View source for Shroud of Turin

{{Short description|Cloth bearing the alleged image of Jesus}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}{{Use Oxford spelling|date = June 2025}}

{{Infobox artifact
 |name              = Shroud of Turin
 |image             = Turin shroud positive and negative displaying original color information 708 x 465 pixels 94 KB.jpg
 |image_size        = 230px
 |image2            =
 |image_caption     = The Shroud of Turin: modern photo of the face, positive (left), and digitally processed image (right)
 |material          = Linen
 |size              = {{convert|4.4|x|1.1|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
 |writing           =
 |period1           = 13th to 14th century<ref name="Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition" />
 |discovered_place  =
 |discovered_coords =
 |discovered_date   =
 |discovered_by     =
 |location          = [[Chapel of the Holy Shroud]], [[Turin]], Italy
 |id                =
}}
[[File:Shroudofturin.jpg|thumb |upright |Full-length image of the Turin Shroud before the [[Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin#Restorations|2002 restoration]]]]
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The '''Shroud of Turin''' ({{langx|it|Sindone di Torino}}), also known as the '''Holy Shroud'''<ref name="Britannica" /><ref name="29DLv" /> ({{langx|it|Sacra Sindone|links=no}}), is a length of [[linen]] cloth that bears a faint image of the front and back of a naked man. Because details of the image are consistent with [[depiction of Jesus|traditional depictions of Jesus of Nazareth]] after [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his death by crucifixion]], the [[shroud]] has been venerated for centuries, especially by members of the [[Catholic Church]], as [[Jesus]]'s shroud upon which his image was [[Acheiropoieta|miraculously imprinted]]. The human image on the shroud can be discerned more clearly in a black-and-white [[Negative (photography)|photographic negative]] than in its natural [[Sepia (color)|sepia]] colour, an effect discovered in 1898 by [[Secondo Pia]], who produced the first photographs of the shroud. This negative image is associated with a popular Catholic devotion to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]].

The documented history of the shroud dates back to 1354, when it began to be exhibited in the new [[collegiate church]] of [[Lirey]], a village in north-central France.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|80–81}} The shroud was denounced as a forgery by the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Troyes|bishop of Troyes]], Pierre d'Arcis, in 1389.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|90–96}} It was acquired by the [[House of Savoy]] in 1453 and later deposited in a chapel in [[Chambéry]],<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|141–142, 153–154}} where it was damaged by fire in 1532.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|166}} In 1578, the Savoys moved the shroud to their new capital in [[Turin]], where it has remained ever since.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|191}} Since 1683, it has been kept in the [[Chapel of the Holy Shroud]], which was designed for that purpose by the architect [[Guarino Guarini]] and which is connected to both the [[Royal Palace of Turin|royal palace]] and the [[Turin Cathedral]].<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|233}} Ownership of the shroud passed from the House of Savoy to the Catholic Church after the death of the former king [[Umberto II of Italy]] in 1983.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|415}}

The microscopist and forensic expert [[Walter McCrone]] found, based on his examination of samples taken in 1978 from the surface of the shroud using [[adhesive tape]], that the image on the shroud had been painted with a dilute solution of [[ochre|red ochre]] pigment in a [[gelatin]] medium. McCrone also found that the apparent bloodstains were painted with [[vermilion]] pigment, also in a gelatin medium.<ref name="McCrone-90" /> McCrone's findings were disputed by other researchers, and the nature of the image on the shroud continues to be debated.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|364–366}} In 1988, [[radiocarbon dating]] by three independent laboratories established that the shroud dates back to the [[Middle Ages]], between 1260 and 1390.<ref name="'Turin Nature"/><ref name=taylor/> 

The nature and history of the shroud have been the subjects of extensive and long-lasting controversies in both the scholarly literature and the popular press.<ref name="kJeDs" /><ref name="Meacham 1983" /><ref name="GVf9K" /><ref name="oattp" /><ref name="kl2Oq" /> Although accepted as valid by experts, the radiocarbon dating of the shroud continues to generate significant public debate.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |date=2015-04-17 |title=Why Shroud of Turin's Secrets Continue to Elude Science |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/150417-shroud-turin-relics-jesus-catholic-church-religion-science |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401183714/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/150417-shroud-turin-relics-jesus-catholic-church-religion-science |archive-date=1 April 2021 |access-date=2023-08-06 |website=History |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Moorhead |first=Joanna |date=2022-04-17 |title=The $1m challenge: 'If the Turin Shroud is a forgery, show how it was done' |language=en-GB |work=The Observer |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/17/the-1m-challenge-if-the-turin-shroud-is-a-forgery-show-how-it-was-done |access-date=2023-08-06 |issn=0029-7712}}</ref><ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|424–445}} Defenders of the authenticity of the shroud have questioned the radiocarbon results, usually on the basis that the samples tested might have been contaminated or taken from a repair to the original fabric. Such [[Fringe theories about the Shroud of Turin|fringe theories]], which have been rejected by most experts,<ref name="Radiocarbon Dating pg 167-168" /> include the medieval repair theory,<ref name="R.A. Freer-Waters, A.J.T. Jull 2010" /><ref name="freeinquiry1" /><ref name="jAsd9" /> the bio-contamination theories<ref name="Gove 1990" /> and the [[carbon monoxide]] theory.<ref name="c14.arch.ox.ac.uk"/><ref name="chemistryworld"/> Currently, the Catholic Church neither endorses nor rejects the authenticity of the shroud as a relic of Jesus.

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==Description==

The shroud is rectangular, measuring approximately {{convert|4.4|x|1.1|m|ftin}}. The cloth is woven in a three-to-one [[herringbone (cloth)|herringbone]] [[twill]] composed of [[flax]] fibrils. Its most distinctive characteristic is the faint, brownish image of a front and back view of a naked man with his hands folded across his groin. The two views are aligned along the midplane of the body and point in opposite directions. The front and back views of the head nearly meet at the middle of the cloth.<ref name="RRd6y" />

The image in faint straw-yellow colour on the crown of the cloth fibres appears to be of a man with a beard, moustache, and shoulder-length hair parted in the middle. He is muscular and tall (various experts have measured him as from {{convert |1.70 |to |1.88 |m |ftin|disp=or |abbr=on}}).<ref name="hhsXR" /> Reddish-brown stains are found on the cloth, correlating with the wounds in the Biblical description of the crucifixion of [[Jesus]].<ref name="heller" />

The shroud was damaged in a fire in 1532 in the chapel in [[Chambéry]], France. There are some burn holes and scorched areas down both sides of the linen, caused by contact with molten silver during the fire that burned through it in places while it was folded.<ref name="F1kYz" /> Fourteen large triangular patches and eight smaller ones were sewn onto the cloth by [[Poor Clares|Poor Clare]] nuns to repair the damage.

In May 1898 the Italian photographer [[Secondo Pia]] was allowed to photograph the shroud. He took the first photograph of the shroud on 28&nbsp;May 1898. In 1931 another photographer, Giuseppe Enrie, photographed the shroud and obtained results similar to Pia's.<ref name="tY4lH" /> In 1978 [[Ultraviolet photography|ultraviolet photograph]]s were taken of the shroud.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" /><ref name="opticsinfobase.org" />

==History==
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{{Main |History of the Shroud of Turin}}

[[File:Shroud of Lirey Pilgrim Badge.jpg|thumb|upright|Pilgrimage badge of Lirey depicting the Shroud and dating between 1355 and 1410<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|113}}]]

There are no definite historical records concerning the particular shroud currently at [[Turin Cathedral]] prior to the 14th century. A burial cloth, which some historians maintain was the Shroud, was owned by the [[Byzantine]] emperors but disappeared during the [[Sack of Constantinople]] in 1204.<ref>{{Cite book |last=de Clari |first=Robert |title=La Conquête de Constantinople |url=https://archive.org/details/laconquetedeconstantinoplelauer/page/n113/mode/2up |year=1956 |orig-date=Written 1216|editor-first=Philippe |editor-last=Lauer |publication-place=Paris |at=p. 90, lines 42–53 (section XCII) |author-link=Robert de Clari}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=de Clari |first=Robert |translator-last=Stone |translator-first=Edward N. |title=Three Old French Chronicles of the Crusades |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngfG10ZVd44C&dq=University+of+Washington+Publications+in+the+Social+Sciences+volume+10&pg=RA1-PA232 |series=University of Washington Publications in the Social Sciences |publisher=University of Washington |location=Seattle |chapter=The History of Them That Took Constantinople |date=27 August 2023 |publication-date=1939 |orig-date=Written 1216 |volume=10 |page=232}}</ref><ref name="Poulle 2009" /> Although there are numerous reports of Jesus's burial shroud, or an image of his head, of unknown origin, being venerated in various locations before the 14th century, there is no historical evidence that these refer to the shroud currently in Turin.<ref name="OhUvM" />

In 1353 the village of [[Lirey]], in north-central [[Kingdom of France|France]], was enriched with a small [[collegiate church]] endowed by the local [[Feudalism|feudal lord]], a [[knight]] named [[Geoffroi de Charny]].<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|80}} Charny died in 1356 at the [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Battle of Poitiers]].<ref name="Meacham 1983" /> Around 1355, the dean of the [[Chapter (religion)|chapter]] of Lirey, Robert de Caillac, began exhibiting in the church a long fabric that bore an image of the mangled body of Jesus.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|81}} [[Nicole Oresme]], the [[Ancient Diocese of Lisieux|Bishop of Lisieux]], denounced the shroud as a forgery, believing it to be the work of clergymen for the purpose of making money for their churches.<ref>{{Cite journal |last = Sarzeaud |first = Nicolas |title = A New Document on the Appearance of the Shroud of Turin from Nicole Oresme: Fighting False Relics and False Rumours in the Fourteenth Century |journal = [[Journal of Medieval History]] |date = August 28, 2025 |pages = 1–18 |doi = 10.1080/03044181.2025.2546884 |issn = 0304-4181}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Mouriquand|first=David|date=2025-08-29|url=https://www.euronews.com/culture/2025/08/29/newly-discovered-document-adds-evidence-that-shroud-of-turin-is-not-jesus-crucifixion-shro|title= Newly discovered document adds evidence that Shroud of Turin is not Jesus' crucifixion shroud|work=[[Euronews]]|access-date=2025-08-30}}</ref> In 1390 the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Troyes|Bishop of Troyes]], Pierre d'Arcis, who had jurisdiction over the church in Lirey, wrote a lengthy memorandum to [[Antipope Clement VII]] (recognized as Pope by the Church in France during the [[Western Schism]]), declaring that the Shroud was a forgery and that a previous Bishop of Troyes, Henri de Poitiers, had identified the artist who had made it.<ref name="Poulle 2009" /><ref name="JNInquest" /> Clement issued a [[Papal bull|bull]] allowing the [[Canon (title)|canons]] of Lirey to continue exhibiting the Shroud as long as they made it clear that it was an artistic representation of the [[passion of Jesus]] and not a true [[relic]].<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|104–107}}

[[File:Château de Chambéry (2014).JPG|thumb|left|Inner courtyard of the palace of the Dukes of Savoy in Chambéry.  On the left is the façade of the ''Sainte-Chapelle'' where the Shroud was kept until 1578.]]

In 1415, during [[Hundred Years' War, 1415–1453|the last phase]] of the [[Hundred Years' War]], the Shroud was removed from the church of Lirey with the intention of depositing it temporarily at the [[Château de Montfort (Cote-d'Or)|castle of Montfort]] for safekeeping.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|130–131}} Marguerite de Charny, the granddaughter of the knight who had endowed the church of Lirey, then took possession of the cloth and exhibited it at the church of [[Saint-Hippolyte, Doubs]].<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|131–132}} Marguerite's refusal to return the Shroud to Lirey led to litigation. She carried the Shroud in traveling exhibitions, including to [[Chimay]] and [[Mons, Belgium|Mons]].<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|134–135}} In 1453 Marguerite deeded the Shroud to [[Louis, Duke of Savoy]].<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|141–142}} For having sold the Shroud and disregarded the rights of the canons of Lirey, Marguerite was [[Excommunication in the Catholic Church|excommunicated]] by the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Besançon|curia of Besançon]] in 1457.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|145–146}}

The Shroud became the [[Palladium (protective image)|palladium]] of the [[House of Savoy]], and by 1466 it had been deposited in the [[Counts and dukes of Savoy|ducal]] chapel in [[Chambéry]], the capital of the [[Savoyard state]].<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|153–154}}  In 1506 [[Pope Julius II]] authorized the veneration of the Shroud as a true relic of Jesus.<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|158–161}} In 1532 the Shroud was damaged by a fire in the chapel of Chambéry, when molten silver from the reliquary passed through the layers of folded cloth, leaving a symmetrical pattern of holes in the unfolded Shroud but without doing much damage to the image areas. The [[Poor Clares|Poor Clare]] nuns in Chambéry later sewed patches over those holes. In 1578 [[Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy]] ordered the cloth to be brought to [[Turin]], the new Savoyard capital, and it has remained in Turin ever since.<ref name="pUcND" />

[[File:Guarini sindone.jpg|thumb|150px|Guarino Guarini's plan for the [[Chapel of the Holy Shroud]] in Turin, 1682]]

Since the late 17th century, the Shroud has been displayed in the chapel designed for that purpose by architect [[Guarino Guarini]] and attached to both the [[Turin Cathedral|cathedral]] and the [[Royal Palace of Turin|Royal Palace]] of Turin.<ref name="wCdAY" /> Repairs were made to the Shroud in 1694 by [[Sebastian Valfrè]], improving upon the earlier patching by the Poor Clares.<ref name="CVYhP" /> Further repairs were made in 1868 by [[Princess Maria Clotilde of Savoy]]. The Shroud was first photographed in 1898, during a public exhibition. The Shroud remained the property of the House of Savoy until 1983, when it was bequeathed to the [[Holy See]] according to the terms of the will of the former king [[Umberto II of Italy]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Shroud of Turin Given to Vatican by Former King of Italy|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1983/04/02/shroud-of-turin-given-to-vatican-by-former-king-of-italy/b2e4a408-98d3-417b-9fcf-85ab3ea47cde|access-date=10 March 2022|newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>

A fire, possibly caused by arson, threatened the Shroud on 11 April 1997.<ref name="bdQA8" /> In 2002 the [[Holy See]] had the Shroud restored. The cloth backing and thirty patches were removed, making it possible to photograph and scan the reverse side of the cloth, which had been hidden from view. A faint part-image of the body was found on the back of the Shroud in 2004. The Shroud was placed back on public display (the 18th time in its history) in Turin from 10 April to 23 May 2010; and according to Church officials, more than 2 million visitors came to see it.<ref name="FUIsj" />

On [[Holy Saturday]] (30 March) 2013, images of the Shroud were streamed on various websites as well as on television for the first time in 40&nbsp;years.<ref name="Povoledo_New York Times" /><ref name="otLuf" /> Roberto Gottardo of the [[diocese of Turin]] stated that for the first time they had released high-definition images of the Shroud that can be used on [[tablet computer]]s and can be magnified to show details not visible to the naked eye.<ref name="Povoledo_New York Times" /> As this rare exposition took place, [[Pope Francis]] issued a carefully worded statement which urged the faithful to contemplate the Shroud with awe but, like most of his predecessors, he "stopped firmly short of asserting its authenticity".<ref name="The Vatican Today" /><ref name="The Economist archive" />

The Shroud was again placed on display in the cathedral in Turin from 19 April 2015 to 24 June 2015. There was no charge to view it, but an appointment was required.<ref name="YV7QB" />

==Conservation==
{{Main|Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin}}

The Shroud has undergone several [[Conservation-restoration of cultural heritage|restorations]] and several steps have been taken to preserve it to avoid further damage and contamination. It is kept under [[laminated glass|laminated]] [[bulletproof glass]] in an airtight case. The temperature- and humidity-controlled case is filled with [[argon]] (99.5%) and [[oxygen]] (0.5%) to prevent chemical changes. The shroud itself is kept on an aluminium support sliding on runners and stored flat within the case.{{citation needed|date=May 2018}} During a 2002 restoration by the Commission for the Conservation of the Shroud, thirty triangular patches and a [[Holland cloth]] backing that had been added by nuns in 1534 were removed. This restoration has been criticized as causing damage to the Shroud.<ref>{{cite book |first=William |last=Meacham |author-link=William Meacham |title=The Rape of the Turin Shroud |year=2005 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=1-4116-5769-1}}</ref>

==Religious views==
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[[File:OntstaanLijkwade GiovanniBattista.png|thumb|upright|Artistic depiction of the Shroud of Turin, incorporated into a scene of the [[Descent from the Cross]], by painter [[Giulio Clovio]], c. 1540.  Clovio shows Jesus's right hand crossed over the left, which is not consistent with the image on the Shroud.<ref>''The Shroud of Christ'' by Paul Vignon, Paul Tice 2002 {{ISBN|1-885395-96-5}} p. 21</ref>]]

The Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]],<ref>{{Bibleref2 |Matthew |27:59–60 |NRSVUE}}</ref> [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]<ref>{{Bibleref2 |Mark |15:46 |NRSVUE}}</ref> and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]<ref>{{Bibleref2 |Luke |23:53 |NRSVUE}}</ref> state that [[Joseph of Arimathea]] wrapped the body of Jesus in a "linen cloth" or "linen shroud" or just in "linen"{{NoteTag|Translations into English differ in the choice of words used.}} (Greek: {{lang|grc|sindon}}) and placed it in a new tomb. The [[Gospel of John]] says that the body was wrapped in linen cloths (Greek: {{lang|grc|othonia}}), with a significant quantity of [[myrrh]] and [[aloe]]s.<ref>{{Bibleref2 |John |19:38–40 |NRSVUE}}</ref>

The [[Gospel of John]]<ref>{{Bibleref2 |John |20:6–7 |NRSVUE}}</ref> states that after the [[Resurrection of Jesus]], "Simon Peter came, following him, and went into the tomb. He saw the linen wrappings lying there, and the cloth that had been on Jesus's head, not lying with the linen wrappings but rolled up in a place by itself." The Gospel of Luke<ref>{{Bibleref2 |Luke |24:12 |NRSVUE}}</ref> states: "But Peter got up and ran to the tomb; stooping and looking in, he saw the linen cloths by themselves; then he went home, amazed at what had happened."

In 1543, [[John Calvin]], in his book ''[[Treatise on Relics]]'', explained why the Shroud cannot be genuine:<ref>[[s:An Admonition showing, the Advantages which Christendom might derive from an Inventory of Relics|An Admonition showing, the Advantages which Christendom might derive from an Inventory of Relics]]</ref>

{{blockquote|In all the places where they pretend to have the graveclothes, they show a large piece of linen by which the whole body, including the head, was covered, and, accordingly, the figure exhibited is that of an entire body. But the [[John the Evangelist|Evangelist John]] relates that Christ was buried, "as is the manner of the Jews to bury." What that manner was may be learned, not only from the Jews, by whom it is still observed, but also from their books, which explain what the ancient practice was. It was this: The body was wrapped up by itself as far as the shoulders, and then the head by itself was bound round with a napkin, tied by the four corners, into a knot. And this is expressed by the Evangelist, when he says that [[Saint Peter|Peter]] saw the linen clothes in which the body had been wrapped lying in one place, and the napkin which had been wrapped about the head lying in another. The term napkin may mean either a handkerchief employed to wipe the face, or it may mean a shawl, but never means a large piece of linen in which the whole body may be wrapped. I have, however, used the term in the sense which they improperly give to it. On the whole, either the Evangelist John must have given a false account, or every one of them must be convicted of falsehood, thus making it manifest that they have too impudently imposed on the unlearned.}}

Although pieces said to be of burial cloths of Jesus are held by at least four churches in France and three in Italy, none has gathered as much religious following as the Shroud of Turin.<ref name="L0Q74" /> The religious beliefs and practices associated with the shroud predate historical and scientific discussions and have continued in the 21st century, although the Catholic Church has never passed judgment on its authenticity.<ref name="Bkn2H" /> An example is the [[Holy Face Medal]] bearing the image from the shroud, worn by some Catholics.<ref name="h3pgG" /> Indeed, the Shroud of Turin is respected by Christians of several traditions, including [[Baptists]], Catholics, [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Methodism|Methodists]], Orthodox, [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]] and [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]].<ref name="Dreisbach2001" /> Several Lutheran parishes have hosted replicas of the Shroud, for [[Didacticism|didactic]] and devotional purposes.<ref name="egvgm" /><ref name="YFlTO" />

===Miraculous images===
{{Further|Acheiropoieta|Veil of Veronica|Manoppello Image|Image of Edessa|Sudarium of Oviedo}}
[[File:Simon Ushakov. Spas. (Perm).jpg|thumb |200px|17th-century Russian icon of the [[Mandylion]] by [[Simon Ushakov]]]]

The concept of ''[[acheiropoieta]]'' ({{langx|grc-x-medieval|αχειροποίητα}}, {{lit|made without hand}}; {{singular}} ''acheiropoieton'') has a long history in Christianity, going back at least to the 6th century. These are images believed to have been miraculously produced, without the agency of any human artist. Among the most prominent ''acheiropoieta'' are the Image of [[Camuliana]] and the [[Image of Edessa]] (also called the "Mandylion"). Both of these were [[icon]]s of Jesus reported to have existed in the [[Byzantine Empire]], but which are now generally regarded as having been lost or destroyed.  Other popular Byzantine ''acheiropoieta'' were [[Hodegetria]] images of the Virgin Mary.<ref name="tgjGP" />

Some images currently held in Italy and other Western European countries, including the [[Manoppello Image]], have been revered as ''acheiropoieta'' of Jesus. These are usually associated with the tradition of the [[Veil of Veronica]], according to which the image of Jesus's face was miraculously imprinted on the cloth that [[Saint Veronica]] used to wipe the blood and sweat from the face of Jesus when she comforted him on the ''[[Via Dolorosa]]''. Although some of these images were once objects of major popular devotions among Catholics, today they have been overshadowed by the fame and prestige of the Shroud of Turin. Another popular [[relic]] of Jesus is the [[Sudarium of Oviedo]], which is kept in the ''[[Cámara Santa, Oviedo|Cámara Santa]]'' of the [[Cathedral of San Salvador (Oviedo)|Cathedral of San Salvador]], in [[Oviedo]], Spain. This is not an ''acheiropoieton'', but rather a simple bloodstained cloth purported to have been wrapped around the head of Jesus after his death.

===Devotions===
[[File:Secundo Pia Turinske platno 1898.jpg|thumb |180px |[[Secondo Pia]]'s 1898 negative of the image on the Shroud of Turin, which has since been used as part of the devotion to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]]. Image from [[Musée de l'Élysée]], [[Lausanne]].]]

Today the Catholic devotions to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]] are usually associated with the negative image of the Shroud of Turin, as first captured in [[Secondo Pia]]'s 1898 photograph. However, these devotions predate Pia's image, having been established in 1844 by the Carmelite nun [[Marie of St Peter]], based on depictions of Jesus before his crucifixion and associated with the tradition of the [[Veil of Veronica]]. This devotion was then promoted by a French Catholic layman, [[Leo Dupont]], who became known as the "Apostle of the Holy Face". In 1851 Dupont formed the "Archconfraternity of the Holy Face" in the city of [[Tours]].<ref name="2bgcC" /> [[Pope Leo XIII]] approved the devotion to the Holy Face in 1885. The popular French Saint [[Thérèse of Lisieux]] took the name "Thérèse of the Child Jesus and the Holy Face" when she became a [[Discalced Carmelites|Discalced Carmelite]] in 1889. Saint Thérèse, who died in 1897, also helped to spread the devotion to the Holy Face before it became associated with Pia's photographic image of the Shroud of Turin.

The modern devotion to the Holy Face centered on the negative photographic image from the Shroud of Turin derives principally from an Italian nun born in Milan, [[Maria Pierina De Micheli]], who reported having [[Visions of Jesus and Mary|visions of Jesus]] starting in 1936. Sister Maria Pierina designed a "Holy Face Medal", based on Second Pia's photographs. This medal was eventually approved for private devotion by [[Pope Pius XII]].

===Papal positions===
[[File:Shroud of Turin 1898 poster.jpg|thumb |A poster advertising the 1898 exhibition of the Shroud in Turin. [[Secondo Pia]]'s photograph was taken a few weeks too late to be included in the poster. The image on the poster includes a painted face, not obtained from Pia's photograph.]]

In 1389 the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Troyes|Bishop of Troyes]] sent a memorial to [[Antipope Clement VII]], declaring that the cloth had been "artificially painted in an ingenious way" and that "it was also proved by the artist who had painted it that it was made by human work, not miraculously produced". In 1390 Clement VII consequently issued four [[papal bulls]], with which he allowed the exposition, but ordered to "say aloud, to put an end to all fraud, that the aforementioned representation is not the true Shroud of Our Lord Jesus Christ, but a painting or panel made to represent or imitate the Shroud".<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 April 2010|title=Gli scienziati credono nel dubbio- Torino LASTAMPA.it|url=http://www3.lastampa.it/torino/sezioni/ostensione/articolo/lstp/183962/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412234529/http://www3.lastampa.it/torino/sezioni/ostensione/articolo/lstp/183962/|archive-date=12 April 2010|access-date=2 June 2021}}</ref> However, in 1506 [[Pope Julius II]] reversed this position and permitted the faithful who believe the Shroud to be authentic to venerate it as such,<ref name="Nicolotti" />{{rp|158–161}} authorizing the public veneration of it with its own mass and office.<ref name="xZDe5" />

The Vatican newspaper ''[[L'Osservatore Romano]]'' covered the story of [[Secondo Pia]]'s photograph of 28 May 1898 in its edition of 15 June 1898, but it did so with no comment and thereafter Church officials generally refrained from officially commenting on the photograph for almost half a century.

The first official modern association between the Shroud and the official Catholic Church dates from 1940, when Sister [[Maria Pierina De Micheli]] approached the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|curia of Milan]] requesting authorization to produce a devotional medal based on the image of Jesus's face from the Shroud. This "Holy Face Medal" was approved by [[Pope Pius XII]] and it was initially used as a means of protection during the [[Second World War]]. In 1958 Pius XII approved of the image in association with the devotion to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]], and decreed that the "[[Feast of the Holy Winding Sheet of Christ]]" be celebrated every year on [[Shrove Tuesday]].<ref name="rWaGT" /><ref name="FSixb" /><ref name="JNEk4" />

In 1936 Pius XII had referred to the Shroud as a "holy thing perhaps like nothing else".<ref name="Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin" />  In 1998 [[Pope John Paul II]] called the Shroud a "distinguished [[relic]]" and "a mirror of the Gospel".<ref name="07edI" /><ref name="0JJMV" /> His successor, [[Pope Benedict XVI]], called it an "icon written with the blood of a whipped man, crowned with thorns, crucified and pierced on his right side".<ref name="Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin" /> In 2013 [[Pope Francis]] referred to it as an "icon of a man scourged and crucified".<ref name="Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin" /> Some members of other [[Christian denomination]]s, such as Anglicans and Methodists, have also shown devotion to the Shroud.<ref name="Dreisbach2001" />

In 1983 the Shroud was given to the Holy See by the [[House of Savoy]].<ref name="Michael Freze 1993, p. 57" /> However, as with all relics of this kind, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] made no pronouncements on its authenticity. As with other approved [[Catholic devotions]], the matter has been left to the personal decision of the faithful, as long as the Church does not issue a future notification to the contrary. In the Church's view, whether the cloth is authentic or not has no bearing whatsoever on the validity of what Jesus taught or on the saving power of his death and resurrection.<ref name="Qhn2n" />

[[Pope John Paul II]] stated in 1998 that:<ref name="4HzMz" /> "Since it is not a matter of faith, the Church has no specific competence to pronounce on these questions. She entrusts to scientists the task of continuing to investigate, so that satisfactory answers may be found to the questions connected with this Sheet."<ref name="rCtW0" /> John Paul II showed himself to be deeply moved by the image of the Shroud and arranged for public showings in 1998 and 2000. In his address at [[Turin Cathedral]] on Sunday 24 May 1998 (the occasion of the 100th year of Secondo Pia's 28 May 1898 photograph), he said: "The Shroud is an image of [[Love of God in Christianity|God's love]] as well as of human sin... The imprint left by the tortured body of the Crucified One, which attests to the tremendous human capacity for causing pain and death to one's fellow man, stands as an icon of the suffering of the innocent in every age."<ref name="37HmX" />

On 30 March 2013, as part of the Easter celebrations, there was an exposition of the shroud in the Cathedral of Turin. Pope Francis recorded a video message for the occasion, in which he described the image on the shroud as "this [[Icon]] of a man", and stated that "the Man of the Shroud invites us to contemplate Jesus of Nazareth."<ref name="The Vatican Today" /><ref name="The Economist archive" /> In his carefully worded statement, Francis urged the faithful to contemplate the Shroud with awe, but "stopped firmly short of asserting its authenticity".<ref name="The Economist archive" />

Pope Francis went on a pilgrimage to Turin on 21 June 2015, to pray before and venerate the Holy Shroud and honour [[John Bosco|St. John Bosco]] on the [[wikt:bicentenary|bicentenary]] of his birth.<ref name="Jy4GU" /><ref name="SeR8n" /><ref name="FUDUA" />

==Scientific analysis==

'''Sindonology''' (from the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] σινδών—sindon, the word used in the [[Gospel of Mark]]<ref>{{bibleverse|Mark |15:46}}</ref> to describe the type of the burial cloth of Jesus) is the formal study of the Shroud. The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' cites the first use of this word in 1964: "The investigation&nbsp;... assumed the stature of a separate discipline and was given a name, sindonology," but also identifies the use of "sindonological" in 1950 and "sindonologist" in 1953.<ref name="oed" />

[[Secondo Pia]]'s 1898 photographs of the shroud allowed the scientific community to begin to study it. A variety of scientific theories regarding the shroud have since been proposed, based on disciplines ranging from chemistry to biology and medical forensics to optical image analysis. The scientific approaches to the study of the Shroud fall into three groups: ''material analysis'' (both chemical and historical), ''biology and medical forensics'' and ''image analysis''.

===Early studies===
The first direct examination of the shroud by a scientific team was undertaken in 1969–1973 in order to advise on preservation of the shroud and determine specific testing methods. This led to the appointment of an 11-member Turin Commission to advise on the preservation of the relic and on specific testing. Five of the commission members were scientists, and preliminary studies of samples of the fabric were conducted in 1973.<ref name="Meacham 1983" />

In 1976 the physicist John P. Jackson, the thermodynamicist Eric Jumper and the photographer William Mottern used [[image analysis]] technologies developed in aerospace science for analyzing the images of the Shroud. In 1977 these three scientists and over thirty other experts in various fields formed the [[Shroud of Turin Research Project]]. In 1978 this group, often called STURP, was given direct access to the Shroud.

Also in 1978, independently from the STURP research, Giovanni Tamburelli obtained at [[CSELT]] a 3D-elaboration from the Shroud with higher resolution than Jumper and Mottern. A second result of Tamburelli was the electronic removal from the image of the blood that apparently covers the face.<ref name="uFJFg" />

====Tests for pigments====
In October 1978 a team of scientists affiliated with STURP took 32 samples from the surface of the Shroud, using [[adhesive tape]]. Of those samples, 18 were taken from areas of the Shroud that showed a body or blood image, while 14 were taken from non-image areas. The chemical microscopist [[Walter McCrone]], a leading expert in the forensic authentication of historical documents and works of art, examined the tapes using [[polarized light microscopy]] and other physical and chemical techniques. McCrone concluded that the Shroud's body image had been painted with a dilute pigment of red [[ochre]] (a form of [[iron oxide]]) in a [[collagen]] [[tempera]] (i.e., [[gelatin]]) medium, using a technique similar to the [[grisaille]] employed in the 14th century by [[Simone Martini]] and other European artists. McCrone also found that the "bloodstains" in the image had been highlighted with [[vermilion]] (a bright red pigment made from [[mercury sulfide]]), also in a collagen tempera medium. McCrone reported that no actual blood was present in the samples taken from the Shroud.<ref name="McCrone-90" />

Other members of STURP rejected McCrone's conclusions and concluded, based on their own examination of the Shroud and the tape samples, that the image on the Shroud could not be explained by the presence of pigments.<ref name="Meacham 1983" /> Mark Anderson, who was working for McCrone, analyzed the Shroud samples.<ref name="59o0l" /> In his book Ray Rogers states that Anderson, who was McCrone's [[Raman microscope|Raman microscopy]] expert, concluded that the samples acted as organic material when he subjected them to the laser.<ref name="Rogers2008" />{{rp|61}} McCrone resigned from STURP in June 1980, after giving back all of the tape samples in his possession to Ray Rogers.<ref name="AhneJ" />{{rp|124}}

John Heller and Alan Adler examined the same samples and agreed with McCrone's result that the cloth contains iron oxide. However, they argued that the exceptional purity of the chemical and comparisons with other ancient textiles showed that, while [[Flax#Retting flax|retting flax]] absorbs iron selectively, the iron itself was not the source of the image on the shroud.<ref name="heller" />

After his analysis of the Shroud was first published in 1980, McCrone continued to argue in journal articles, public lectures, and in the book ''Judgment Day for the Shroud of Turin'' (which appeared in 1996), that the Shroud had been painted in the 14th century and that it showed no traces of actual blood.<ref name="AhneJ" /> He also argued that the members of STURP lacked relevant expertise in the chemical [[microanalysis]] of historical artworks and that their non-detection of pigment in the Shroud's image was "consistent with the sensitivity of the instruments and techniques they used."<ref name="McCrone-90" /> For his work on the Shroud, McCrone was awarded the [[American Chemical Society]]'s National Award in [[Analytical chemistry|Analytical Chemistry]] in 2000.<ref name="C&EN-2000" />

All attempts to replicate the image in the lab have so far failed, and the source and method of the shroud's image continues to be unclear.<ref name="auto"/>

===Radiocarbon dating===
{{Main |Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin}}

[[Radiocarbon dating]] has established that the shroud is medieval, and not from the time of Jesus.<ref name=taylor>{{cite book |vauthors=Taylor RE |chapter=Radiocarbon Dating |title=The Oxford Companion To Archaeology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |series=Oxford Reference |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199735785.001.0001/acref-9780199735785-e-0364 |edition=2nd |veditors=Silberman NA |isbn= 978-0-19-973578-5}}</ref>

Independent radiocarbon dating tests were carried out in 1988 at the [[University of Oxford]], the [[University of Arizona]] and the [[ETH Zurich|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology]], following years of discussion to obtain permission from the [[Holy See]]. The tests were done on portions of a swatch taken from a corner of the shroud, and concluded with 95% confidence that the material dated to AD 1260–1390.<ref name="'Turin Nature" /> The dating matches the first appearance of the shroud in church history.<ref name="HST" /><ref name="XS4uZ" /> This dating is also slightly more recent than that estimated by the art historian W. S. A. Dale, who postulated on artistic grounds that the shroud is an 11th-century icon made for use in worship services.<ref name="dale" />

Some proponents for the authenticity of the shroud have attempted to discount the radiocarbon dating result by claiming that the sample may represent a medieval "[[invisible mending]]" repair fragment rather than the image-bearing cloth.<ref name="Gove 1990" /><ref name="Rogers 2005" /><ref name="Benford & Marino 2008" /><ref name="Riani et al. 2012" /><ref name="lwNFS" /><ref name="t7xEW" /> However, all of the hypotheses used to challenge the radiocarbon dating have been scientifically refuted,<ref name="c14.arch.ox.ac.uk" /><ref name="Radiocarbon Dating pg 167-168" /> including the medieval repair hypothesis,<ref name="R.A. Freer-Waters, A.J.T. Jull 2010" /><ref name="freeinquiry1" /> the bio-contamination hypothesis<ref name="Gove 1990" /> and the carbon monoxide hypothesis.<ref name="c14.arch.ox.ac.uk" />

In recent years, the radiocarbon dating data have been repeatedly statistically analysed in attempts to draw some conclusions about the reliability of the radiocarbon dating from studying the data rather than studying the shroud itself.<ref name="Riani et al. 2012"/><ref name="Casabianca Marinelli Pernagallo Torrisi pp. 1223–1231" /><ref name="Walsh Schwalbe 2020 p=102015" /><ref name="JMP Ball 2019">{{cite web | author=JMP | last2=Ball | first2=Philip | title=How old is the Turin Shroud? | website=Chemistry World | date=9 April 2019 | url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/opinion/how-old-is-the-turin-shroud/3010341.article | access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="2vPzG">{{Cite news |date=31 January 2005 |title=Turin shroud 'older than thought' |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/4210369.stm |work=BBC News}}</ref> The studies have all concluded that the data lack homogeneity, which might be due to unidentified abnormalities in the fabric tested, or to differences in the pre-testing cleaning processes used by the different laboratories. The most recent analysis (2020) found that adjusting the results from two of the labs by just ten years would be sufficient to resolve the inhomogeneity and a slightly larger adjustment of 88 years would make all of the results agree with one another statistically.<ref name="Walsh Schwalbe 2020 p=102015" />

===Biological and medical forensics===

====Blood stains====
There are several reddish stains on the shroud suggesting blood, but it is uncertain whether these stains were produced at the same time as the image, or afterwards.<ref name="yJKHY" /> McCrone (see [[#Painting|painting hypothesis]]) showed that these contain [[iron oxide]], and theorized that its presence was likely due to simple pigment materials used in medieval times.<ref name="0i7HH" /> Skeptics cite forensic blood tests whose results dispute the authenticity of the Shroud, and point to the possibility that the blood could belong to a person who handled the shroud, and that the apparent blood flows on the shroud are unrealistically neat.<ref name="skepdic" /><ref name="kGqWe" /><ref name="hrT78" />

It has not been scientifically demonstrated that the blood is of human, or even primate, origin.<ref name="m744">{{cite journal | last=Kearse | first=Kelly P. | title=The Aggrandizement of Scientific Data in the Media: The Shroud of Turin blood marks as a case example | journal=Forensic Science International: Reports | date=2025 | volume=12 | doi=10.1016/j.fsir.2025.100430 | article-number=100430 | url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S266591072500026X | access-date=21 September 2025}}</ref>

====Flowers and pollen====
A study published in 2011 by [[Salvatore Lorusso]] of the [[University of Bologna]] and others subjected two photographs of the shroud to detailed modern digital image processing, one of them being a reproduction of the photographic negative taken by Giuseppe Enrie in 1931. They did not find any images of flowers or coins or anything else on either image.<ref name="academia.edu" />

In 2015 the Italian researchers Barcaccia et al. published a new study in ''[[Scientific Reports]]''. They examined the human and non-human DNA found when the shroud and its backing cloth were vacuumed in 1977 and 1988. They found traces of 19 different plant [[Taxon|taxa]], including plants native to Mediterranean countries, Central Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Asia (China) and the Americas. Of the human [[mtDNA]], sequences were found belonging to [[haplogroup]]s that are typical of various ethnicities and geographic regions, including Europe, North and East Africa, the Middle East and India. A few non-plant and non-human sequences were also detected, including various birds and one ascribable to a marine worm common in the Northern Pacific Ocean, next to Canada.<ref name="Barcaccia 2015" /> After sequencing some DNA of pollen and dust found on the shroud, they confirmed that many people from many different places came in contact with the shroud. According to the scientists, "such diversity does not exclude a Medieval origin in Europe but it would be also compatible with the historic path followed by the Turin Shroud during its presumed journey from the [[Near East]]. Furthermore, the results raise the possibility of an Indian manufacture of the linen cloth."<ref name="Barcaccia 2015" />

In 2016, Italian [[palynologist]] Marzia Boi proposed based on published pictures of pollen from the shroud that the most abundant pollen on the shroud was from genus [[Helichrysum]] and suggested that the former could have come from balms and ointments used in first century AD burial rituals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boi |first=M. |date=2017 |title=Pollen on the Shroud of Turin: The Probable Trace Left by Anointing and Embalming |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/arcm.12269 |journal=[[Archaeometry (journal)|Archaeometry]] |language=en |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=316–330 |doi=10.1111/arcm.12269 |bibcode=2017Archa..59..316B |issn=1475-4754}}</ref> The researchers who studied the pollen directly had identified it as from [[Gundelia tournefortii]].

====Anatomical forensics====
[[File:Full length negatives of the shroud of Turin.jpg|thumb|280px |Full length negatives of the shroud]]
A number of studies on the anatomical consistency of the image on the shroud and the nature of the wounds on it have been performed, following the initial study by [[Yves Delage]] in 1902.<ref name="Delage, Yves 1902" /> While Delage declared the image anatomically flawless, others have presented arguments to support both authenticity and forgery.

The analysis of a crucified Roman, discovered near Venice in 2007, shows heel wounds that are consistent with those found on [[Jehohanan]] but which are not consistent with wounds depicted on the shroud. Also, neither of the crucifixion victims known to archaeology show evidence of wrist wounds.<ref name="a4noy" />

[[Joe Nickell]] in 1983 and [[Gregory S. Paul]] in 2010 separately state that the [[body proportions|proportions]] of the image are not realistic. Paul stated that the face and proportions of the shroud image are impossible, that the figure cannot represent that of an actual person and that the posture was inconsistent. They argued that the forehead on the shroud is too small; and that the arms are too long and of different lengths and that the distance from the eyebrows to the top of the head is non representative. They concluded that the features can be explained if the shroud is a work of a [[Gothic art]]ist.<ref name="JNInquest" /><ref name="paul gothic fraud" /> As [[Raymond E. Brown]] noticed, a corpse in the relaxed position portrayed on the shroud could not be positioned such that its hand covers its genitals as portrayed.<ref name="Brown 2002 p. 151">{{cite book | last=Brown | first=Raymond E. | title=Biblical Exegesis and Church Doctrine | publisher=Wipf & Stock | year=2002 | isbn=978-1-59244-024-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdBKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 | access-date=11 September 2022 | pages=151–152 | quote=Another problem is the attention given to the covering of the genitals. In the Shroud, the man's hands are crossed on the genital area with the right hand completely covering any nudity. Wild notes that the body imaged in the Shroud is portrayed as relaxed in death, but in a relaxed position a man's joined hands will not cover his genitals if he lies on his back. Either the body has to be tilted forward and the arms stretched downward, or the elbows have to be propped up on the side and the wrists drawn together to hold the hands in place over the genital area. In the Shroud image also, the right arm is exceedingly long and the fingers of the right hand almost disproportionate, in order to allow the modest covering. Again, such a feature would be more understandable if the Shroud were an artistic production reflecting the interests of another era.}}</ref> The right arm and hand in the image appear to have been elongated to make this possible.

In 2018 an experimental Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BPA) was performed to study the behaviour of blood flows from the wounds of a crucified person, and to compare this to the evidence on the Turin Shroud. The comparison between different tests demonstrated that the blood patterns on the forearms and on the back of the hand are not connected, and would have had to occur at different times, as a result of a very specific sequence of movements. In addition, the rivulets on the front of the image are not consistent with the lines on the lumbar area, even supposing there might have been different episodes of bleeding at different times. These inconsistencies suggest that the Turin linen was an artistic or "didactic" representation, rather than an authentic burial shroud.<ref name="7n0ha" />

===Image and text analysis===
====Image analysis====
Both art-historical [[digital image processing]] and analog techniques have been applied to the shroud images.

In 1976 scientists used imaging equipment from the American [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) to analyze a photograph of the Shroud image and decoded the shroud image into a three-dimensional image.<ref name="gwaF9" /> The optical physicist and former STURP member John Dee German has noted that it is not difficult to make a photograph which has 3D qualities. If the object being photographed is lit from the front, and a non-reflective "fog" of some sort exists between the camera and the object, then less light will reach and reflect back from the portions of the object that are farther from the lens, thus creating a contrast which is dependent on distance.<ref name="mJuNU" />

The front image on the shroud is {{convert|1.95|metres|ftin}} long, and is not exactly the same size as the rear image, which is {{convert|2.02|m|ftin}} long.<ref name="Fanti2010" /> Analysis of the images found them to be compatible with the shroud having been used to wrap a body {{convert|1.75|m|ftin}} long.<ref name="Fanti2010" />

The image could be compared to [[oshiguma]], the making of face-prints as an artform, in Japan. Furthermore, the subject's physical appearance corresponds to [[Icon#Byzantine Empire|Byzantine iconography]].<ref name="CYx05" /><ref name="Brown2002" />

The Shroud cloth is composed of threads of a nominal diameter of 0.15&nbsp;mm, woven with fibers of linen with a diameter of about 10-20&nbsp;μm.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/>

The Shroud image is a faint and superficial image caused by a translucent and discontinuous yellow discoloration of the fibers.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/> In the points where the image is present, the discoloration affects only two or three fibers on the topmost part of the threads of the cloth.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/> In each fiber, the yellow discoloration penetrates only for 200&nbsp;nm in the external cell layer.<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/>

A fiber is not necessarily colored for all its length, but, in the parts where it is, it has the property of being colored all around its cylindrical surface.<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/>

Under the crossing threads of the weave, the image is not present.<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/>

The discoloration seems caused by a kind of dehydrative oxidation process, which has discolored and chemically altered the surfaces of certain surface fibrils.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Comprehensive examination"/>

The image of the Shroud is an areal density image, in the sense that the levels of darkness are not given by variations of the color, which instead is approximately constant all over the image, but by a variation of the number of yellowed fibers per unit area.<ref name="Rogers" /><ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology"/> Therefore, it can be considered a [[halftone]] image.<ref name="Rogers" /> Furthermore, there is no difference in terms of distribution of fiber coloration and maximum densities between the front and the rear of the image.<ref name="Rogers" />

While the blood images could have come from a contact mechanism, the body image could not. The mapping between body-only image densities and expected cloth–body distances is not consistent with the image having been formed by direct contact with a body, as it is present even when it does not seem possible for the cloth to be in contact with the body.<ref name="Comprehensive examination"/>

===Hypotheses on image origin===
==== Painting ====

According to [[Walter McCrone]], the technique used for producing the image on the shroud could well be the same as a medieval [[grisaille]] method described in Sir [[Charles Lock Eastlake]]'s ''Methods and Materials of Painting of the Great Schools and Masters'' (1847). Eastlake describes in the chapter "Practice of Painting Generally During the XIVth Century" a special technique of painting on linen using tempera paint, which produces images with unusual transparent features that McCrone compares to the image on the shroud.<ref name="McCrone-90" /> McCrone also argued that the current image on the shroud may be fainter than the original painting, due to the rubbing off of the ochre pigment from the tops of the exposed linen fibers over the course of several centuries of handling and exhibition of the fabric.<ref name="AhneJ" />{{rp|106}}

==== Acid pigmentation ====
In 2009 Luigi Garlaschelli, professor of [[organic chemistry]] at the [[University of Pavia]], stated that he had made a full size reproduction of the Shroud of Turin using only medieval technologies. Garlaschelli placed a linen sheet over a volunteer and then rubbed it with an acidic pigment. The shroud was then aged in an oven before being washed to remove the pigment. He then added blood stains, scorches and water stains to replicate the original.<ref name="2MV5E" /> Giulio Fanti, professor of mechanical and thermic measurements at the [[University of Padua]], commented that "the technique itself seems unable to produce an image having the most critical Turin Shroud image characteristics".<ref name="vmQhb" /><ref name="QoeJV" />

Garlaschelli's reproduction was shown in a 2010 [[National Geographic (American TV channel)|National Geographic]] documentary. Garlaschelli's technique included the bas-relief approach (described below) but only for the image of the face. The resultant image was visibly similar to the Turin Shroud, though lacking the uniformity and detail of the original.<ref name="KFl7L" />

====Medieval photography====

The art historian Nicholas Allen has proposed that the image on the shroud could have been formed as early as the 13th century using techniques described in the 1011 ''[[Book of Optics]]''.<ref name="ysJIc" /><ref name="OeMaN" /><ref name="O8JRe" /><ref name="3s2vH" /> However, according to Mike Ware, a chemist and expert on the history of photography, Allen's proposal "encounters serious obstacles with regard to the technical history of the lens. Such claimants tend to draw upon the wisdom of hindsight to project a distorted historical perspective, wherein their cases rest upon a particular concatenation of procedures which is exceedingly improbable; and their 'proofs' amount only to demonstrating (none too faithfully) that it was not totally impossible." Among other difficulties, Allen's hypothesized process would have required that the subject (a corpse) be exposed in the sunlight for months.{{refn|{{cite journal|first=Mike|last= Ware|year=1997|title= On proto-photography and the Shroud of Turin |journal=History of Photography|volume=21|number=4|pages=261–269|doi= 10.1080/03087298.1997.10443848}} }}

====Dust-transfer technique====
The scientists Emily Craig and Randall Bresee have attempted to recreate the likenesses of the shroud through the dust-transfer technique, which could have been done by medieval arts. They first did a carbon-dust drawing of a Jesus-like face (using collagen dust) on a newsprint made from wood pulp (which is similar to 13th- and 14th-century paper). They next placed the drawing on a table and covered it with a piece of linen. They then pressed the linen against the newsprint by firmly rubbing with the flat side of a wooden spoon. By doing this they managed to create a reddish-brown image with a lifelike positive likeness of a person, a three-dimensional image and no sign of brush strokes.<ref name="OU1UD" />

====Bas-relief====
In 1978 Joe Nickell noted that the Shroud image had a three-dimensional quality and thought its creation may have involved a sculpture of some type. He advanced the hypothesis that a medieval rubbing technique was used to produce the image, and set out to demonstrate this. He noted that while wrapping a cloth around a sculpture with normal contours would result in a distorted image, Nickell believed that wrapping a cloth over a [[bas-relief]] might result in an image like the one seen on the shroud, as it would eliminate wraparound distortions. For his demonstration, Nickell wrapped a wet cloth around a bas-relief sculpture and allowed it to dry. He then applied powdered pigment rather than wet paint (to prevent it soaking into the threads). The pigment was applied with a dauber, similar to making a rubbing from a gravestone. The result was an image with dark regions and light regions convincingly arranged. In a photo essay in ''[[Popular Photography]]'' magazine, Nickell demonstrated this technique step-by-step.<ref name="JNInquest" /><ref name="PopPhoto" />{{NoteTag|For his pigment, Nickell first used the burial spices myrrh and aloes, but changed to red iron oxide (the pigment [[Ochre|red ocher]]) when microanalyst, [[Walter McCrone]] identified it as constituting the shroud's image; McCrone had identified the blood as red ochre and [[vermilion]] tempera paint.<ref name="JNInquest" />}} Other researchers later replicated this process.

In 2005 the researcher Jacques di Costanzo constructed a bas-relief of a Jesus-like face and draped wet linen over it. After the linen dried, he dabbed it with a mixture of [[ferric oxide]] and [[gelatine]]. The result was an image similar to that of the face on the Shroud. The imprinted image turned out to be wash-resistant, impervious to temperatures of {{convert |250 |C |abbr=on}} and was undamaged by exposure to a range of harsh chemicals, including [[Bisulfite|bisulphite]], which, without the gelatine, would normally have degraded ferric oxide to the compound ferrous oxide.<ref name="'Ingham" />

Instead of painting, it has been suggested that the bas-relief could also be heated and used to scorch an image onto the cloth. However researcher Thibault Heimburger performed some experiments with the scorching of linen, and found that a scorch mark is only produced by direct contact with the hot object—thus producing an all-or-nothing discoloration with no graduation of color as is found in the shroud.<ref name="DCaPw" />

====Maillard reaction====
The [[Maillard reaction]] is a form of non-enzymatic browning involving an amino acid and a reducing sugar. The [[cellulose]] fibers of the shroud are coated with a thin [[carbohydrate]] layer of starch fractions, various sugars, and other impurities. The potential source for amines required for the reaction is a decomposing body,<ref name="Rogers2008" />{{rp|100}} and no signs of decomposition have been found on the Shroud. Rogers also notes that their tests revealed that there were no proteins or bodily fluids on the image areas.<ref name="Rogers2008" />{{rp|38}} Also, the image resolution and the uniform coloration of the linen resolution seem to be incompatible with a mechanism involving diffusion.<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology" />

[[File:Replica Sábana Santa.jpg|upright=1.3|thumb|center|Replica of the Shroud of Turin, found in the [[Real Santuario del Cristo de La Laguna]] in [[Tenerife]] ([[Spain]])]]

==Fringe theories==
{{Main | Fringe theories about the Shroud of Turin}}

===Images of coins, flowers, and writing===
Various people claim to have detected images of flowers on the shroud as well as coins over the eyes of the face in the image, writing, and other objects.<ref name="5gKwV" /><ref name="iESyt" /><ref name="3VMNL" /><ref name="BdLho" /><ref name="CC5dG" /><ref name="nE3px" /><ref name="r6V1l" /><ref name="TimesFrale" /><ref name="FraleTeleg" />{{citekill|date=April 2024}} However, a study published in 2011 by Lorusso and others subjected two photographs of the shroud to detailed modern digital image processing, one of them being a reproduction of the photographic negative taken by Giuseppe Enrie in 1931. They did not find any images of flowers or coins or writing or any other additional objects on the shroud in either photograph, they noted the faint images were "only visible by incrementing the photographic contrast" so they concluded that these signs might be linked to protuberances in the yarn and possibly also to the alteration and influence of the texture of the Enrie photographic negative during its development in 1931.<ref name="academia.edu" /> The use of coins to cover the eyes of the dead is not attested for 1st-century Judea. The existence of the coin images is rejected by most scientists.<ref name="R2f4f" />

===Pray Codex===
An image in the medieval manuscript of the [[Pray Codex]] (c. 1192–1195) has generated a debate among some believers since 1978.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Casabianca |first=Tristan |date=September 2021 |title=The Ongoing Historical Debate About the Shroud of Turin: The Case of the Pray Codex |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/heyj.13929 |journal=The Heythrop Journal |language=en |volume=62 |issue=5 |pages=789–802 |doi=10.1111/heyj.13929 |s2cid=233901673 |issn=0018-1196}}</ref> Although the Pray Codex predates the Shroud of Turin, some of the assumed features of the drawing, including the four L-shaped holes on the coffin lid, have pointed some people towards a possible attempted representation of the linen cloth. However the image on the Pray Codex has crosses on what may be one side of the supposed shroud, an interlocking step pyramid pattern on the other, and no image of Jesus. Critics point out that it may not be a shroud at all, but rather a rectangular tombstone, as seen on other sacred images.<ref name="36naL" /> A crumpled cloth can be seen discarded on the coffin, and the text of the codex fails to mention any miraculous image on the codex shroud.<ref name=":0" />

===Radiation processes===
Some proponents for the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin have argued that the image on the shroud was created by some form of radiation emission at the "moment of resurrection".<ref name="Ruffin155" /><ref name="Jacksonet" /><ref name="EAnDx" /> However, the [[STURP]] member Alan Adler has stated that this theory is not generally accepted as scientific, given that it runs counter to the laws of physics,<ref name="Ruffin155" /> while agreeing that the darkening of the fabric could be produced by exposure to light (and predicting that despite the fact that the Shroud is normally stored in darkness and rarely displayed, it [[Conservation-restoration of the Shroud of Turin#Natural hazards|will eventually become darker in the future]]).<ref name="CST">{{cite web|url=http://www.shroud.com/restored.htm|title=Comments On The Restoration|publisher=Shroud.com|access-date=2010-03-04|archive-date=2010-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416083807/http://www.shroud.com/restored.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>{{unreliable source|date=January 2024}} Raymond Rogers also criticized the theory, saying: "It is clear that a corona discharge (plasma) in air will cause easily observable changes in a linen sample. No such effects can be observed in image fibers from the Shroud of Turin. Corona discharges or plasmas made no contribution to image formation."<ref name="Rogers2008" />{{rp|83}} Even if ultraviolet radiation were proven to have formed the image, it cannot be proven that it was not natural, that of the sun, applied to the prepared cloth unevenly to create the image.<ref name= "CST"/>{{unreliable source|date=January 2024}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Religion|Christianity|Catholicism|Italy}}
* [[Depiction of Jesus]]
* [[Relics associated with Jesus]]
** [[Seamless robe of Jesus|Seamless robe]]
* [[List of photographs considered the most important]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
{{Reflist
|refs =
<ref name="Nicolotti">{{Cite book |first=Andrea |last=Nicolotti |title=The Shroud of Turin: The History and Legends of the World's Most Famous Relic |publisher=Baylor University Press |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-4813-1147-2 |url=https://www.baylorpress.com/9781481311472/the-shroud-of-turin/ |translator-last1= Hunt|translator-first1=Jeffrey M.|translator-last2=Smith|translator-first2=R. A.}}</ref>
<ref name="DCaPw">{{cite web |url = http://shroudofturin.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/scorch-paper-en.pdf |title=The Turin Shroud Body Image: The Scorch Hypothesis Revisited |author=Thibault Heimburger |access-date=6 June 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="OU1UD">{{cite journal|last1=Craig|first1=Emily A|last2=Bresee|first2=Randal R|title=Image Formation and the Shroud of Turin|journal=Journal of Imaging Science and Technology|volume=34|number=1|year=1994|s2cid=216941|url=https://shroud.com/pdfs/craig.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name="O8JRe">Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1998) ''The Turin Shroud and the Crystal Lens.'' Empowerment Technologies Pty. Ltd., Port Elizabeth, South Africa</ref>
<ref name="OeMaN">Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1994) ''A reappraisal of late thirteenth-century responses to the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin: encolpia of the Eucharist, vera eikon or supreme relic?'' The Southern African Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 4 (1), 62–94</ref>
<ref name="ysJIc">Allen, Nicholas P. L. (1993) "Is the Shroud of Turin the first recorded photograph?" ''The South African Journal of Art History'', 11 November, 23–32</ref>

<ref name="3s2vH">{{Cite journal|title=Verification of the Nature and Causes of the Photo-negative Images on the Shroud of Lirey-Chambéry-Turin|first=Nicholas P. L.|last=Allen|date=1 April 1995|journal=De Arte|volume=30|issue=51|pages=21–35|via=Taylor and Francis+NEJM|doi=10.1080/00043389.1995.11761214}}</ref>
<ref name="KFl7L">{{cite web |url= http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/videos/remaking-the-shroud/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150406043728/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/videos/remaking-the-shroud/ |archive-date= 6 April 2015 |title = Remaking the Shroud |date=22 January 2015 |website=Channel.nationalgeographic.com |access-date=6 June 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="QoeJV">{{cite journal |last1=Fanti |first1=G. |last2=Heimburger |first2=T. |year=2011 |title = Letter to the Editor Comments on 'Life-Size Reproduction of the Shroud of Turin and Its Image' by L. Garlaschelli |journal= Journal of Imaging Science and Technology|volume=55 |issue=2 |article-number=020102 |doi=10.2352/j.imagingsci.technol.2011.55.2.020102|hdl=11577/2485314 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="vmQhb">Heimburger T., Fanti G., "{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110206062548/http://www.acheiropoietos.info/proceedings/HeimburgerWeb.pdf Scientific Comparison between the Turin Shroud and the First Handmade Whole Copy]}}", International Workshop on the Scientific Approach to the Acheiropoietos Images, 2010</ref>
<ref name="2MV5E">{{cite journal |last1=Garlaschelli |first1=L. |title=Life-size Reproduction of the Shroud of Turin and its Image |journal= Journal of Imaging Science and Technology|date=2010 |volume=54 |issue=4 |article-number=040301 |doi=10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2010.54.4.040301 }}</ref>
<ref name="AhneJ">{{cite book|last=McCrone|first=Walter C.|title=Judgment Day for the Shroud of Turin|year=1999|publisher=Prometheus Books|location=Amherst, NY|isbn=1-57392-679-5|ol=3377901W}}</ref>
<ref name="CYx05">Raymond E. Brown. ''Biblical Exegesis and Church Doctrine'' (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1985), pp. 150–152</ref>
<ref name="mJuNU">{{cite web |url = http://www.ohioshroudconference.com/papers/p22.pdf |title = On the Visibility of the Shroud Image |author=J. Dee German |access-date=6 June 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="7n0ha">{{Cite journal|title=A BPA Approach to the Shroud of Turin|first1=Matteo|last1=Borrini|first2=Luigi|last2=Garlaschelli|date=10 July 2018|journal=Journal of Forensic Sciences|volume=64|issue=1|pages=137–143|doi=10.1111/1556-4029.13867|pmid=29989172|s2cid=51609986|doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="hrT78">McCrone in ''Wiener Berichte uber Naturwissenschaft in der Kunst'' 4/5, 50 1987/1988.</ref>
<ref name="kGqWe">Baden, Michael. 1980. Quoted in Reginald W. Rhein, Jr., "The Shroud of Turin: Medical examiners disagree". ''Medical World News'', 22 December, p.&nbsp;50.</ref>
<ref name="0i7HH">McCrone Research, [http://mcri.org/home/section/63-64/the-shroud-of-turin Initial Examination – 1979], retrieved 16 June 2013.</ref>
<ref name="yJKHY">{{cite journal |last1=Heller |first1=John H. |last2=Adler |first2=Alan D. |title=Blood on the Shroud of Turin |journal=Applied Optics |date=15 August 1980 |volume=19 |issue=16 |pages=2742–2744 |doi=10.1364/AO.19.002742 |pmid=20234501 |bibcode=1980ApOpt..19.2742H }}</ref>

<ref name="59o0l">''[[Materials Evaluation]]'', Volume 40, Issues 1–5, 1982, p.630</ref>
<ref name="McCrone-90">{{cite journal |last=McCrone |first=Walter C. |author-link=Walter McCrone |title=The Shroud of Turin: Blood or Artist's Pigment? |journal=[[Accounts of Chemical Research]] |date=1990 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=77–83 |doi=10.1021/ar00171a004 |url=http://www.mccroneinstitute.org/uploads/the_microscope__shroud_small-1422560933.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name="C&EN-2000">{{cite journal |last=McDermott |first=Kevin |title=ACS Award in Analytical Chemistry |journal=[[Chemical & Engineering News]] |date=2000-01-24 |volume=78 |issue=4 |page=60 |doi=10.1021/cen-v078n004.p055}}</ref>
<ref name="XS4uZ">"[https://web.archive.org/web/20150418032155/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/150417-shroud-turin-relics-jesus-catholic-church-religion-science/ news.nationalgeographic.com Why Shroud of Turin's Secrets Continue to Elude Science]". ''National Geographic'', 17 April 2015</ref>
<ref name="uFJFg">{{cite journal |last = Tamburelli |first=Giovanni |s2cid=17987034 |title=Some Results in the Processing of the Holy Shroud of Turin |journal=IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence |date=November 1981 |volume=PAMI-3 |issue=6 |pages=670–676 |doi=10.1109/TPAMI.1981.4767168 |pmid=21868987 |bibcode=1981ITPAM..95..670T }}</ref>
<ref name="FUDUA">{{cite web |url = http://ncronline.org/news/vatican/pope-will-visit-shroud-turin-commemorate-birth-st-john-bosco |title = Pope will visit Shroud of Turin, commemorate birth of St. John Bosco |website = Ncronlone.org – National Catholic Resporter |access-date=6 June 2016|date=5 November 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="SeR8n">{{cite web |url = http://www.cruxnow.com/church/2014/11/05/pope-francis-to-venerate-famed-shroud-of-turin-in-2015/ |title = Pope Francis to Venerate Famed Shroud of Turin in 2015 |access-date=6 June 2016|date=6 November 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="Jy4GU">{{cite web |url=http://www.romereports.com/2014/11/05/pope-francis-to-pray-before-the-holy-shroud-in-turin |title = Pope Francis to pray before the Holy Shroud in Turin |website=Romereports.com |date = 5 November 2014 |access-date=6 June 2016 }}</ref>
<ref name="37HmX">{{cite speech |author=Pope John Paul II |date=24 May 1998 |title=Address in Turin Cathedral |location=Turin, Italy |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000511022036/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html |archive-date=11 May 2000}}</ref>
<ref name="rCtW0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html|title=Address of John Paul II|date=24 May 1998|website=The Holy See – Vatican web site|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111021836/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html|archive-date=11 January 2010|access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="4HzMz">Francis D'Emilio article on Pope John Paul II's visit to the Shroud of Turin, ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', 25 May 1998</ref>
<ref name="Qhn2n">Matthew Bunson, ''OSV's encyclopedia of Catholic history'', revised edition, Our Sunday Visitor, 2004, {{ISBN|1-59276-026-0}}, p. 912</ref>
<ref name="0JJMV">{{cite web|title=Pastoral Visit of His Holiness John Paul II to Vercelli and Turin, Italy, 23–24 May 1998|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/1998/may/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19980524_sudario.html|date= 24 May 1998 |website=[[Holy See]]}}</ref>
<ref name="07edI">{{cite web |url=http://ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/pope-francis-and-shroud-turin |title=Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin – National Catholic Reporter |access-date=6 June 2016 |date=April 2013 }}</ref>
<ref name="JNEk4">Joan Carroll Cruz, ''Saintly Men of Modern Times'', Our Sunday Visitor, 2003, {{ISBN|1-931709-77-7}}, p. 200.</ref>
<ref name="FSixb">Joan Carroll Cruz, "Saintly Men of Modern Times", ''Our Sunday Visitor'', 2003, {{ISBN|1-931709-77-7}}</ref>
<ref name="rWaGT">Maria Rigamonti, ''Mother Maria Pierina'', Cenacle Publishing, 1999</ref>
<ref name="xZDe5">"Shroud of Turin (relic)". ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 28 December 2010</ref>
<ref name="tgjGP">{{cite journal |last1=Kitzinger |first1=Ernst |title=The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |date=1954 |volume=8 |pages=83–150 |doi=10.2307/1291064 |jstor=1291064}}</ref>
<ref name="2bgcC">{{cite book|last=Scallan|first=Dorothy|title=The Holy Man of Tours|publisher=TAN Books and Publishers|year=2009|isbn=978-0-89555-390-4|oclc=26231694|ol=9187404W}}</ref>
<ref name="YFlTO">{{cite web|url=http://galenagazette.com/Content/Mobile-Home/Mobile/Article/Replica-Shroud-of-Turin-on-display-at-St-Matthew/-5/-5/24669|title=Replica Shroud of Turin on display at St. Matthew|last=Dickerson|first=Hillary|date=8 April 2014|publisher=Galena Gazette|language=en|access-date=9 May 2018}}</ref>
<ref name="egvgm">{{cite news|url=https://www.thehour.com/norwalk/article/Shroud-of-Turin-replica-on-exhibit-at-St-Peter-s-8104096.php|title=Shroud of Turin replica on exhibit at St. Peter's Lutheran Church|last=Trautmann|first=Erik|date=7 October 2015|newspaper=[[The Hour (newspaper)|The Hour]]|language=en|access-date=9 May 2018}}</ref>
<ref name="h3pgG">{{cite book|last=Ball|first=Ann|title=Encyclopedia of Catholic devotions and practices|year=2002|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor|location=Huntington, IN|isbn=0-87973-910-X|ol=3573616M|page=239}}</ref>
<ref name="Bkn2H">{{cite book|last=Ball|first=Ann|title=Encyclopedia of Catholic devotions and practices|year=2002|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor|location=Huntington, IN|isbn=0-87973-910-X|ol=3573616M|page=533}}</ref>
<ref name="L0Q74">{{cite book|last=Cruz|first=Joan Carroll|title=Relics|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor|location=Huntington, IN|year=1984|isbn=0-87973-701-8|ol=4806375W|page=55}}</ref>
<ref name="F1kYz">{{cite book|last=Cruz|first=Joan Carroll|title=Relics|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor|location=Huntington, IN|year=1984|isbn=0-87973-701-8|ol=4806375W|page=49|url=https://archive.org/details/relics0000cruz/page/49}}</ref>
<ref name="YV7QB">{{cite news |title=Turin Shroud goes back on display at city's cathedral |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-32368134 |access-date=19 April 2015 |work=BBC News |date=19 April 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="otLuf">{{Cite web |date=30 March 2013 |title=Turin Shroud shown live on Italy TV |website=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21984018 |access-date=30 March 2013}}</ref>
<ref name="FUIsj">{{cite web|title=To see the Shroud: 2M and counting|website=ZENIT|date=5 May 2010|url=http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-29146|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927020556/http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-29146|archive-date=27 September 2012}}</ref>
<ref name="bdQA8">{{Cite news |work=The New York Times |date=12 April 1997 |title=Shroud of Turin Saved From Fire in Cathedral |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/12/world/shroud-of-turin-saved-from-fire-in-cathedral.html}}</ref>
<ref name="CVYhP">''Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin'' by John Beldon Scott 2003 {{ISBN|0-226-74316-0}}, p.&nbsp;26.</ref>
<ref name="pUcND">See House of Savoy historian Filiberto Pingone in Filiberto Pingone, ''La Sindone dei Vangeli (Sindon Evangelica). Componimenti poetici sulla Sindone. Bolla di papa Giulio II (1506). Pellegrinaggio di S. Carlo Borromeo a Torino (1578)''. Introduzione, traduzione, note e riproduzione del testo originale a cura di Riccardo Quaglia, nuova edizione riveduta (2015), Biella 2015, {{ISBN|978-1-4452-8258-9}}</ref>
<ref name="wCdAY">John Beldon Scott, ''Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin'', University of Chicago Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-226-74316-0}}, p. xxi</ref>
<ref name="OhUvM">Humber, Thomas: ''The Sacred Shroud''. New York: Pocket Books, 1980. {{ISBN|0-671-41889-0}}</ref>

<ref name="36naL">G.M.Rinaldi, "Il Codice Pray", http://sindone.weebly.com/pray.html</ref>
<ref name="tY4lH">{{cite book |title=Architecture for the shroud: relic and ritual in Turin |first=John Beldon |last=Scott |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-226-74316-5 |page=302 }}</ref>
<ref name="hhsXR">{{cite web |url = http://www.shroudofturin4journalists.com/Details/howtall.htm |title=How Tall is the Man on the Shroud? |website=ShroudOfTurnForJournalists.com |access-date=12 April 2009 }}</ref>
<ref name="RRd6y">{{cite book |title=The orphaned manuscript: a gathering of publications on the Shroud of Turin |first=Alan D. |last=Adler |year=2002 |isbn=978-88-7402-003-4 |page=103 |publisher=Effata Editrice IT }}</ref>
<ref name="kl2Oq">{{cite news|url=https://www.livescience.com/52567-shroud-of-turin-dna.html|title=Is It a Fake? DNA Testing Deepens Mystery of Shroud of Turin|work=Live Science|access-date=9 April 2018}}</ref>
<ref name="oattp">{{cite book |first=G. R. |last=Habermas |chapter=Shroud of Turin |editor-first=G. T. |editor-last=Kurian |title=The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2011 |page=2161 }}</ref>
<ref name="GVf9K">According to LLoyd A. Currie, it is "widely accepted" that "the Shroud of Turin is the single most studied artifact in human history". {{cite journal |first=Lloyd A. |last=Currie |title=The Remarkable Metrological History of Radiocarbon Dating |journal= Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology |volume=109 |year=2004 |issue=2 |page=200 |doi=10.6028/jres.109.013 |pmid=27366605 |pmc=4853109}}</ref>
<ref name="kJeDs">{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=P. |title=Material witness: Shrouded in mystery |doi=10.1038/nmat2170 |journal=Nature Materials |volume=7 |issue=5 |page=349 |year=2008 |pmid=18432204 |bibcode=2008NatMa...7..349B |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="jAsd9">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Ian |title=The Shroud |publisher=Random House |year=2010 |pages=130–131 |author-link=Ian Wilson (author)}}</ref>
<ref name="29DLv">{{cite web|title=Turin Shroud: full text of Pope Francis' comments|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/the-pope/9962636/Turin-Shroud-full-text-of-Pope-Francis-comments.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/the-pope/9962636/Turin-Shroud-full-text-of-Pope-Francis-comments.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=16 September 2020|website=The Telegraph|date=30 March 2013 |language=en-GB}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
<ref name="Rogers2008">{{cite book |last1=Rogers |first1=Raymond N. |title=A Chemist's Perspective On The Shroud of Turin |date=2008 |publisher=[[Lulu (company)|Lulu Press, Inc.]] |isbn=978-0-615-23928-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-n84sc4ayYC&pg=PA83}}</ref>
<ref name="Journal of Imaging Science and Technology">{{cite journal |last1=Fanti |first1=G. |last2=Botella |first2=J. A. |last3=Di Lazzaro |first3=P. |last4=Heimburger |first4=T. |last5=Schneider |first5=R. |last6=Svensson |first6=N. |title=Microscopic and Macroscopic Characteristics of the Shroud of Turin Image Superficiality |journal= Journal of Imaging Science and Technology |year=2010 |volume=54 |issue=4 |article-number=040201 |doi=10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2010.54.4.040201 }}</ref>
<ref name="'Ingham">{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Ingham |title=Turin Shroud Confirmed as Fake |date=21 June 2005 |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |url=http://www.physorg.com/news4652.html |website=Physorg.com |access-date=17 February 2008 }}</ref>
<ref name="PopPhoto">{{cite journal |last1=Nickell |first1=Joe |title=The Turin Shroud: Fake? Fact? Photograph? |journal=Popular Photography |volume=November 1979 |pages=97–147}}</ref>

<ref name="Brown2002">{{cite book|author=Raymond E. Brown|title=Biblical Exegesis and Church Doctrine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdBKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA151|year=2002|publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers|isbn=978-1-59244-024-5|pages=150–152}}</ref>
<ref name="paul gothic fraud">{{cite web |url=http://infidels.org/kiosk/article/the-shroud-of-turin-the-great-gothic-art-fraud-because-if-its-real-the-brain-of-jesus-was-the-size-of-a-protohumans-815.html |title=The Shroud of Turin: The Great Gothic Art Fraud |last=Paul |first=Gregory S. |date=6 May 2010 |website=Secular Web Kiosk |publisher=[[Internet Infidels]] |access-date=9 May 2010 |author-link=Gregory Paul}}</ref>
<ref name="Fanti2010">{{cite journal |last1=Fanti |first1=G. |last2=Basso |first2=R. |last3=Bianchini |first3=G. |title=Turin Shroud: Compatibility Between a Digitized Body Image and a Computerized Anthropomorphous Manikin |journal= Journal of Imaging Science and Technology|date=2010 |volume=54 |issue=5 |article-number=050503 |doi=10.2352/J.ImagingSci.Technol.2010.54.5.050503 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name="Barcaccia 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Barcaccia |first1=Gianni |last2=Galla |first2=Giulio |last3=Achilli |first3=Alessandro |last4=Olivieri |first4=Anna |last5=Torroni |first5=Antonio |title=Uncovering the sources of DNA found on the Turin Shroud |journal=Scientific Reports |date=5 October 2015 |volume=5 |article-number=14484 |doi=10.1038/srep14484 |pmid=26434580 |pmc=4593049|bibcode=2015NatSR...514484B}}</ref>
<ref name="academia.edu">[[Salvatore Lorusso]], Chiara Matteucci, Andrea Natali, Tania Chinni, Laura Solla (2011). [https://www.academia.edu/3254411/The_Shroud_of_Turin_between_history_and_science_an_ongoing_debate "The Shroud of Turin between history and science: an ongoing debate"]. [https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/view/2695 ''Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage'']. Vol 11, [[University of Bologna]].</ref>
<ref name="skepdic">{{cite web |url=http://www.skepdic.com/shroud.html |title=shroud of Turin |website=Skepdic.com |date=23 August 2000 |access-date=12 April 2009}}</ref>
<ref name="R.A. Freer-Waters, A.J.T. Jull 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Freer-Waters |first1=R.A. |last2=Jull |first2=A. J. T. |year=2010 |title=Investigating a Dated piece of the Shroud of Turin |doi=10.1017/S0033822200056277 |journal=Radiocarbon |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=1521–1527|bibcode=2010Radcb..52.1521F }}</ref>
<ref name="Gove 1990">{{cite journal |title=Dating the Turin Shroud: An Assessment |first=H. E. |last=Gove |journal=Radiocarbon |volume=32 |issue=1 |date=1990 |pages=87–92 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/viewFile/1254/1259 |doi=10.1017/S0033822200039990 |bibcode=1990Radcb..32...87G |doi-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name="dale">{{cite journal |last1=Dale |first1=W.S.A. |year=1987 |title=The Shroud of Turin: Relic or Icon? |doi=10.1016/0168-583X(87)90233-3 |journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research |volume=B29 |issue= 1–2|pages=187–192|bibcode=1987NIMPB..29..187D}} This paper is significant in that it was presented to the international radiocarbon community shortly before radiocarbon dating was performed on the shroud.</ref>
<ref name="HST">{{CathEncy |wstitle=The Holy Shroud (of Turin)}}</ref>
<ref name="'Turin Nature">{{cite journal |last1=Damon |first1=P. E. |last2=Donahue |first2=D. J. |last3=Gore |first3=B. H. |last4=Hatheway |first4=A. L. |last5=Jull |first5=A. J. T. |last6=Linick |first6=T. W. |last7=Sercel |first7=P. J. |last8=Toolin |first8=L. J. |last9=Bronk |first9=C. R.|last10=Hall|first10=E. T. |last11=Hedges |first11=R. E. M. |last12=Housley |first12=R. |last13=Law |first13=I. A. |last14=Perry |first14=C. |last15=Bonani |first15=G. |last16=Trumbore |first16=S. |author16-link=Susan Trumbore |last17=Woelfli |first17=W. |last18=Ambers |first18=J. C. |last19=Bowman |first19=S. G. E.|last20=Leese|first20=M. N. |last21=Tite |first21=M. S. |s2cid=27686437 |title=Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin |journal=Nature |date=16 February 1989 |volume=337 |issue=6208 |pages=611–615 |doi=10.1038/337611a0 |bibcode=1989Natur.337..611D |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt6x77r7m1/qt6x77r7m1.pdf?t=nus03r}}</ref>
<ref name="oed">{{cite book |title=Oxford English Dictionary |chapter-url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/180066 |access-date=24 January 2017 |chapter=Sindonology, n. |chapter-url-access=subscription}}</ref>
<ref name="Delage, Yves 1902">{{cite journal |last=Delage |first=Yves |year=1902 |title=Le Linceul de Turin |journal=Revue Scientifique |volume=22 |pages=683–687 }}</ref>
<ref name="The Economist archive">"[https://www.economist.com/erasmus/2013/03/31/making-sense-of-a-mystery Pope Francis and the Turin Shroud: Making sense of a mystery]" (31 March 2013). ''The Economist''. Retrieved 3 April 2013</ref>
<ref name="The Vatican Today">Pope: "I join all of you gathered before the Holy Shroud". [http://www.news.va/en/news/pope-i-join-all-of-you-gathered-before-the-holy-sh ''The Vatican Today''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403020806/http://www.news.va/en/news/pope-i-join-all-of-you-gathered-before-the-holy-sh |date=3 April 2013 }}. Retrieved 3 April 2013</ref>
<ref name="Michael Freze 1993, p. 57">Michael Freze, 1993, ''Voices, Visions, and Apparitions'', OSV Publishing, {{ISBN|0-87973-454-X}}, p. 57</ref>
<ref name="Dreisbach2001">{{cite news|title=A theological basis for sindonology & its ecumenical implications|last=Dreisbach|first=Albert R.|year=2001|publisher=Collegamento pro Sindone|language=en|quote=Some twenty years ago this ecumenical dimension of this sacred linen became very evident to me on the night of August 16, 1983, when local judicatory leaders offered their corporate blessing to the Turin Shroud Exhibit and participated in the ''Evening Office of the Holy Shroud''. The Greek Archbishop, the Roman Catholic Archbishop, the Episcopal Bishop and the Presiding Bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church gathered before the world's first full size, backlit transparency of the Shroud and joined clergy representing the Assemblies of God, Baptists, Lutherans, Methodists and Presbyterians in an amazing witness to ecumenical unity.}}</ref>
<ref name="Povoledo_New York Times">{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/30/world/europe/shroud-of-turin-going-on-tv-with-a-word-from-the-pope.html?_r=0 |date=29 March 2013 |title=Turin Shroud Going on TV, With Video From Pope |last=Povoledo |first=Elisabetta | newspaper = New York Times |access-date=29 March 2013 }}</ref>
<ref name="JNInquest">[[Joe Nickell]], ''Inquest on the Shroud of Turin: Latest Scientific Findings'', Prometheus Books, 1998, {{ISBN|9781573922722}}</ref>
<ref name="Poulle 2009">{{cite journal |last = Poulle |first=Emmanuel |author-link = Emmanuel Poulle |title = Les sources de l'histoire du linceul de Turin. Revue critique |trans-title=The sources of the history of the shroud of Turin. Critical review |journal=Revue d'Histoire Ecclésiastique |date=December 2009 |volume=104 |issue=3–4 |pages=747–782 |lang=fr |doi=10.1484/J.RHE.3.215 }}</ref>
<ref name="opticsinfobase.org">{{Cite journal |last=Pellicori |first = S. F. |title=Spectral properties of the Shroud of Turin |doi=10.1364/AO.19.001913 |journal=Applied Optics |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=1913–1920 |year=1980 |pmid=20221155 |bibcode=1980ApOpt..19.1913P }}</ref>
<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=V. D. |last2=Pellicori |first2=S. F. |title=Ultraviolet fluorescence photography of the Shroud of Turin |journal=Journal of Biological Photography |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=71–85 |date=July 1981 |pmid=7024245 }}</ref>
<ref name="heller">{{Cite book |first=John H. |last=Heller |title=Report on the Shroud of Turin |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |date=1983 |isbn=978-0-395-33967-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/reportonshroudof00hell}}</ref>
<ref name="Meacham 1983">{{cite journal |author-link=William Meacham |first=William |last=Meacham |title=The Authentication of the Turin Shroud, An Issue in Archeological Epistemology |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=283–311 |year=1983 |doi=10.1086/202996|jstor=2742663|s2cid=143781662 }}</ref>
<ref name="c14.arch.ox.ac.uk">{{cite web|author=Christopher Ramsey|website=[[Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit]], [[University of Oxford]]|date=March 2008|url=https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/shroud.html|title= The Shroud of Turin}}</ref>
<ref name="chemistryworld">{{cite web|title=Chemistry in the face of belief|url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/features/the-enduring-controversy-of-the-turin-shroud/6918.article |date=23 December 2013| website=Chemistry World}}</ref>
<ref name="freeinquiry1">{{Cite web |url=http://llanoestacado.org/freeinquiry/skeptic/shroud/articles/rogers-ta-response.htm |title=A Skeptical Response to ''Studies on the Radiocarbon Sample from the Shroud of Turin'' by Raymond N. Rogers |last=Schafersman |first=Steven D. |date=14 March 2005 |access-date=2 January 2016 |website=llanoestacado.org |archive-date=14 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114044016/http://llanoestacado.org/freeinquiry/skeptic/shroud/articles/rogers-ta-response.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="Radiocarbon Dating pg 167-168">Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition: An Archaeological Perspective, By R.E. Taylor, Ofer Bar-Yosef, Routledge 2016; pp.&nbsp;167–168.</ref>
<ref name="Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition">Taylor, R.E. and Bar-Yosef, Ofer. ''Radiocarbon Dating, Second Edition: An Archaeological Perspective''. Left Coast Press, 2014, p.&nbsp;165.</ref>
<ref name="Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin">{{cite web |date=1 April 2013 |title = Pope Francis and the Shroud of Turin |url = https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/pope-francis-and-shroud-turin |access-date=16 September 2020|website=National Catholic Reporter|language=en}}</ref>
<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite web|title=Shroud of Turin {{!}} History, Description, & Authenticity|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shroud-of-Turin|access-date=16 September 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="EAnDx">G. Carter, "Formation of the Image on the Shroud of Turin", ''[[American Chemical Society]] Volume on Archaeological Chemistry'', 1983</ref>
<ref name="Jacksonet">{{cite journal |last1=Jackson |first1=John P. |last2=Jumper |first2=Eric J. |last3=Ercoline |first3=William R. |title=Correlation of image intensity on the Turin Shroud with the 3-D structure of a human body shape |journal=Applied Optics |date=15 July 1984 |volume=23 |issue=14 |page=2244 |doi=10.1364/AO.23.002244 |pmid=18212985 |bibcode=1984ApOpt..23.2244J }}</ref>
<ref name="lwNFS">Busson, P. "Sampling error?" Letter in ''Nature'', Vol. 352, 18 July 1991, p.&nbsp;187.</ref>
<ref name="t7xEW">Robert Villarreal, "Analytical Results On Thread Samples Taken From The Raes Sampling Area (Corner) of the Shroud Cloth" [http://www.ohioshroudconference.com/a17.htm Abstract] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011090159/http://www.ohioshroudconference.com/a17.htm |date=11 October 2008}} (2008)</ref>
<ref name="Ruffin155">''The Shroud of Turin'' by Bernard Ruffin 1999 {{ISBN|0-87973-617-8}}, pp. 155–156</ref>
<ref name="Riani et al. 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Riani |first1=Marco |last2=Atkinson |first2=Anthony C. |last3=Fanti |first3=Giulio |last4=Crosilla |first4=Fabio |s2cid=6060870 |title=Regression analysis with partially labelled regressors: carbon dating of the Shroud of Turin |journal=[[Statistics and Computing]] | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media |date=27 April 2012 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=551–561 |doi=10.1007/s11222-012-9329-5 |issn=0960-3174}}</ref>
<ref name="Benford & Marino 2008">{{cite journal|author1=S. Benford|author2=J. Marino|title=Discrepancies in the radiocarbon dating area of the Turin shroud|journal=Chemistry Today|volume=26|number=4|date=July–August 2008|pages=4–12|url=http://chemistry-today.teknoscienze.com/pdf/benford%20CO4-08.pdf|access-date=10 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304150614/http://chemistry-today.teknoscienze.com/pdf/benford%20CO4-08.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2012 }}</ref>
<ref name="gwaF9">Heller, John H. ''Report on the Shroud of Turin'', Houghton Mifflin, 1983. {{ISBN|0-395-33967-7}}, p.&nbsp;207.</ref>
<ref name="a4noy">{{cite journal |last=Nickell |first=Joe |author-link = Joe Nickell |title=Crucifixion Evidence Debunks Turin 'Shroud' |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |date=2018 |volume=42 |issue=5 |page=7 }}</ref>
<ref name="Casabianca Marinelli Pernagallo Torrisi pp. 1223–1231">{{cite journal | last1=Casabianca | first1=T. | last2=Marinelli | first2=E. | last3=Pernagallo | first3=G. | last4=Torrisi | first4=B. | title=Radiocarbon Dating of the Turin Shroud: New Evidence from Raw Data | journal=Archaeometry | publisher=Wiley | volume=61 | issue=5 | date=22 March 2019 | issn=0003-813X | doi=10.1111/arcm.12467 | pages=1223–1231 | bibcode=2019Archa..61.1223C | s2cid=134747250 | url=https://philarchive.org/rec/CASTRD-3 }}</ref>
<ref name="Walsh Schwalbe 2020 p=102015">{{cite journal | last1=Walsh | first1=Bryan | last2=Schwalbe | first2=Larry | title=An instructive inter-laboratory comparison: The 1988 radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin | journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=29 | year=2020 | issn=2352-409X | doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.102015 | article-number=102015 | bibcode=2020JArSR..29j2015W | doi-access=free |quote=If the Zurich and Tucson data were displaced upward by 88 [[radiocarbon year|RCY]] as shown in the figure all of the results would agree within the uncertainty observed. Indeed, if the magnitude of the "adjustment" were as small as ~10 RCY, the [[Chi-squared test|{{math|χ<sup>2</sup>}} ]] analysis would confirm a statistical homogeneity assuming the uncertainties in the data did not change. }}</ref>
<ref name="Rogers 2005">{{cite journal |author-link=Raymond Rogers |last=Rogers |first = Raymond N. |title=Studies on the radiocarbon sample from the shroud of turin |journal=Thermochimica Acta |date=20 January 2005 |volume=425 |issue=1–2 |pages=189–194 |doi=10.1016/j.tca.2004.09.029 |bibcode=2005TcAc..425..189R |access-date=31 July 2016 |url = http://www.shroud.it/ROGERS-3.PDF }}</ref>
<ref name="r6V1l">{{cite web |title=The 'Inscriptions' on the Shroud |website = British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter Nov 1999 |first=Mark |last=Guscin |url = https://www.shroud.com/pdfs/guscin2.pdf }}</ref>
<ref name="nE3px">A. Marion, A.-L. Courage, ''Nouvelles découvertes sur le suaire de Turin'', Paris, Albin Michel, 1998, {{ISBN|2-226-09231-5}}</ref>
<ref name="CC5dG">N. Balossino, ''L'immagine della Sindone, ricerca fotografica e informatica'', Editrice Elle Di Ci, 1997, {{ISBN|88-01-00798-1}}</ref>
<ref name="BdLho">F. Filas, ''The dating of the Shroud from coins of Pontius Pilate'', Cogan, Youngtown (Arizona), 1982</ref>
<ref name="3VMNL">Jackson, John P., Eric J. Jumper, Bill Mottern, and Kenneth E. Stevenson. 1977. "The three-dimensional image of Jesus' burial cloth", ''Proceedings, 1977 United States Conference of Research on The Shroud of Turin'', Holy Shroud Guild, New York, 1977, pp. 74–94.</ref>
<ref name="iESyt">{{cite news |url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/doubleissue/mysteries/shroud.htm |title=Shroud of Turin – Mysteries of History |last=Sheler |first=Jeffery L. |date=24 July 2000 |work=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |access-date=19 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203183044/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/doubleissue/mysteries/shroud.htm |archive-date=3 December 2010}}</ref>
<ref name="5gKwV">{{cite news |first=Avinoam |last=Danin |title = Where Did the Shroud of Turin Originate? A Botanical Quest |work=Eretz Magazine |issue=November/December |year=1998 }}</ref>
<ref name="R2f4f">{{cite journal |title=Doubts Concerning the Coins Over the Eyes |first=Antonio |last=Lombatti |journal=British Society for the Turin Shroud Newsletter |issue=45 |year=1997 }}</ref>
<ref name="TimesFrale">{{cite news |title=Death certificate is imprinted on the Shroud of Turin, says Vatican scholar |first=Richard |last=Owen |url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article6925371.ece |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100107010420/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article6925371.ece |archive-date = 7 January 2010 |newspaper=The Times |date=21 November 2009 |access-date=24 October 2010 }}</ref>
<ref name="FraleTeleg">{{Cite news |last=Squires |first=Nick |date=20 November 2009 |title=Jesus Christ's 'death certificate' found on Turin Shroud |work=The Telegraph |location=Rome |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6617018/Jesus-Christs-death-certificate-found-on-Turin-Shroud.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130180212/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/religion/6617018/Jesus-Christs-death-certificate-found-on-Turin-Shroud.html |archive-date=30 January 2011 |access-date=16 December 2011 |url-status=bot: unknown }}Daily Telegraph: "Jesus Christ's 'death certificate' found on Turin Shroud" </ref>
<ref name="Rogers">{{cite journal | last1=Schwalbe | first1=L.A. | last2=Rogers | first2=R.N. | title= Physics and Chemistry of the Shroud of Turin, A Summary of the 1978 Investigation | journal=Analytica Chimica Acta | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=135 | pages=3–49 | year=1982 | issue=1 | doi=10.1016/S0003-2670(01)85263-6 | bibcode=1982AcAC..135....3S |url =https://www.shroud.com/pdfs/Physics%20Chemistry%20of%20Shroud%20Schwalbe%20Rogers%201981%20OCRsm.pdf }}</ref>
<ref name="Comprehensive examination">{{cite journal | last1=Jumper | first1=Eric J. | last2=Adler | first2=Alan D. | last3=Jackson | first3=John P. | last4=Pellicori | first4=Samuel.F. | last5=Heller | first5=John H. | last6=Druzik| first6=James R. | title= A Comprehensive Examination of the Various Stains and Images on the Shroud of Turin | journal=Archaeological Chemistry III, ACS Advances in Chemistry No. 205 | publisher= J.B. Lambert | pages=447–476 | year=1984 |url =https://www.shroud.com/pdfs/Comprehensive%20Exam%20of%20Stains%20Jumper%20et%20al%201984%20OCR.pdf }}</ref>
}}

== Further reading ==
* [[Lynn Picknett|Picknett, Lynn]] and Prince, Clive: ''The Turin Shroud: In Whose Image?'', Harper-Collins, 1994 {{ISBN|0-552-14782-6}}.
* Antonacci, Mark : ''The Resurrection of the Shroud'', M. Evans & Co., New York 2000, {{ISBN|0-87131-890-3}}
* [[Brendan Whiting|Whiting, Brendan]], ''The Shroud Story'', Harbour Publishing, 2006, {{ISBN|0-646-45725-X}}
* Di Lazzaro, Paolo (ed.) : ''Proceedings of the International Workshop on the Scientific Approach to the Acheiropoietos Images'', ENEA, 2010, {{ISBN|978-88-8286-232-9}}.
* Olmi, Massimo, ''Indagine sulla croce di Cristo'', Torino 2015 {{ISBN|978-88-6737-040-5}}
* Jackson, John, ''The Shroud of Turin. A Critical Summary of Observations, Data, and Hypotheses'', CMJ Marian Publishers, 2017, {{ISBN|9780692885734}}.
* Cozzo, Paolo; Merlotti, Andrea' Nicolotti, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tsqiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 ''The Shroud at Court. History, Usages, Places and Images of a Dynastic Relic.''] Leiden-Boston: E.J. Brill, 2019.

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category |Shroud of Turin}}
* [http://www.sindone.org/ Sindone.org] – official site of the custodians of the shroud in Turin
* [https://www.magiscenter.com/professor-creates-3d-image-of-christ-from-shroud-of-turin/ Professor Creates 3D Image From Shroud]
* [https://www.shroud.com/ The Shroud of Turin Website] – Shroud of Turin Education and Research Association, Inc. website
* [https://www.shroudofturin.com/ Turin Shroud Center of Colorado] – research center of John Jackson, a leading member of the STURP team
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RtklbqA1Vos Good Science, Bad Science, and the Shroud of Turin] – 2014 NYUAD Chemistry lecture on YouTube
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YWyiZtagxX8 ''Unwrapping the Shroud''] – 2009 Discovery channel documentary on YouTube
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zws3DiEVJTs ''Shroud of Turin Evidence''] – 2008 BBC documentary on YouTube
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wIUDaMatODM Barrie Schwortz interview] – EWTN interview with photographer Barrie Shwortz on YouTube

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