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{{Short description|Arabic word for "consultation"}}
{{Other uses}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2019}}
'''Shura''' ({{langx|ar|شُورَىٰ|translit=shūrā|lit=consultation}}) is the term for collective decision-making in Islam.  It can, for example, take the form of a council or a referendum. The [[Quran]] encourages Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with each other. 

Shura is mentioned as a praiseworthy activity often used in organizing the affairs of a  [[mosque]], Islamic organizations, and is a common term involved in naming parliaments.

==Shura in Islam==
{{See also|Islamic democracy}}

[[Sunni Muslims]] believe that [[Islam]] requires decisions made by the Muslim societies to be made by shura of the Muslim community.<ref>Esposito, John L., ''Oxford Dictionary of Islam,'' OUP, (2003)</ref> Traditionally however, the [[amir]], [[sultan]] or [[caliph]] would consult with his [[Vizier|wazirs]] (ministers) and make a decision, after taking into consideration their opinions.{{Citation Needed|date=February 2025}}

[[Shia Muslims]] say that Islam requires submission to existing rulers if they are correctly appointed, so long as they govern according to [[Sharia]] or Islamic law. This is a more traditional approach, characteristic of many centuries of [[Islamic history]].{{Citation Needed|date=June 2022}}

The difference between the two appears more semantic than actual—the latter accept that the rulers must be accounted in all aspects of ruling, to ensure affairs are managed in the best possible way whether decisions were taken through consultation or not.{{Citation Needed|date=February 2025}}

===Shura in the Qur'an===

* [[Ash-Shura|The 42nd Sura]] of the [[Qur'an]] is named “Shura”.<ref>[http://al-quran.info/default.aspx#&&sura=42&trans=en-shakir,en-muhammad_asad,en-marmaduke_pickthall,en-yusuf_ali&show=both,quran-uthmani&format=rows&ver=1.00 Online Qur'an Project Chapter 42]</ref> The 38th verse of that Sura declares shura to be the praiseworthy lifestyle of a successful believer. It states that Muslims should decide on their matters by consulting with each other. 
:<blockquote>"Those who hearken to their Lord, and establish regular Prayer; who (conduct) their affairs by '''mutual consultation''' among themselves; who spend out of what We bestow on them for Sustenance" [are praised] (Q.42:38)<ref>[http://al-quran.info/default.aspx#&&sura=42&aya=38&trans=en-shakir,en-muhammad_asad,en-marmaduke_pickthall,en-yusuf_ali&show=both,quran-uthmani&format=rows&ver=1.00 Online Qur'an Project 42.39]</ref></blockquote>
* The 159th verse of 3rd Sura advises Muhammad to consult with believers regarding a matter. 
:<blockquote> Thus it is due to mercy from God that you deal with them gently, and had you been rough, hard hearted, they would certainly have dispersed from around you; pardon them therefore and ask pardon for them, and '''take counsel''' with them in the affair; so when you have decided, then place your trust in God; surely God loves those who trust. (Q.3:159)<ref>فبما رحمة من الله لنت لهم و لو کنت فظا غلیظ القلب لانفضوا من حولك فاعف عنهم و استغفر لهم و شاورهم فی الأمر فإذا عزمت فتوکل علی الله إن الله یحب المتوکلین [http://al-quran.info/default.aspx#&&sura=3&aya=159&trans=en-shakir,en-muhammad_asad,en-marmaduke_pickthall,en-yusuf_ali&show=both,quran-uthmani&format=rows&ver=1.00 Online Qur'an Project 3.159]</ref></blockquote>
* Shura is also mentioned in ayah 233 of the 2nd [[Sura]] of [[Qur'an]], but in a very specific context of how a mother and father who have a young child but are divorced should consult each other concerning the weaning of their child.
:{{blockquote|...But if both sides decide—after '''mutual consultation''' and consent—to wean a child, then there is no blame on them.... (Q.2:233)<ref name="quran.com-2:233">{{cite web |title=al-Baqarah 2:233 |url=https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=233 |website=quran.com |access-date=18 March 2025}}</ref> }}

Muhammad made some of his decisions in consultation with his followers unless it was a matter in which he said Allah had ordained something. It was common among Muhammad's companions to ask him if a certain advice was from God or from him. If it was from Muhammad, they felt free to give their opinion. Some times Muhammad changed his opinion on the advice of his followers like his decision to defend the city of Madinah by going out of the city in Uhad instead of from within the city.{{Citation Needed|date=February 2025}}

Arguments over shura began with the debate over the ruler in the Islamic world. When Muhammad died in 632 CE, a tumultuous meeting at [[Saqifah]] selected [[Abu Bakr]] as his successor. This meeting did not include some of those with a strong interest in the matter—especially [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law; people who wanted Ali to be the caliph (ruler) (later known as [[Shia]]) still consider Abu Bakr an illegitimate leader of the caliphate.{{Citation Needed|date=February 2025}}

In later years, the followers of Ali as the ruler of Muslims became one school of thought (Shi'atu Ali or [[Shia]]), while the followers of Abu Bakr became the [[Sunni]] school of thought.{{Citation Needed|date=February 2025}}

The Sunni school of thought believe that shura is recommended in the Qur'an (though some classical jurists maintained it is obligatory), The Qur'an, and by numerous hadith, or oral traditions of the sayings and doings of Muhammad and his [[sahaba|companions]]. They say that the first four [[Rashidun Caliphate|caliph]]s, or rulers of Islam, whom they call the Four Rightly-guided Caliphs, were chosen by shura. (See [[Succession to Muhammad]], [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], [[The election of Uthman]], and [[Ali Ibn Abi Talib]].){{Citation Needed|date=February 2025}}

The Shi'a school of thought believe that Muhammad had clearly indicated that Ali was his appointed infallible ruler of Muslim nation regardless of shura, a recommendation that was ignored by the first three caliphs. Shi'a do not stress the role of shura in choosing leaders, but believe that the divine vice-regent is chosen by God, or Allah, from the lineage of Muhammad ([[Ahl al-Bayt]]). The largest Shi'a sect believes that the current imam is in "occultation", hidden away until the last days, but there are minority Shi'a who follow leaders believed to be infallible imams.{{Citation Needed|date=February 2025}}

===Shura and the caliphate===
During and after Ali's tenure as caliph, the Muslim community fell into civil war. Power was eventually grasped by the [[Umayyad]] caliphs and then by the [[Abbasid]] caliphs. There were also rival caliphates in [[Egypt]] and [[Al-Andalus]] (today's Spain and Portugal), and in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The [[Ottoman Caliphate]] was officially dissolved by the newly founded Grand National Assembly of Turkey in 1924.

Few of the later caliphs had anything but nominal control over the many Islamic states, and none were chosen by shura; all reached power by inheritance.

===Dispute over importance===
The Muslim clergy counseled submission to rulers but also stressed the duty of the ruler to rule by shura. They based this recommendation on the passages from the Qur'an mentioned above. 

Author Jebran Chamieh notes that while some Muslims consider Shurah a "pillar" of Islam, a number of factors indicate it may not be. 
* The two Quranic verses mention shura only briefly,<ref name=Chamieh-82-3>{{cite book |last=Chamieh |first=Jebran |title=Traditionalists, Militants, Liberals in Present Islam |publisher=The Research and Publishing House |year=1979 |pages=82-3 }}</ref> and 
* while the verses indicate that shura is praiseworthy they do not indicate who should be consulted, what they should be consulted about, or whether the ruler or the shura should prevail in the event the two do not agree.<ref name=Chamieh-82-3/>
* While the Quran mentions briefly that consultation is worthwhile, in the corpus of  [[Hadith]] there are few or no elaborations of who should be consulted, when, and about what; hadith being the usual place to expand on brief mentions in the Quran if those have any importance.<ref name=Chamieh-82-3/>
* Some Muslims argue Muhammad sought the advice of the [[Companions of the  Prophet|Companions]] occasionally, but he "never felt  the advice was binding on him", nor did he follow the "pre-Islamic practice of holding regular meetings in the assemblies of Mecca and Medina".<ref name=Chamieh-82-3/>
* Contrary to the insistence of some Muslim authors, Muhammad's successors, the [[Rashidun Caliphs]], did not seek consultation on decisions they had to make in governing nor in the choosing of the next Caliph.<ref name=Chamieh-82-3/>

==Shura and contemporary Muslim-majority states==
{{Islamism sidebar|Concepts}}
In some Muslim nations, shuras play a role in the constitution or governance. Some Muslim nations, such as [[Turkey]], are secular republics, and [[Morocco]] is a constitutional monarchy. They could thus be said to be ruled by one version of shura. For instance, the bicameral [[Parliament of Pakistan]] is officially called the [[Majlis-i-Shoora|Majlis-i-Shura]], although the [[Constitution of Pakistan|Constitution]] uses various spellings of the term. In [[Egypt]], the [[Upper House]] of [[Parliament]] was known as the [[Shura Council]]. The [[People's Consultative Assembly]] in [[Indonesia]] is called ''Majlis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'' in [[Indonesian language]]. The word ''musyawarat'' is derived from shura/syawara.

In some monarchies and clerical regimes, there is a shura with an advisory or consultative role. [[Saudi Arabia]], a monarchy, was given a shura council, the [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia]], in 1993; there are now 150 members. All real power is held by the King, who is elected by family members. [[Oman]], also a monarchy, has a shura council; all members are elected except the president, who is appointed by the [[Sultan of Oman|sultan]]. The council can only offer advice, which may be refused by the sultan.

In [[Iran]], a council called the [[assembly of experts]] has the ability to impeach the supreme leader. In addition to that, a general shura wields legislative powers, equivalent to a modern-day Western parliament.

Shuras have also been a feature of [[revolution]]s in Islamic societies, such as in the [[Iranian revolution]] of 1979, where they were formed by workers and held considerable power over parts of the economy for a year before being dismantled. Shuras were similarly a feature of the uprisings in [[Iraq]]<ref>''[http://libcom.org/library/1991-kurdish-uprising The Kurdish Uprising'' & ''Kurdistan's Nationalist Shopfront and its Negotiations with the Baathist/Fascist Regime]'', BM Blob and BM Combustion, London, July 14, 1991.</ref><ref>[https://www.webcitation.org/5knvh8WNv?url=http://www.geocities.com/icgcikg/english/communism7.htm#journey_iraq A Comrade's Testimony: A Journey to Irak], ''Communism'' No. 7, International Communist Group, April 1992</ref> in 1991, where they functioned as a form of [[participatory democracy]].

In the 21st century, some emerging scholars{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} are now advocating the infusion of Shura with digital technology as a means to enhance participatory governance or E-Governance among Muslims for state- and community-building purposes.

===Resemblance between majlis al-shura and a parliament===

Many traditional [[Sunni]] [[Islamic lawyer]]s agree that to be in keeping with Islam, a government should have some form of council of consultation or ''[[Majlis al-Shura|majlis al-shura]]'', although it must recognize that God and not the people are sovereign. [[Al-Mawardi]] has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, have enough knowledge to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one, and have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph. Al-Mawardi also said that in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people themselves should create a majlis, select a list of candidates for caliph, and then the majlis should select a caliph from the list of candidates.<ref>[http://www.2muslims.com/directory/Detailed/225505.shtml Process of Choosing the Leader (Caliph) of the Muslims]</ref>

Many contemporary Muslims have compared the concept of Shura to the principles of western parliamentary democracy. For example: 
<BLockquote>What is the shura principle in Islam? ... It is predicated on three basic precepts. First, that all persons in any given society are equal in human and civil rights. Second, that public issues are best decided by majority view. And third, that the three other principles of justice, equality and human dignity, which constitute Islam's moral core, ... are best realized, in personal as well as public life, under shura governance.<ref>[http://www.alhewar.com/SadekShura.htm "The Shura principle in Islam" by Sadek Jawad Sulaiman]</ref></blockquote>

Other modern Muslim thinkers distance themselves from democracy. [[Taqiuddin al-Nabhani]], the founder of the modern transnational Islamist party [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]], writes that shura is important and part of "the ruling structure" of the Islamic caliphate, "but not one of its pillars." If the caliph "neglects it," by not paying much or any attention, as happened after the first four caliphs, "he would be negligent, but the ruling system would remain Islamic."

<blockquote>This is because the shura (consultation) in Islam is for seeking the opinion and not for ruling. This is contrary to the parliamentary system in democracy.<ref>[http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.org/PDF/EN/en_books_pdf/system_of_islam.pdf ''The System of Islam, (Nidham ul Islam)'' by Taqiuddin an-Nabhani], Al-Khilafa Publications, 1423 AH - 2002 CE, p.61</ref></blockquote>
The democratic parliamentary system being distinct from and inferior to the true Islamic caliphate system according to Taqiuddin an-Nabhani.<ref>[http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.org/PDF/EN/en_books_pdf/system_of_islam.pdf ''The System of Islam,'' by Taqiuddin an-Nabhani], p.39</ref>

Under the [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]] constitution, non-Muslims may not serve a caliph or any other ruling official, nor vote for these officials, but may be part of the majlis and voice "complaints in respect to unjust acts performed by the rulers or the misapplication of Islam upon them."

Still others, such as the [[Muslim]] author [[Sayyid Qutb]], go further, arguing that an Islamic shura should advise the caliph but not elect or supervise him. In an analysis of the shura chapter of the [[Qur'an]], Qutb noted that Islam requires only that the ruler consult with at least some of the ruled (usually the elite), within the general context of God-made laws that the ruler must execute. In 1950 Qutb denounced democracy in favor of [[dictatorship]], saying it was already bankrupt in the West and asking why it should be imported to the Middle East.<ref>Qutb, Sayyid, ''Tafsir Surat al-Shura'' (Beirut, 1973), pp.83-85; ''Ma'alim fi al-Tariq'', p.3</ref><ref>Source: letter in ''al-Akhbar'', August 8, 1952</ref>

The practice of a consultative, but not bill-passing, caliph-electing or popularly elected shura, was adopted by the self-described strict [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]]. While the Kandahar Shura of the [[Taliban]] debated issues, in the end its spokesman declared, "we abide by the Amir's view even if he alone takes this view."<ref>Interview with Taliban spokesman Mullah Wakil in Arabic magazine ''Al-Majallah,'' 23 October 1996</ref>

==See also==
*[[Islamic democracy]]
*[[Moderation in Islam]]
*[[Salat al-Istikharah]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://ssrn.com/abstract=1475928 Liberal Democracy and Political Islam: The Search for Common Ground]
*[http://www.ijtihad.org/shura.htm Ijtihad.org]
*[http://www.alhewar.com/SadekShura.htm Alhewar.com]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130405165904/http://www.shurah.org/ Shura.org]
*[https://www.alislam.org/topics/khilafat/Shura.pdf Shura. Mutual Consultation by Adam Hani Walker, UK]

{{Islamic philosophy}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Arabic words and phrases]]
[[Category:Arabic words and phrases in Sharia]]
[[Category:Sharia legal terminology]]