View source for Silesians

{{Short description|Inhabitants of the Silesia region}}
{{For|the tribe|Silesians (tribe)}}

{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Silesians
| native_name      = {{native name|szl|Ślōnzŏki, Ślůnzoki}}<br>{{native name|pl|Ślązacy}}<br>{{native name|sli|Schläsinger, Schläsier}}<br>{{native name|de|Schlesier}}<br>{{native name|cs|Slezané}}
| flag             = Flag of Silesians.svg
| flag_caption     = [[Flag of Upper Silesia]]
| pop              = Several million (of which about 0.6 million officially declared Silesian [[nationality]] in national censuses in [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]).
| region1          = {{flag|Germany}}
| pop1             = {{circa}} 2.4–3.6 million<ref>"''Volkszählung vom 27. Mai 1970''" Germany (West). Statistisches Bundesamt. [[Kohlhammer Verlag]], 1972, [[Online Computer Library Center|OCLC]] Number: 760396</ref>
| region2          = {{flag|Poland}}
| pop2             = 596,224<ref name="stat">''[https://stat.gov.pl/spisy-powszechne/nsp-2021/nsp-2021-wyniki-ostateczne/tablice-z-ostatecznymi-danymi-w-zakresie-przynaleznosci-narodowo-etnicznej-jezyka-uzywanego-w-domu-oraz-przynaleznosci-do-wyznania-religijnego,10,1.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928105147/https://stat.gov.pl/spisy-powszechne/nsp-2021/nsp-2021-wyniki-ostateczne/tablice-z-ostatecznymi-danymi-w-zakresie-przynaleznosci-narodowo-etnicznej-jezyka-uzywanego-w-domu-oraz-przynaleznosci-do-wyznania-religijnego,10,1.html |date=2023-09-28 }}''. {{Retrieved|access-date=2021-04-11}}</ref> officially declared Silesian nationality. (Polish-Silesian nationality included)
| region3          = {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| pop3             = No data, 31,301 declared Silesian nationality, of which 12,451 declared it as their only nationality<ref name=censusCZE>{{cite web|title=Národnost|url=https://www.czso.cz/csu/scitani2021/narodnost|work=Census 2021|publisher=[[Czech Statistical Office]]|language=cs|access-date=8 December 2022|archive-date=15 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220115083026/https://www.czso.cz/csu/scitani2021/narodnost|url-status=live}}</ref>
| region4          = {{flag|Slovakia}}
| pop4             = no data; 22 declared Silesian nationality<ref>{{cite web |title=Bilancia podľa národnosti a pohlavia - SR-oblasť-kraj-okres, m-v [om7002rr] |url=http://datacube.statistics.sk/#!/view/sk/VBD_DEM/om7002rr/Bilancia%20pod%C4%BEa%20n%C3%A1rodnosti%20a%20pohlavia%20-%20SR-oblas%C5%A5-kraj-okres,%20m-v%20%5Bom7002rr%5D |publisher=Statistics of Slovakia |access-date=31 July 2019 |language=sk |archive-date=4 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204023313/http://datacube.statistics.sk/#!/view/sk/VBD_DEM/om7002rr/Bilancia%20pod%C4%BEa%20n%C3%A1rodnosti%20a%20pohlavia%20-%20SR-oblas%C5%A5-kraj-okres,%20m-v%20%5Bom7002rr%5D |url-status=live }}</ref>
| langs            = [[Silesian language|Silesian]]<br />[[Polish language|Polish]] ([[New mixed dialects]], [[Kraków dialect]])<br /> [[German language|German]] <small>(incl. [[Silesian German]] dialects)</small><br />[[Czech language|Czech]] ([[Lach dialects]])
| rels             = [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]<br />[[Protestantism]] (Mainly [[Lutheranism]])
| related          = Other [[West Slavs]], other [[Germans]], [[Vilamovians]]
}}
[[File:Liczba Ślązaków w woj. śląskim i opolskim 2021.png|thumb|Silesians in the [[Opole Voivodeship|Opole]] and [[Silesian Voivodeship]]s of [[Poland]] (2021 census)]]
[[File:Silesians in Opole and Upper Silesian Voivodeship according to the 2011 and 2021 censuses.png|thumb|Silesians in the [[Opole Voivodeship|Opole]] and [[Silesian Voivodeship]]s of [[Poland]] (2011 and 2021 censuses)]]
[[File:Silesians in Czech Silesia 2021.png|thumb|Silesians in [[Czech Silesia]] (2021 census)]]
[[File:Babcia Agnes.jpg|right|thumb|Woman in Silesian dress from [[Cieszyn Silesia]], 1914]]
[[File:Transparent Slunsko Nacyjo, VIII Marsz Autonomii.JPG|right|thumb|"Ślōnskŏ nacyjŏ bōła, je a bydzie", which means "Silesian Nation was, is, and will be" - Eighth Autonomy March, [[Katowice]], 18 July 2009]]

'''Silesians''' ({{langx|szl|Ślōnzŏki or Ślůnzoki}}; [[Silesian German]]: ''Schläsinger'' ''or'' ''Schläsier''; {{langx|de|Schlesier}} {{IPA|de|ˈʃleːzi̯ɐ|pron|De-Schlesier.ogg}}; {{langx|pl|Ślązacy}}; {{langx|cs|Slezané}}) is both a linguistic as well as a geographical term<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofrace00unitrich#page/128/mode/1up/search/Silesian|title=Dictionary of Races or Peoples|last1=Dillingham|first1=William Paul|last2=Folkmar|first2=Daniel|last3=Folkmar|first3=Elnora|publisher=Washington, Government Printing Office|year=1911|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=128}}</ref> for the inhabitants of [[Silesia]], a historical region in [[Central Europe]] divided by the current national boundaries of [[Poland]], [[Germany]], and [[Czech Republic|Czechia]]. Historically, the region of [[Silesia]] ([[Lower Silesia|Lower]] and [[Upper Silesia|Upper]]) has been inhabited by [[Polish people|Polish]] ([[West Slavs|West Slavic]] [[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]] people), [[Czechs]], and [[Germans]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kunce |first=Aleksandra |url=https://www.academia.edu/94610880 |title=Being at Home in a Place: The Philosophy of Localness |publisher=Elipsa |year=2019 |isbn=978-83-8017-270-8 |pages=41–112 |language=English |access-date=2023-02-13 }}</ref> Therefore, the term Silesian can refer to anyone of these ethnic groups. However, in 1945, great demographic changes occurred in the region as a result of the [[Potsdam Agreement]] leaving most of the region ethnically [[Polish people|Polish]] and/or Slavic Upper Silesian. The names of [[Silesia]] in different languages most likely share their etymology—{{langx|pl|{{audio|Pl-Śląsk.ogg|Śląsk}}}}; {{Langx|de|Schlesien}} {{IPA|de|ˈʃleːzi̯ən|pron|De-Schlesien.ogg}}; {{langx|cs|Slezsko}} {{IPA|cs|ˈslɛsko|}}; {{langx|sli|Schläsing}}; {{langx|szl|Ślōnsk}} {{IPA|szl|ɕlonsk|}}; {{langx|dsb|Šlazyńska}} {{IPA|dsb|ˈʃlazɨnʲska|}}; {{langx|hsb|Šleska}} {{IPA|hsb|ˈʃlɛska|}}; [[Latin]], Spanish and English: ''Silesia''; {{langx|fr|link=no|Silésie}}; {{langx|nl|Silezië}}; {{langx|it|Slesia}}; {{langx|sk|Sliezsko}}; {{langx|csb|Sląsk}}. The names all relate to the name of a river (now [[Ślęza]]) and mountain ([[Mount Ślęża]]) in mid-southern Silesia, which served as a place of cult for pagans before [[Christianization]].

''[[Ślęża]]'' is listed as one of the numerous [[Pre-Indo-European languages|Pre-Indo-European]] topographic names in the region (see [[old European hydronymy]]).<ref>Zbigniew Babik, "Najstarsza warstwa nazewnicza na ziemiach polskich w granicach średniowiecznej Słowiańszczyzny", Uniwersitas, Kraków, 2001.</ref> According to some [[Polish language|Polonists]], the name ''[[Ślęża]]'' {{IPA|pl|ˈɕlɛ̃ʐa|}} or ''[[Ślęża|Ślęż]]'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɛ̃ʂ|}} is directly related to the [[Old Polish]] words ''ślęg'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɛŋk|}}  or ''śląg'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɔŋk|}}, which means dampness, moisture, or humidity.<ref>Rudolf Fischer. Onomastica slavogermanica. Uniwersytet Wrocławski. 2007. t. XXVI. 2007. str. 83</ref> They disagree with the hypothesis of an origin for the name ''Śląsk'' {{IPA|pl|ɕlɔ̃sk|}} from the name of the [[Silingi|Silings]] tribe, an etymology preferred by some German authors.<ref name='RGA'>{{cite encyclopedia |editor1=Jankuhn, Herbert |editor2=Beck, Heinrich | encyclopedia = [[Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde]] | title = Wandalen | language = de | edition = 2nd | year = 2006 | publisher = de Gruyter | volume = 33 | location = Berlin, Germany; New York City | quote = Da die Silingen offensichtlich ihren Namen im mittelalterlichen pagus silensis und dem mons slenz – möglicherweise mit dem Zobten gleichzusetzen [...] – hinterließen und damit einer ganzen Landschaft – Schlesien – den Namen gaben [...]|display-editors=etal}}
The name in Silesian dialect:'Ślōnzŏki'', ''Ślůnzoki'' ([[Silesian language|Silesian]]) in Polish language {{native name|pl|Ślązacy}}, Old Polish Ślężnie, colloquial Polish Ślązaki, Ślązoki <br />''Slezané'' ([[Czech language|Czech]])''</ref>

The term "Silesia" is a Latinized word of the original Polish/Lechitic name "Śląsk" inhabited by the ancient Lechitic tribes called Ślężanie. 
In Silesia, there are many places of the ancient Slavic Lechitic pagan cult of these ancient people, for example Góra Ślęża.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

About 209,000 of the Upper Silesian population declared themselves as pure Silesians, 376,000 people declared themselves as having a joint Silesian and Polish nationality while only 471,000 people declared themselves to be of only Polish [[nationality]] from [[Silesia]] in the [[Polish census of 2011|2011 Polish national census]] making them the largest [[minority group]] in [[Poland]]. About 126,000 people declared themselves as members of the [[German minority in Poland|German minority]] (58,000 declared it jointly with [[Polish nation]]ality), making it the third largest minority group in the country (93% of Germans living in Poland are in the Polish parts of Silesia). 31,301 people declared Silesian nationality in the [[2021 Czech census]], including 18,850 of those who declared two nationalities<ref name=censusCZE/> (44,446 in [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1991),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cvvm.cas.cz/upl/nase_spolecnost/100023s_Samanova-narodnost.pdf |title=Národnost ve sčítání lidu v českých zemích |access-date=2012-08-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007135541/http://www.cvvm.cas.cz/upl/nase_spolecnost/100023s_Samanova-narodnost.pdf |archive-date=2009-10-07 }}</ref> and 6,361 people declared joint Silesian and Moravian nationality in the 1991 Slovak national census.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/bhr/english/special_issues/CEDIME-unwgm2001/un%20wgm%20slovakia%20appendix%20on%20minorities%203a%2015-5-01.doc |title=National Minorities in the Slovak Republic |website=www.greekhelsinki.gr |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030406084957/http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/bhr/english/special_issues/CEDIME-unwgm2001/un%20wgm%20slovakia%20appendix%20on%20minorities%203a%2015-5-01.doc |archive-date=6 April 2003 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Over 85% of the population in the Polish part of Upper Silesia declare themselves as Poles, and in the Czech part as Czechs.

During the [[German occupation of Poland]], [[Nazi]] authorities conducted a census in [[East Upper Silesia]] in 1940. At the time, 157,057 people declared Silesian nationality (''Slonzaken Volk''), and the Silesian language was declared by 288,445 people. However, the Silesian nationality could only be declared in the [[Cieszyn]] part of the region. Approximately 400–500,000 respondents from the other areas of East Upper Silesia who declared "Upper Silesian nationality" (Oberschlesier) were assigned to the German nationality category.<ref>"''Górny Śląsk: szczególny przypadek kulturowy''" (en: "Upper Silesia: special case of cultural") - Mirosława Błaszczak-Wacławik, Wojciech Błasiak, Tomasz Nawrocki, [[University of Warsaw]] 1990, p. 63</ref> After [[World War II]] in Poland, the 1945 census showed a sizable group of people in Upper Silesia who declared Silesian nationality. According to police reports, 22% of people in [[Zabrze]] considered themselves to be Silesians, and that number was around 50% in [[Strzelce County]].<ref>"''Polityka antyniemiecka na Górnym Śląsku w latach 1945-1950''" - Bernard Linek, Opole 2000, {{ISBN|978-83-7126-142-8}}</ref>

==History==
Archaeological findings of the 20th century in Silesia confirm the existence of an early settlement inhabited by [[Celts|Celtic]] tribes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.powiatopolski.pl/182/2189/history_of_the_county.html |title=Opole county |publisher=Powiatopolski.pl |date=2011-05-25 |access-date=2012-08-16}}</ref>

Until the 2nd century some parts of Silesia were populated by Celtic [[Boii]], predecessors of the states of [[Bohemia]] and [[Bavaria]] and subsequently until the 5th century, by the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Silingi]], a tribe of the [[Vandals]], which moved south and west to invade [[Andalusia]]. Silesia remained depopulated until the second phase of the [[migration period]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}

The [[Slavs]], predominantly [[White Croats]] entered the depopulated territory of Silesia in the first half of the 6th century. The Slavic territories were mostly abandoned, because the Celtic and Germanic tribes that lived there before had moved west.<ref>R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.) Historia Śląska, Wrocław 2007, p. 34–37, {{ISBN|978-83-229-2872-1}}</ref> Chronologically, the first group of Slavs were those that dwelt by the [[Dnieper River]], the second was the Sukov-Dzidzice type Slavs, and the last were groups of [[Pannonian Avars|Avaro]]-Slavic peoples from the [[Danube river]] areas.<ref>R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.) Historia Śląska, Wrocław 2007, p. 37–38, {{ISBN|978-83-229-2872-1}}</ref> In the early 9th century, the settlement stabilized. Local West Slavs began to erect a series of defensive systems, such as the [[Silesian Przesieka]] and the [[Silesia Walls]] to guard them from invaders. The north-eastern border with [[Polans (western)|Western Polans]] was not reinforced, due to their common culture and language.<ref name="autogenerated2007">R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.) Historia Śląska, Wrocław 2007, p. 40, {{ISBN|978-83-229-2872-1}}</ref>

The 9th-century ''[[Bavarian Geographer]]'' records the tribal names of the [[Opolanie]], [[Dadosesani]], [[Golenzizi]], Lupiglaa, and the [[Sleenzane|Ślężanie]]. The 1086 ''Prague Document'', which is believed to document the 10th-century settlements,<ref name="autogenerated2007"/> also mentions the [[Bobrzanie]] and Trzebowianie tribes. Later sources classified those tribes as [[Silesian tribes]], which were also jointly classified as part of [[Polish tribes]].<ref>Raymond Breton, ''National Survival in Dependent Societies: Social Change in Canada and Poland'', McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, 1990, p. 106, {{ISBN|0-88629-127-5}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=B4WQJknPbpQC&dq=%22polish+tribes%22&pg=PA106 Google Books]; Charles William Previte-Orton, ''The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1962, V. II, p. 744, {{ISBN|0-521-09976-5}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=7L88AAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Polish+tribes%22+five&pg=PA744 Google Books]</ref><ref name="Kozlov-Holloman">V.I. Kozlov [in:] Regina E. Holloman, Serghei A. Arutiunov (ed.) ''Perspectives on Ethnicity'', Walter de Gruyter 1978, p. 391, {{ISBN|311080770X}}, 9783110807707 [https://books.google.com/books?id=x3gAB7A6-bgC&dq=tribes+poland+ethnicity&pg=PA391 Google Books]</ref><ref>Raymond Breton, W. Kwaśniewicz, ''National Survival in Dependent Societies: Social Change in Canada and Poland'', McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP, 1990, p. 106,{{ISBN|0-88629-127-5}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=B4WQJknPbpQC&dq=%22polish+tribes%22&pg=PA106 Google Books]</ref><ref>S. Arnold, M. Żychowski, ''Outline history of Poland. From the beginning of the state to the present time'', Warsaw 1962, p. 7-11 [https://books.google.com/books?id=gvcQAQAAIAAJ&q=nation+tribe Google Books]</ref> The reason for this classification was the "fundamentally common culture and language" of Silesian, [[Polans (western)|Polan]], [[Masovians|Masovian]], [[Vistulans|Vistulan]], and [[Pomeranians (Slavic tribe)|Pomeranian]] tribes that "were considerably more closely related to one another than were the Germanic tribes."<ref>John Blacking, Anna Czekanowska, ''Polish Folk Music: Slavonic Heritage – Polish Tradition – Contemporary Trends'', Cambridge University Press, 2006, p. 3,
{{ISBN|0-521-02797-7}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=czVkawHfw_UC&dq=%22polish+tribes%22&pg=PA3 Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404013552/https://books.google.com/books?id=czVkawHfw_UC&dq=%22polish+tribes%22&pg=PA3 |date=2023-04-04 }} same conclusions in Mark Salter, Jonathan Bousfield, ''Poland'', Rough Guides, 2002, p. 675, {{ISBN|1-85828-849-5}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=YgQ0B1CNYfQC&dq=%22Polish+tribes%22+five&pg=PP1 Google Books]</ref>

According to ''Perspectives on Ethnicity'', written by [[anthropologist]] V. I. Kozlov and edited by R. Holloman, the Silesian tribes, together with other Polish tribes, formed what is now [[ethnic Poles|Polish ethnicity]] and [[Polish culture|culture]]. This process is called ethnic consolidation, in which several ethnic communities of the same origin and cognate languages merge into one.<ref name="Kozlov-Holloman"/>

===Middle Ages===
The Silesians lived on the territory that became part of the [[Great Moravia]] in 875. Later, in 990, the [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|first Polish state]] was created by Duke [[Mieszko I]], and then expanded by king [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaw I]] at the beginning of the 11th century. He established the [[Bishopric of Wrocław]] in [[Lower Silesia]] in the year 1000.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

In the [[Middle Ages]], Slavic tribal confederacies, and then Slavic states, dominated. Silesia was part of [[Great Moravia]], then [[Kingdom of Bohemia]] and finally the [[Piast]] monarchy of [[History of Poland during the Piast dynasty|Poland]]. The tribal differences started to disappear after the consolidation of [[History of Poland (966–1385)|Poland]] in the 10th and 11th centuries. The main factors of this process were the establishment of a single monarchy that ruled over all Polish tribes, as well as creation of a separate [[ecclesiastical province|ecclesiastical organization]] within the boundaries of the newly established Polish state.<ref>S. Rosik [in:] W. Wrzesiński (red.) ''Historia Dolnego Śląska'', Wrocław 2006, p. 49, {{ISBN|978-83-229-2763-2}}</ref> The names of the smaller tribes disappeared from historical records, as well as the names of some prominent tribes. However, in some places, the names of the most important tribes transformed into names representing the whole region, such as Mazovians for [[Mazovia]], and Silesians for [[Silesia]]. As a result of the [[History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty#Fragmentation_of_the_realm_(1138%E2%80%931320)|fragmentation of Poland]], some of those regions were again divided into smaller entities, such as the division of Silesia into [[Lower Silesia]] and [[Upper Silesia]]). However, the tribal era was already over, and these divisions reflected only political subdivisions of the Polish realm.<ref>S. Rosik [in:] W. Wrzesiński (red.) ''Historia Dolnego Śląska'', Wrocław 2006, p. 53-54, {{ISBN|978-83-229-2763-2}}</ref> Within Poland, from 1177 onward, Silesia was divided into many smaller duchies. In 1178, parts of the [[Duchy of Kraków]] around Bytom, [[Oświęcim]], [[Chrzanów]] and [[Siewierz]] were transferred to the [[Silesian Piasts]], although their population was of Vistulan and not of Silesian descent.<ref name="autogenerated1">R. Żerelik(in:) M. Czpliński (red.) Historia Śląska, Wrocław 2007, p. 21-22, {{ISBN|978-83-229-2872-1}}</ref> Parts of those territories were bought by the [[Monarchs of Poland|Polish kings]] in the second half of the 15th century, but the Bytom area remained in the possession of the Silesian Piasts, even though it remained a part of the [[Diocese of Kraków]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/> Between 1327 and 1348, the duchies of Silesia came under the suzerainty of the [[Crown of Bohemia]], which was then passed to the [[Habsburg monarchy]] of [[Austria]] in 1526.

Beginning in the 13th century, sparesly settled Slavic Silesia began to be [[Ostsiedlung|settled by Germans]] from various German regions. Silesia was by then attached the [[Bohemia]], which itself was part of the [[Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation]]. Over a few generations, ethnic structure of the province was completely changed and various German dialects of the new settlers became widely used throughout Lower Silesia and some Upper Silesian cities. However, after the era of German colonization, the Polish language was still predominant in Upper Silesia and parts of Lower and Middle Silesia north of the [[Oder|Odra river]]. There, Germans usually dominated large cities, and Poles mostly lived in rural areas. This required the German authorities to issue official documents in Polish, or in German and Polish. The Polish-speaking territories of Lower and Middle Silesia, commonly called the ''Polish side'' until the end of the 19th century, were mostly Germanized in the 18th and 19th centuries, except for some areas along the northeastern frontier.<ref>{{cite book |last=Badstübner |first=Ernst |title=Dehio – Handbuch der Kunstdenkmäler in Polen: Schlesien |others=Dietmar Popp, [[Andrzej Tomaszewski]], Dethard von Winterfeld |year=2005 |publisher=Deutscher Kunstverlag 2005 |location=München, Berlin |isbn=3-422-03109-X |page=4}}</ref><ref>M. Czapliński [in:] M. Czapliński (red.) Historia Śląska, Wrocław 2007, s. 290, {{ISBN|978-83-229-2872-1}}</ref>

===Modern history===
In 1742, most of Silesia was seized in the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] by King [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] of [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], who named himself a 'Piast prince' (he was actually a remote descendant) in his first declaration. The remainder of Silesia, known as [[Cieszyn Silesia]], remained in the Austrian Empire. The Prussian part of Silesia constituted the [[Province of Silesia]] until 1918. Later, the province was split into the Prussian provinces of [[Province of Upper Silesia|Upper]] and [[Province of Lower Silesia|Lower Silesia]]. Owing to the development of education, a rebirth of Polish culture took place in the second half of the 1800s in Silesia, which was connected with the emergence of a Polish national movement of a clearly Catholic character. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the fact that Silesians were part of the Polish nation was not questioned.<ref name="Google books"/> The language and culture of the self-declared Polish Silesians were put under the pressure of the Prussian [[Kulturkampf]] policies, which attempted to Germanize them in culture and language. The process of Germanisation was never completely successful. The cultural distance of Upper Silesians from the German population resulted in the development of Polish national awareness at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, culminating in the pro-Polish movements at the end of [[World War I]].<ref>David M. Smith, Enid Wistrich, ''Regional Identity and Diversity in Europe: Experience in Wales, Silesia and Flanders'', The Federal Trust for Education & Research, 2008, p. 65, {{ISBN|1903403871}}, 9781903403877 [https://books.google.com/books?id=TjoDJUnoWd8C&dq=polish+nation+formation+silesia&pg=PA64 Google books]</ref>

German and later by Moravian neighbors called the Slavic Upper Silesians ''Wasserpolen''. This name has been known since at least the 17th century and seems to refer to the Polish population in a German-Polish border region. On the other hand, Germans in Upper Silesia were called ''Rajchy'' (those from the Reich). As the result of the division of Silesia between Prussia and Austria, the terms ''Prusocy'' (the Prussians) and ''Cesarocy'' (the Imperial) also appeared. Prusocy referred to the inhabitants of Prussian Silesia, Cesarocy to those of [[Austrian Silesia]]. The latter referred both to the inhabitants of Cieszyn Silesia and, in part, to the western, Austrian partition of Poland, i.e. the western part of the Krakow region. Older people still know on these terms, which reflect a border that ceased to exist after World War I. The name Prusocy was later replaced by Hanysy, and is often used by Upper Silesians to refer to themselves, although the term sounds offensive to the ears of Polish newcomers (przybyszy) who arrived after 1945.<ref>{{cite book|contribution=Schlesier (Hanysy, Cesarocy, Prusocy, Wasserpolacy) und Gorole. Probleme mit der Identität in Oberschlesien|author=Zygmunt Kłodnicki|title=Vergangenheit in Gegenwart und Zukunft. Modelle zur Geschichtsbewältigung in Mittel- und Osteuropa|series=20. Schlesierseminar auf Schloss Groß Stein|publisher=Haus der Deutsch-Polnischen Zusammenarbeit Gliwice-Opole|year= 2016|pages=40-50}}</ref>

After the conflicts termed [[Silesian Uprisings]], which also involved intervention of the Polish government, the eastern minor, but richer, part of Upper Silesia became part of the newly restored [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]; most of the land that had been ruled by the Habsburgs following the [[War of the Austrian Succession#Campaign of 1742|1742 war]] went to [[Czechoslovakia]], while Lower Silesia and most of [[Province of Upper Silesia|Upper Silesia]] remained in Germany. The ethnic situation of the region became more complex as the division of Upper Silesia into Polish and German parts led to ethnic polarization. The people that lived in the western part of Upper Silesia were subject to a strong German [[Ostsiedlung]], where those living in the eastern part of Silesia started to identify with the Polish culture and statehood.<ref name="Google books"/>
[[File:Z dolnoslaskie.jpg|thumb|Traditional costumes from Lower Silesia]]
World War II and its aftermath amplified this polarization. Three groups took shape within the Silesian population. The Polish-speaking group was the largest, while the German-speaking group, which primarily lived in central Silesia, was noticeably smaller. A third group supported separatism and an independent Silesian nation-state. The separatists were of marginal importance, finding little support among native Silesians.<ref>P. Eberhardt, Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis, M.E. Sharpe, 2003, p. 166, {{ISBN|0765618338}}, 9780765618337 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&q=silesians&pg=PA102 Google books]</ref>
[[File:Marsz Autonomii 2015 Autonomy March 2015 (19752600315).jpg|thumb|Silesians in traditional costumes during the 2015 Autonomy March]]
The reasons for these transitions were boundary shifts and population changes that came after World War II. As a result, the vast majority of the former German Silesia, even [[Lower Silesia]], which did not have sizeable Polish-speaking population, was incorporated into Poland, with smaller regions remaining under the control of the [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] (which later became a part of unified Germany). [[Czechoslovakia]] obtained most of Cieszyn Silesia. Millions of Silesians, mostly of [[Germans|German]] ethnicity, were subsequently [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|forcibly expelled]], but after being sifted out from the ethnic Germans by a process of "national verification", the Silesians classified as "[[Indigenous peoples|autochthons]]" by the Polish communist authorities were allowed to remain, and they were intensely ''polonized''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kamusella|first=Tomasz|date=November 2005|url=http://www.tol.cz/look/TOL/article.tpl?IdLanguage=1&IdPublication=4&NrIssue=141&NrSection=4&NrArticle=15229|title=Doing It Our Way|publisher=Transitions Online|access-date=2006-07-25|archive-date=2007-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929094158/http://www.tol.cz/look/TOL/article.tpl?IdLanguage=1&IdPublication=4&NrIssue=141&NrSection=4&NrArticle=15229|url-status=live}}</ref>

Between 1955 and 1959, under the supervision of the [[Red Cross]], some of the remaining Silesians were able to emigrate to West and East Germany to [[family reunification|reunite with their families]] there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bpb.de/themen/0WTLNY,3,0,Die_Deutschen_in_Polen.html#art3 |title=Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung |language=de |publisher=Bpb.de |date=2005-03-15 |access-date=2012-08-16}}</ref> But some had to wait for years. Until 1989, nearly 600,000 Silesians emigrated to Germany.

Between 1945 and 1949, millions of ethnic Poles from the former (pre-1939) eastern Poland (especially [[Lviv]], [[Volhynia]], [[Podolia]], [[Vilnius]], etc.) and central Poland moved into Silesia, particularly in Lower Silesia. Since the end of [[People's Republic of Poland|Communist rule in Poland]], there have been calls for greater political representation for the Silesian ethnic minority. In 1997, a [[Katowice]] court of law registered the Union of People of Silesian Nationality (ZLNS) as the political representative organization of the Silesian ethnic minority, but after two months, the registration was revoked by a regional court.<ref>{{cite web| url= https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=pl&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fipn.gov.pl%2Fpublikacje%2Fksiazki%2Fobozowe-dzieje-swietochlowic-eintrachthtte-zgoda | title= Zgoda Świętochłowice labour camp - history and list of the dead | publisher=ipn.gov.pl }}</ref>

According to M.E. Sharpe, Silesians inhabiting Poland are considered to belong to a Polish ethnographic group, and they speak a dialect of Polish. United States Immigration Commission also counted Silesian as one of [[Dialects of Polish|the dialects of Polish]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofrace00unitrich#page/105/mode/1up|title=Dictionary of Races or Peoples|last1=Dillingham|first1=William Paul|last2=Folkmar|first2=Daniel|last3=Folkmar|first3=Elnora|publisher=Washington, Government Printing Office|others=United States. Immigration Commission (1907-1910)|year=1911|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=105, 128}}</ref> As a result of German influence,<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_CqpCAAAAIAAJ|title=Die Verbreitung und die Herkunft der Deutschen in Schlesien|last=Weinhold|first=Karl|publisher=J. Engelhorn|year=1887|location=Stuttgart|language=de|trans-title=The Spread and the Origin of Germans in Silesia}}</ref> Silesians have been influenced by German culture.<ref name="Google books">P. Eberhardt, ''Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis'', M.E. Sharpe, 2003, p. 166, {{ISBN|0765618338}}, 9780765618337 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&q=silesians&pg=PA102 Google books]</ref> Many German and their descendants who inhabited both Lower and Upper Silesia [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)|have been displaced to Germany in 1945-47]].

==Language==
{{Main|Silesian language}}
The Slavic [[Silesian language]]<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofrace00unitrich#page/105/mode/1up|title=Dictionary of Races or Peoples|last1=Dillingham|first1=William Paul|last2=Folkmar|first2=Daniel|last3=Folkmar|first3=Elnora|publisher=Washington, Government Printing Office|others=United States. Immigration Commission (1907-1910)|year=1911|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=104–105}}</ref> (often called Upper Silesian) is spoken by the Silesian [[Ethnographic group]] inside Polish [[Upper Silesia]]. According to the last census in Poland (2021), some 467,145<ref>[https://stat.gov.pl/download/gfx/portalinformacyjny/pl/defaultaktualnosci/6536/10/1/1/jezyk_uzywany_w_domu_-_dane_nsp_2021_dla_kraju_i_jednostek_podzialu_terytorialnego.xlsx język używany w domu - dane NSP 2021]</ref> people declared Silesian to be their native language; however, as many as 596,224 people declared themselves to be of Silesian nationality, not necessarily speaking Silesian, even though the Silesian nationality has not been recognized by Polish governments since its creation in 1945.

There is some contention over whether Silesian is a dialect or a language in its own right. Most Polish linguists consider Silesian to be a prominent regional dialect of [[Polish language|Polish]]. However, many Silesians regard it to be a separate language belonging to the [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] branch of [[Slavic languages]], together with Polish and other [[Lechitic languages]], such as Upper and Lower [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]], [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]. In July 2007, the Silesian language was officially recognized by the [[Library of Congress]] and [[SIL International]]. The language was attributed an [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] code: ''SZL''. The first official dictation contest of the Silesian language took place in August 2007.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

Although the [[German language]] is still spoken in Silesia, as it has a sizable minority of speakers in the [[Opole Voivodship]] in Poland, the vast majority of native speakers were expelled during or after 1945. Therefore, the number of German speakers in the region [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|was radically and significantly decreased]] after World War II, even though the Germans had settled there for centuries. The [[Silesian German]] dialect is a distinct variety of [[East Central German]], with some West Slavic influence likely caused by centuries of contact between Germans and Slavs in the region; the dialect is related to contemporary Saxon in some ways. The Silesian German dialect is often misleading referred to as Lower Silesian in the German language. The usage of this dialect appears to be decreasing, as most Silesian Germans prefer either [[Standard German]] or even [[Polish Language|Polish]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}

== Historical data ==
===Prussian Lower Silesia===
In year [[1819]], the Breslau Regency had 833,253 inhabitants, the majority of whom—755,553 (90%)—were German-speakers; with a Polish-speaking minority numbering 66,500 (8%); as well as 3,900 Czechs (1%) and 7,300 Jews (1%).<ref name="Hassel 1">{{cite book |author=Georg Hassel |title=Statistischer Umriß der sämmtlichen europäischen und der vornehmsten außereuropäischen Staaten, in Hinsicht ihrer Entwickelung, Größe, Volksmenge, Finanz- und Militärverfassung, tabellarisch dargestellt; Erster Heft: Welcher die beiden großen Mächte Österreich und Preußen und den Deutschen Staatenbund darstellt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31DMAJgQV28C&pg=PA34 |year=1823 |publisher=Verlag des Geographischen Instituts Weimar |quote=Nationalverschiedenheit 1819 |pages=33–34|language=de}}</ref> The Liegnitz Regency was inhabited by Germans with a small Sorbian minority.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Table 1. Ethno-linguistic structure of [[Province of Silesia|Prussian Silesia]] in early 19th '''centu'''ry (1800–1825)
!Ethnic group
!acc. G. Hassel<ref name="Hassel 1"/>
!'''%'''
!acc. S. Plater{{Sfn|Plater|1825|p=60}}
!'''%'''
!acc. T. Ładogórski<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ludność, in: Historia Śląska, vol. II: 1763–1850, part 1: 1763–1806|last=Ładogórski|first=Tadeusz|publisher=edited by W. Długoborski|year=1966|location=Wrocław|pages=150|language=pl}}</ref>
!'''%'''
|-
|'''Germans'''
|1,561,570
|'''75.6'''
|1,550,000
|'''70.5'''
|1,303,300
|'''74.6'''
|-
|'''Poles'''
|444,000
|'''21.5'''
|600,000
|'''27.3'''
|401,900
|'''23.0'''
|-
|'''Sorbs'''
|24,500
|'''1.2'''
|30,000
|'''1.4'''
|900
|'''0.1'''
|-
|'''Czechs'''
|5,500
|'''0.3'''
|
|
|32,600
|'''1.9'''
|-
|'''Moravians'''
|12,000
|'''0.6'''
|
|
|
|
|-
|'''Jews'''
|16,916
|'''0.8'''
|20,000
|'''0.9'''
|8,900
|'''0.5'''
|-
|'''Population'''
|'''c. 2.1&nbsp;million'''
|'''100'''
|'''c. 2.2&nbsp;million'''
|'''100'''
|'''c. 1.8&nbsp;million'''
|'''100'''
|}

===Prussian Upper Silesia===
The earliest exact census figures on [[Ethnic group|ethnolinguistic]] or [[National identity|national]] structure (Nationalverschiedenheit) of the Prussian part of [[Upper Silesia]], come from year 1819. The last pre-WW1 general census figures available, are from 1910 (if not including the 1911 census of school children—Sprachzählung unter den Schulkindern—which revealed a higher percent of Polish-speakers among school children than the 1910 census among the general populace). Figures ('''Table 1.''') show that large demographic changes took place between 1819 and 1910, with the region's total population quadrupling, the percent of German-speakers increasing significantly, and that of Polish-speakers declining considerably. Also the total land area in which Polish language was spoken, as well as the land area in which it was spoken by the majority, declined between 1790 and 1890.<ref name="Joseph Partsch">{{cite book | author = Joseph Partsch | author-link = Joseph Partsch | title = Schlesien: eine Landeskunde für das deutsche Volk. T. 1., Das ganze Land | url = http://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=3315&dirds=1&tab=1 | year = 1896 | publisher = Verlag Ferdinand Hirt | location = Breslau | chapter = Die Sprachgrenze 1790 und 1890 | pages = 364–367 | language = de | archive-date = 2016-05-26 | access-date = 2016-02-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160526201016/http://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/docmetadata?id=3315 | url-status = live }}</ref> Polish authors before 1918 estimated the number of Poles in Prussian Upper Silesia as slightly higher than according to official German censuses.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/polesunderprussi00kozi|title=The Poles under Prussian rule|last=Kozicki|first=Stanislas|publisher=London, Polish Press Bur.|year=1918|location=Toronto|pages=[https://archive.org/details/polesunderprussi00kozi/page/2 2]-3}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable   collapsible collapsed"
!! colspan="18" | Table 1. Numbers of Polish, German and other inhabitants (Regierungsbezirk Oppeln)<ref name="Georg Hassel">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=31DMAJgQV28C&pg=PA34|title=Statistischer Umriß der sämmtlichen europäischen und der vornehmsten außereuropäischen Staaten, in Hinsicht ihrer Entwickelung, Größe, Volksmenge, Finanz- und Militärverfassung, tabellarisch dargestellt; Erster Heft: Welcher die beiden großen Mächte Österreich und Preußen und den Deutschen Staatenbund darstellt|author=Georg Hassel|publisher=Verlag des Geographischen Instituts Weimar|year=1823|page=34|language=de|quote=Nationalverschiedenheit 1819: Polen - 377,100; Deutsche - 162,600; Mährer - 12,000; Juden - 8,000; Tschechen - 1,600; Gesamtbevölkerung: 561,203}}</ref><ref name="Paul Weber1">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/diepoleninobersc00webeuoft|title=Die Polen in Oberschlesien: eine statistische Untersuchung|author=Paul Weber|publisher=Verlagsbuchhandlung von Julius Springer|year=1913|location=Berlin|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kalisch|first1=Johannes|last2=Bochinski|first2=Hans|date=1958|title=Stosunki narodowościowe na Śląsku w świetle relacji pruskich urzędników z roku 1882|url=http://sobotka.uni.wroc.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Sobotka_13_1958_43-58.pdf|journal=Śląski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka|location=Leipzig|volume=13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201215644/http://sobotka.uni.wroc.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Sobotka_13_1958_43-58.pdf|archive-date=2020-02-01}}</ref>
|-
!Year
!1819
!1828
!1831
!1834
!1837
!1840
!1843
!1846
!1852
!1855
!1858
!1861
!1867
!1890
!1900
!1905
!1910
|-
| '''''Polish'''''
|377,100
'''(67.2%)'''
| 418,837
'''(61.1%)'''
| 443,084
'''(62.0%)'''
|468,691
'''(62.6%)'''
| 495,362
'''(62.1%)'''
| 525,395
'''(58.6%)'''
| 540,402
'''(58.1%)'''
| 568,582
'''(58.1%)'''
| 584,293
'''(58.6%)'''
|590,248
'''(58.7%)'''
| 612,849
'''(57.3%)'''
| 665,865
'''(59.1%)'''
| 742,153
'''(59.8%)'''
| 918,728 '''(58.2%)'''
| 1,048,230 '''(56.1%)'''
| 1,158,805 '''(57.0%)'''
| Census, monolingual Polish: '''1,169,340''' '''(53.0%)'''<ref name="Paul Weber2">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/diepoleninobersc00webeuoft|title=Die Polen in Oberschlesien: eine statistische Untersuchung|author=Paul Weber|publisher=Verlagsbuchhandlung von Julius Springer|year=1913|location=Berlin|page=[https://archive.org/details/diepoleninobersc00webeuoft/page/27 27]|language=de}}</ref>
'''or up to''' '''1,560,000''' together with bilinguals<ref name=":0" />
|-
| '''''German'''''
|162,600
'''(29.0%)'''
| 255,483
'''(37.3%)'''
| 257,852
'''(36.1%)'''
|266,399
'''(35.6%)'''
| 290,168
'''(36.3%)'''
| 330,099
'''(36.8%)'''
| 348,094
'''(37.4%)'''
| 364,175
'''(37.2%)'''
| 363,990
'''(36.5%)'''
|366,562
'''(36.5%)'''
| 406,950
'''(38.1%)'''
| 409,218
'''(36.3%)'''
| 457,545
'''(36.8%)'''
| 566,523 '''(35.9%)'''
| 684,397 '''(36.6%)'''
| 757,200 '''(37.2%)'''
|'''884,045''' '''(40.0%)'''
|-
|'''''Other'''''
|21,503
'''(3.8%)'''
|10,904
'''(1.6%)'''
|13,254
'''(1.9%)'''
|13,120
'''(1.8%)'''
|12,679
'''(1.6%)'''
|41,570
'''(4.6%)'''
|42,292
'''(4.5%)'''
|45,736
'''(4.7%)'''
|49,445
'''(4.9%)'''
|48,270
'''(4.8%)'''
|49,037
'''(4.6%)'''
|51,187
'''(4.6%)'''
|41,611
'''(3.4%)'''
|92,480
'''(5.9%)'''
|135,519
'''(7.3%)'''
|117,651
'''(5.8%)'''
|Total population: 2,207,981
|}

===Plebiscite in Prussian Upper Silesia===
{{Main|Upper Silesia plebiscite}}
In the 1921 plebiscite, 40.6% of eligible voters (people over 20 years old – a minimum age that favoured the German-speaking population, whose [[median age]] was greater than that of Polish-speakers of Upper Silesia, according to censuses of 1900–1910<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.sbc.org.pl/dlibra/publication/6328/edition/5864/content|title=Plebiscyt Górnośląski 1921 - 20 III - 1936. Wydawnictwo pamiątkowe w 15-letnią rocznicę|last=Łakomy|first=Ludwik|journal=54731 III |publisher=Drukarnia "Merkur"|year=1936|location=Katowice|pages=33–35|language=pl}}</ref>) decided to secede from [[Weimar Republic|Germany]] and become Polish citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Preussen/Oberschlesien/Volksentscheide.html|title=Oberschlesien: Volksabstimmung 1920 und 1922|website=Gonschior.de|access-date=10 January 2018|archive-date=13 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170513233744/http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Preussen/Oberschlesien/Volksentscheide.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In total, over seven hundred towns and villages voted in favour of Poland, especially in the counties of [[Pszczyna]],<ref name="Pless">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/pless.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Pless] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502200241/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/pless.htm|date=2015-05-02}}</ref> [[Rybnik]],<ref name="Rybnik">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/rybnik.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Rybnik] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050546/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/rybnik.htm|date=2016-03-04}}</ref> [[Tarnowskie Góry]],<ref name="Tarnowitz">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/tarnowitz.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Tarnowitz] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201234003/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/tarnowitz.htm|date=2014-02-01}}</ref> [[Toszek]]-[[Gliwice]],<ref name="Tost-Gleiwitz und Stadt Gleiwitz">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/gleiwitz-tost.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Gleiwitz und Tost] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304162102/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/gleiwitz-tost.htm|date=2016-03-04}}</ref> [[Strzelce Opolskie]],<ref name="Groß Strehlitz">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/gross-strehlitz.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Groß Strehlitz] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123242/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/gross-strehlitz.htm|date=2016-03-04}}</ref> [[Bytom]],<ref name="Beuthen Land und Stadt">{{Cite web |url=http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/beuthen.htm |title=Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Beuthen |access-date=2019-10-22 |archive-date=2015-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405001452/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/beuthen.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Katowice]],<ref name="Kattowitz Land und Stadt">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/kattowitz.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Kattowitz] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050125/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/kattowitz.htm|date=2016-03-04}}</ref> [[Lubliniec]],<ref name="Lublinitz">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/lublinitz.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Lublinitz] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192452/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/lublinitz.htm|date=2016-03-04}}</ref> [[Zabrze]],<ref name="Hindenburg">{{Cite web |url=http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/hindenburg.htm |title=Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Hindenburg |access-date=2019-10-22 |archive-date=2015-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216192640/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/hindenburg.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Racibórz]],<ref name="Ratibor Land und Stadt">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/ratibor.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Ratibor] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304050408/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/ratibor.htm|date=2016-03-04}}</ref> [[Olesno]],<ref name="Rosenberg">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/rosenberg.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Rosenberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124001/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/rosenberg.htm|date=2016-03-04}}</ref> [[Kędzierzyn-Koźle|Koźle]]<ref name="Cosel">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/cosel.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Cosel] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093254/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/cosel.htm|date=2016-03-04}}</ref> and [[Opole]].<ref name="Oppeln Land und Stadt">[http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/oppeln.htm Die Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien 1921: Oppeln] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304210528/http://home.arcor.de/oberschlesien-ka/abstimmung/oppeln.htm|date=2016-03-04}}</ref>

==Historiography==
{{See also|List of Slavic studies journals}}

==See also==
* [[Silesian Uprisings]]
* [[List of people from Silesia]]
* [[:Category:People from Silesia by populated place|People from Silesia by populated place]]
* [[Silingi]]

==External links==
{{Commons category|Silesians}}
* [http://cadmus.iue.it/dspace/bitstream/1814/1351/1/HEC03-01.pdf Tomasz Kamusella. The Szlonzoks and their Language: Between Germany, Poland and Szlonzokian Nationalism]
* [https://culture.pl/en/interrupted-country/the-silesian-museum-the-architecture-of-identity The Silesian Museum: The Architecture of Identity]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==

* {{Cite book |last=Plater |first=Stanisław |author-link=Stanisław Plater |url=https://obc.opole.pl/Content/8541/download/ |title=Jeografia wschodniéy części Europy czyli Opis krajów przez wielorakie narody słowiańskie zamieszkanych : obejmujący Prussy, Xsięztwo Poznańskie, Szląsk Pruski, Gallicyą, Rzeczpospolitę Krakowską, Krolestwo Polskie i Litwę |publisher=Wilhelm Bogumił Korn |year=1825 |location=Wrocław |language=pl |trans-title=Geography of the Eastern Part of Europe, or Description of the Countries inhabited by Various Slavic Nations: Including Prussia, the Duchy of Posen, Prussian Silesia, Galicia, the Republic of Cracow, the Kingdom of Poland, and Lithuania}}
{{Slavic ethnic groups}}
{{Ethnic groups in Poland}}
{{Ethnic groups in the Czech Republic}}
{{Ethnic groups in Germany}}
{{Silesia topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Silesia]]
[[Category:People from Silesia]]
[[Category:Silesians| ]]
[[Category:Lechites]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Poland]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Germany]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups divided by international borders]]