occur simultaneously, -''h/kkan'' if the events of the subordinate clause occur first, or the combined -''h/kkanku'' if the events of the subordinate clause occur over an extended amount of time.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|66}} For example, ''sunni naaku wihyu nɨnɨttsi utɨɨkatti tattɨkwa'' "when that happened, something scary came to them." In the relative clause ''sunni naaku'' "when that happened", the verb ''naa-'' "be" or "happen" takes on the suffix ''-ku'' to indicate that the relative and main clauses co-occur in the narrative.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|67}}

==Writing system==
Shoshoni lacks a single agreed-upon writing system. Multiple orthographies exist, with differing levels of acceptance among Shoshoni speakers. Among the Shoshone, there are conflicting views on whether Shoshoni should be written at all.

Traditionalists advocate to keep Shoshoni an oral language, better protected from outsiders who might exploit the language. Meanwhile, progressives argue that writing the language down will better preserve it and make it useful today.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/how-do-you-learn-language-isnt-written-down|title=How do you learn a language that isn't written down?|last=Broncho|first=Samuel|date=2016-12-16|website=British Council|language=en|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref>

The older Crum-Miller system and the Idaho State University system (or Gould system) are the two main Shoshoni writing systems in use.<ref>{{Cite book | title=Newe Natekwinappeh: Shoshoni Stories and Dictionary |last=Miller|first=Wick R.| year=1972 | publisher=University of Utah Press | location=Salt Lake City | series=University of Utah Anthropological Papers 94}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Western Shoshoni Grammar|last1=Crum|first1=Beverly|last2=Dayley|first2=Jon P.|year=1993 | publisher=Department of Anthropology, Boise State University | location=Boise, Idaho | series=Boise State University Occasional Papers and Monographs in Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics Volume No. 1|isbn=978-0-9639749-0-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Shoshoni Texts|last1=Crum|first1=Beverly|last2=Dayley|first2=Jon P.|year=1997 | publisher=Department of Anthropology, Boise State University | location=Boise, Idaho | series=Occasional Papers and Monographs in Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics Volume No. 2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Newe Hupia: Shoshoni Poetry Songs|last1=Crum|first1=Beverly|last2=Crum|first2=Earl|last3=Dayley|first3=Jon P.|year=2001 | publisher=Utah State University Press| location=Logan, Utah}}</ref>

The Crum-Miller orthography was developed in the 1960s by Beverly Crum, a Shoshone elder and linguist, and [[Wick R. Miller|Wick Miller]], a non-Native anthropologist and linguist. The system is largely phonemic, with specific symbols mapping to specific [[phoneme]]s, which reflects the underlying sounds but not necessarily surface pronunciations.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" />{{Rp|10}}
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+Crum-Miller Orthography<ref name=":0" />
!Letter
!IPA
|-
|aa
|ɑː
|-
|a
|ɑ
|-
|a̲i̲
|e
|-
|ai
|a͡ɪ
|-
|e
|ɨ
|-
|ee
|ɨː
|-
|h
|h
|-
|k
|k~ɣ~g
|-
|kk
|kː
|-
|hk
|x
|-
|kw
|kʷ~ɣʷ~gʷ
|-
|kkw
|kːʷ
|-
|hkw
|xʷ
|-
|m
|m
|-
|mm
|mː
|-
|n
|n
|-
|nn
|nː
|-
|o
|o
|-
|oo
|oː
|-
|p
|p~β~b
|-
|pp
|pː
|-
|hp
|ɸ
|-
|s
|s
|-
|is
|ʃ
|-
|t
|t~d~ɾ
|-
|it
|ð
|-
|tt
|tː
|-
|iht
|θ
|-
|ts
|t͡s~z
|-
|its
|ʒ
|-
|tts
|tt͡s
|-
|itts
|t͡ʃ
|-
|u
|u
|-
|uu
|uː
|-
|w
|w
|-
|y
|j
|-
|'
|ʔ
|}
The newer Idaho State system was developed by the Shoshone elder Drusilla Gould and the non-Native linguist Christopher Loether and is used more commonly in southern Idaho.<ref name=":9" /> Compared to the Crum-Miller system, the Idaho State system is more phonetic, with spellings more closely reflecting the surface pronunciations of words, but it lacks the deeper phonemic information that the Crum-Miller system provides.<ref name=":8" />{{Rp|10}}

Online Shoshoni dictionaries are available for everyday use.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://shoshoniproject.utah.edu/shoshoni-dictionary/ |title=Shoshoni Dictionary &#124; Shoshoni Language Project |access-date=2014-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508030510/http://shoshoniproject.utah.edu/shoshoni-dictionary/ |archive-date=2014-05-08 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Shoshone|Shoshone people]]
* [[Shoshonean languages]]
* [[Timbisha language]]
* [[Comanche language]]
*[[Sacagawea]], the Shoshone woman who translated for Lewis and Clark

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wiktionarycat|category=Shoshone language}}
{{incubator|code = shh}}
*[https://shoshoniproject.utah.edu/ Shoshoni Language Project] – Project for Shoshoni language revitalization at the University of Utah
*[http://theeneegame.com/ The Enee Game] – Shoshone language video game
*[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Uto-Aztecan_languages Shoshoni Swadesh vocabulary list] (Wiktionary)
*[http://mammana.org/bcp/shoshoni/ Portions of the Book of Common Prayer in Shoshoni] Translated by Charles Lajoe and the Reverend John Roberts (Wind River Reservation, Wyoming: no publisher, 1899) digitized by Richard Mammana
*[http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/upcat/id/1344/rec/1 Open source audio for introductory Shoshoni course], (via links to iTunesU)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130205060612/http://www.shoshonidictionary.com/shoshonidictionary.asp Shoshoni Online Dictionary]
*[http://www.language-archives.org/language/shh OLAC resources in and about the Shoshoni language]
*[https://coursecat.isu.edu/undergraduate/artsandletters/anthropologyandlanguages/aa-shoshoni/ Shoshoni language program at Idaho State University]

{{Uto-Aztecan languages}}
{{Languages of Idaho}}
{{Languages of Nevada}}

[[Category:Shoshone]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Numic languages]]
[[Category:Native American language revitalization]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the Southwestern United States]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southwest]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Great Basin]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Idaho]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Nevada]]