View source for Silicon carbide

{{Short description|Wide-bandgap semiconductor and abrasion-resistant ceramic}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Carborundum|Corundum}}
{{Good article}}
{{Chembox
| Watchedfields  = changed
| verifiedrevid  = 477003687
| ImageFile      = SiC p1390066.jpg
| ImageSize      = 244
| ImageName      = Sample of silicon carbide as a boule
| ImageCaption   = A laboratory-grown synthetic SiC [[monocrystal]]
| PIN            = Silicon carbide
| OtherNames     = Carborundum <br />[[Moissanite]]
| IUPACName      = Methanidylidynesilanylium
| Section1       = {{Chembox Identifiers
| CASNo = 409-21-2
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = WXQ6E537EW
| PubChem = 9863
| ChemSpiderID = 9479
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| EINECS = 206-991-8
| MeSHName = Silicon+carbide
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 29390
| RTECS = VW0450000
| SMILES = [C-]#[Si+]
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/CSi/c1-2
| InChI1 = 1/CSi/c1-2
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = HBMJWWWQQXIZIP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| InChIKey = HBMJWWWQQXIZIP-UHFFFAOYAF
| Gmelin = 13642
 }}
| Section2       = {{Chembox Properties
| Formula = SiC
| MolarMass = 40.096 g/mol
| Appearance = Yellow to green to bluish-black, iridescent crystals<ref name="PGCH" />
| Density = 3.16&nbsp;g⋅cm<sup>−3</sup> (hex.)<ref name="b92" />
| SolubleOther = Insoluble in water, soluble in molten alkalis and molten iron<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/silicon_carbide|title=Silicon carbide|last=Pubchem|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-11-27}}</ref>
| MeltingPtC = 2830
| MeltingPt_notes = (decomposes)
| MeltingPt_ref=<ref name=b92>{{RubberBible92nd|page=4.88}}</ref>
| ElectronMobility = ~900&nbsp;cm<sup>2</sup>/(V⋅s) (all polytypes)
| RefractIndex = 2.55 (infrared; all polytypes)<ref name="ioffe" />
| MagSus = −12.8 × 10<sup>−6</sup>&nbsp;cm<sup>3</sup>/mol<ref>{{RubberBible92nd|page=4.135}}</ref>
 }}
| Section7       = {{Chembox Hazards
| GHS_ref=fibres<ref>{{cite web |title=C&L Inventory |url=https://echa.europa.eu/information-on-chemicals/cl-inventory-database/-/discli/details/123165 |website=echa.europa.eu |access-date=12 December 2021}}</ref>
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS08}}
| GHSSignalWord = Danger
| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|H350i}}
| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|201|202|260|261|264|270|271|280|281|302+352|304+340|305+351+338|308+313|312|314|321|332+313|337+313|362|403+233|405|501}}
| NFPA-H = 1
| NFPA-F = 0
| NFPA-R = 0
| PEL = TWA 15&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (total) TWA 5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (resp)<ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0555}}</ref>
| IDLH = N.D.<ref name="PGCH" />
| REL = TWA 10&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (total) TWA 5&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> (resp)<ref name="PGCH" />
 }}
}}

'''Silicon carbide''' ('''SiC'''), also known as '''carborundum''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ɑr|b|ə|ˈ|r|ʌ|n|d|əm}}), is a hard chemical compound containing [[silicon]] and [[carbon]]. A wide bandgap [[semiconductor]], it occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral [[moissanite]], but has been mass-produced as a powder and crystal since 1893 for use as an [[abrasive]]. Grains of silicon carbide can be bonded together by [[sintering]] to form very hard [[ceramic]]s that are widely used in applications requiring high endurance, such as car brakes, car clutches and [[ceramic plate]]s in [[bulletproof vest]]s. Large single crystals of silicon carbide can be grown by the [[Lely method]] and they can be cut into gems known as synthetic moissanite.

Electronic applications of silicon carbide such as [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) and [[Cat's whisker detector|detectors]] in early radios were first demonstrated around 1907. SiC is used in semiconductor electronics devices that operate at high temperatures or high voltages, or both.

== Natural occurrence ==
[[File:Moissanite-USGS-20-1001d-14x-.jpg|thumb|Moissanite single crystal (≈ 1 mm in size)]]
Naturally occurring [[moissanite]] is found in only minute quantities in certain types of [[meteorite]], [[corundum]] deposits, and [[kimberlite]]. Virtually all the silicon carbide sold in the world, including moissanite jewels, is [[chemical synthesis|synthetic]].

Natural moissanite was first found in 1893 as a small component of the [[Canyon Diablo meteorite]] in [[Arizona]] by [[Henri Moissan|Ferdinand Henri Moissan]], after whom the material was named in 1905.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Moissan, Henri|title = Nouvelles recherches sur la météorité de Cañon Diablo|year = 1904|journal = [[Comptes rendus]]|volume = 139| pages = 773–86| url = http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30930/f773.table}}</ref> Moissan's discovery of naturally occurring SiC was initially disputed because his sample may have been contaminated by silicon carbide [[saw blade]]s that were already on the market at that time.<ref name="pierro">{{cite journal|author1=Di Pierro S. |author2=Gnos E. |author3=Grobety B.H. |author4=Armbruster T. |author5=Bernasconi S.M. |author6=Ulmer P.  |name-list-style=amp |year = 2003|title = Rock-forming moissanite (natural α-silicon carbide)|journal = American Mineralogist|volume = 88|issue=11–12 |pages = 1817–21|doi=10.2138/am-2003-11-1223 |bibcode=2003AmMin..88.1817D }}</ref>

While rare on Earth, silicon carbide is remarkably common in space. It is a common form of [[Cosmic dust|stardust]] found around [[Carbon star|carbon-rich stars]], and examples of this stardust have been found in pristine condition in primitive (unaltered) meteorites. The silicon carbide found in space and meteorites is almost exclusively the [[Polymorphism (materials science)|beta-polymorph]]. Analysis of SiC grains found in the [[Murchison meteorite]], a [[carbonaceous chondrite]] meteorite, has revealed anomalous isotopic ratios of carbon and silicon, indicating that these grains originated outside the [[Solar System]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://img.chem.ucl.ac.uk/www/kelly/history.htm|author=Kelly, Jim |work=University College London|title =The Astrophysical Nature of Silicon Carbide| access-date = 2009-06-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504052500/http://img.chem.ucl.ac.uk/www/kelly/history.htm|archive-date=May 4, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Early experiments ===
Non-systematic, less-recognized, and often unverified syntheses of silicon carbide include:
* [[César-Mansuète Despretz]]'s passing an electric current through a carbon rod embedded in sand (1849)
* Robert Sydney Marsden's dissolution of silica in molten silver in a graphite [[crucible]] (1881)
* [[Paul Schützenberger|Paul Schuetzenberger]]'s heating of a mixture of silicon and silica in a graphite crucible (1881)
* Albert Colson's heating of silicon under a stream of [[ethylene]] (1882).<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ObwHdIT0C0QC| page =115|title = Carbide, nitride, and boride materials synthesis and processing|author = Weimer, A. W.| publisher = Springer| year = 1997| isbn = 978-0-412-54060-8}}</ref>

=== Wide-scale production ===

[[File:SiC LED historic.jpg|thumb|left|A replication of [[H. J. Round|H.J. Round]]'s LED experiments]]

Wide-scale production is credited to [[Edward Goodrich Acheson]] in 1891.<ref>Encyclopædia Britannica, [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/544369/silicon-carbide/6673/Discovery eb.com]</ref> Acheson was attempting to prepare artificial diamonds when he heated a mixture of clay (aluminium silicate) and powdered [[coke (fuel)|coke]] (carbon) in an iron bowl.  He called the blue crystals that formed ''carborundum'', believing it to be a new compound of carbon and aluminium, similar to [[corundum]]. [[Henri Moissan]] also synthesized SiC by several routes, including dissolution of carbon in molten silicon, melting a mixture of calcium carbide and silica, and reducing silica with carbon in an electric furnace.

[[Acheson process|Acheson patented the method]] for making silicon carbide powder on February 28, 1893.<ref>Acheson, G. (1893) {{US patent|492767}} "Production of artificial crystalline carbonaceous material"</ref> Acheson also developed the electric batch [[Industrial furnace|furnace]] by which SiC is still made today and formed the Carborundum Company to manufacture bulk SiC, initially for use as an abrasive.<ref>{{cite journal| journal =[[Scientific American]]| url =http://www.scientificamericanpast.com/Scientific%20American%201890%20to%201899/5/lg/sci471894.htm| date =April 7, 1894| title =The Manufacture of Carborundum- a New Industry| access-date =2009-06-06| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090123041207/http://www.scientificamericanpast.com/Scientific%20American%201890%20to%201899/5/lg/sci471894.htm| archive-date =January 23, 2009}}</ref> In 1900 the company settled with the [[Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company]] when a judge's decision gave "priority broadly" to its founders "for reducing ores and other substances by the incandescent method".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Mabery, Charles F.|title=Notes, On Carborundum|pages=706–707|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fBIDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA706|year=1900|volume=XXII|issue=Part II|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society|access-date=2007-10-28|doi=10.1021/ja02048a014 }}</ref>

The first use of SiC was as an abrasive. This was followed by electronic applications. In the beginning of the 20th century, silicon carbide was used as a detector in the first radios.<ref>Dunwoody, Henry H.C. (1906) {{US patent|837616}} ''Wireless telegraph system'' (silicon carbide detector)</ref> In 1907 [[Henry Joseph Round]] produced the first LED by applying a voltage to a SiC crystal and observing yellow, green and orange emission at the cathode. The effect was later rediscovered by [[Oleg Losev|O.V. Losev]] in the [[Soviet Union]], in 1923.<ref name="ultraviolet">{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~hightech/fpd/papers/ELDs.html|title=A History of Electroluminescent Displays|last=Hart|first=Jeffrey A.|author2=Stefanie Ann Lenway|author3=Thomas Murtha|access-date=2005-06-21|archive-date=2012-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430024805/http://www.indiana.edu/~hightech/fpd/papers/ELDs.html}}</ref>

== Production ==

[[File:SiC crystals.JPG|thumb|Synthetic SiC crystals ~3 mm in diameter]]
[[File:SiC wafers 6inch.jpg|thumb|Two six-inch (≈ 15 cm) wafers made of silicon carbide]]
Because natural moissanite is extremely scarce, most silicon carbide is synthetic. Silicon carbide is used as an abrasive, as well as a [[semiconductor]] and [[diamond simulant]] of gem quality. The simplest process to manufacture silicon carbide is to combine [[silica]] [[sand]] and [[carbon]] in an [[Acheson process|Acheson graphite electric resistance furnace]] at a high temperature, between {{convert|1600|C|F}} and {{convert|2500|C|F}}. Fine SiO<sub>2</sub> particles in plant material (e.g. rice husks) can be converted to SiC by heating in the excess carbon from the organic material.<ref>{{cite journal| author = Vlasov, A.S. |display-authors=et al |title = Obtaining silicon carbide from rice husks| journal = Refractories and Industrial Ceramics|volume = 32|issue = 9–10|year = 1991| pages=521–523| doi=10.1007/bf01287542 }}</ref> The [[silica fume]], which is a byproduct of producing silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloys, can also be converted to SiC by heating with graphite at {{convert|1500|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Zhong, Y. |author2=Shaw, Leon L. |author3=Manjarres, Misael |author4=Zawrah, Mahmoud F.  |name-list-style=amp |title = Synthesis of Silicon Carbide Nanopowder Using Silica Fume | journal = Journal of the American Ceramic Society | volume = 93|year =2010| pages=3159–3167 | doi= 10.1111/j.1551-2916.2010.03867.x| issue = 10}}</ref>

The material formed in the Acheson furnace varies in purity, according to its distance from the [[graphite]] [[resistor]] [[heating element|heat source]]. Colorless, pale yellow, and green crystals have the highest purity and are found closest to the resistor. The color changes to blue and black at greater distance from the resistor, and these darker crystals are less pure. Nitrogen and aluminium are common impurities, and they affect the electrical conductivity of SiC.<ref name="growth" />

[[File:Lely SiC Crystal.jpg|thumb|Synthetic SiC Lely crystals]]

Pure silicon carbide can be made by the [[Lely process]],<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lely, Jan Anthony | title = Darstellung von Einkristallen von Silicium Carbid und Beherrschung von Art und Menge der eingebauten Verunreinigungen | journal = Berichte der Deutschen Keramischen Gesellschaft | volume = 32 | pages = 229–236 | year = 1955}}</ref> in which SiC powder is sublimed into high-temperature species of silicon, carbon, silicon dicarbide (SiC<sub>2</sub>), and disilicon carbide (Si<sub>2</sub>C) in an [[argon]] gas ambient at 2,500&nbsp;°C and redeposited into flake-like single crystals,<ref>[http://www.nitride-crystals.com/Lely-Wafers.htm Lely SiC Wafers]. Nitride-crystals.com. Retrieved on 2013-05-04.</ref> sized up to 2 × 2&nbsp;cm, at a slightly colder substrate. This process yields high-quality single crystals, mostly of 6H-SiC phase (because of high growth temperature).

A modified Lely process involving [[induction heating]] in graphite [[crucible]]s yields even larger single crystals of 4&nbsp;inches (10&nbsp;cm) in diameter, having a section 81 times larger compared to the conventional Lely process.<ref>{{cite book| url=http://www.nsc.co.jp/en/tech/report/pdf/8407.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217002122/http://www.nsc.co.jp/en/tech/report/pdf/8407.pdf| archive-date=2010-12-17|title = Nippon Steel Technical Report no.&nbsp;84: Large high-quality silicon carbide substrates| author = Ohtani, N.|year = 2001|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Silicon carbide wafers are often grown using this method, known in the industry as [[physical vapor deposition|physical vapor transport]] with a seed wafer made of SiC. SiC powder is heated until it sublimes, and then the SiC vapor cools and deposits below the seed crystal.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.powerelectronicsnews.com/the-road-to-200mm-sic-production/ | title=The Road to 200-mm SiC Production | date=14 June 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Xu |first1=Binjie |last2=Han |first2=Xuefeng |last3=Xu |first3=Suocheng |last4=Yang |first4=Deren |last5=Pi |first5=Xiaodong |title=Optimization of the thermal field of 8-inch SiC crystal growth by PVT method with '3 separation heater method' |journal=Journal of Crystal Growth |date=July 2023 |volume=614 |article-number=127238 |doi=10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2023.127238 |bibcode=2023JCrGr.61427238X }}</ref>

Cubic SiC is usually grown by the more expensive process of [[chemical vapor deposition]] (CVD) of silane, hydrogen, and nitrogen.<ref name=growth>{{cite book |last1=Harris |first1=Gary Lynn |title=Properties of Silicon Carbide |date=1995 |publisher=IET |isbn=978-0-85296-870-3 |pages=19; 170–180 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Byrappa |first1=K. |title=Crystal Growth Technology |date=2003 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-00367-0 |pages=180–200 }}</ref> Homoepitaxial and heteroepitaxial SiC layers can be grown employing both gas and liquid phase approaches.<ref name=prop1>{{cite book
 |pages=43–76
 |title = SiC materials and devices
 |volume= 1
 |editor1=M. Shur |editor2=S. Rumyantsev |editor3=M. Levinshtein |chapter=SiC Homoepitaxy and Heteroepitaxy
 |author = Bakin, Andrey S.
 |publisher = World Scientific
 |year = 2006
 |isbn = 978-981-256-835-9
}}</ref>

To form complexly shaped SiC, [[preceramic polymers]] can be used as precursors which form the ceramic product through [[pyrolysis]] at temperatures in the range 1,000–1,100&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Wang Schmidt Additive manufacturing">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Xifan |last2=Schmidt |first2=Franziska |last3=Hanaor |first3=Dorian |last4=Kamm |first4=Paul H. |last5=Li |first5=Shuang |last6=Gurlo |first6=Aleksander |title=Additive manufacturing of ceramics from preceramic polymers: A versatile stereolithographic approach assisted by thiol-ene click chemistry |journal=Additive Manufacturing |date=May 2019 |volume=27 |pages=80–90 |doi=10.1016/j.addma.2019.02.012 |arxiv=1905.02060 }}</ref> Precursor materials to obtain silicon carbide in such a manner include polycarbosilanes, [[poly(methylsilyne)]] and polysilazanes.<ref>[https://www.euroceram.org/en/technologies/special-materials-processing/preceramics.html Europe Makes Ceramics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807091352/https://www.euroceram.org/en/technologies/special-materials-processing/preceramics.html |date=2020-08-07 }} Preceramics</ref> Silicon carbide materials obtained through the pyrolysis of [[preceramic polymers]] are known as [[polymer derived ceramics]] or PDCs. Pyrolysis of [[preceramic polymers]] is most often conducted under an [[inert atmosphere]] at relatively low temperatures. Relative to the CVD process, the pyrolysis method is advantageous because the polymer can be formed into various shapes prior to thermalization into the ceramic.<ref name=prop>{{cite book
 |pages=20–60
 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bYms_kigMX8C
 |title = SiC materials and devices
 |author = Park, Yoon-Soo
 |publisher = Academic Press| year = 1998
 |isbn = 978-0-12-752160-2
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1002/adma.200306467| title = Smooth Continuous Films of Stoichiometric Silicon Carbide from Poly(methylsilyne)| year = 2004| author = Pitcher, M. W.| journal = Advanced Materials| volume = 16| issue = 8| pages = 706–709| last2 = Joray| first2 = S. J.| last3 = Bianconi| first3 = P. A.| bibcode = 2004AdM....16..706P }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s10853-006-6566-z|title=A review of the development of three generations of small diameter silicon carbide fibres|year=2006|author=Bunsell, A. R.|journal=Journal of Materials Science|volume=41|issue=3|pages=823–839|last2=Piant|first2=A.|bibcode = 2006JMatS..41..823B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/cm00027a007|title=Preceramic polymer routes to silicon carbide|year=1993|author=Laine, Richard M.|journal=Chemistry of Materials|volume=5|issue=3|pages=260–279|last2=Babonneau|first2=Florence}}</ref>

SiC can also be made into wafers by cutting a single crystal either using a diamond wire saw or by using a laser. SiC is a useful semiconductor used in power electronics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.disco.co.jp/kabra/index_eg.html|title = KABRA｜DISCO Corporation}}</ref>

== Structure and properties ==
{{Main|Polymorphs of silicon carbide}}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto;"
|+ Structure of major SiC polytypes.
|[[File:SiC3Cstructure.jpg|center|160px]]
|[[File:SiC4Hstructure.jpg|center|265px]]
|[[File:SiC6Hstructure.jpg|center|340px]]
|-
|(β)3C-SiC
| 4H-SiC
|(α)6H-SiC
|}
[[File:Silicon carbide, image taken under a stereoscopic microscope.jpg|thumb|left|Silicon carbide, image taken under a stereoscopic microscope.]]
Silicon carbide exists in about 250 crystalline forms.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hJySnYNE3B0C| page = 3| title = Silicon carbide microelectromechanical systems for harsh environments| author =Cheung, Rebecca| publisher = Imperial College Press| year = 2006| isbn = 978-1-86094-624-0}}</ref> Through inert atmospheric pyrolysis of [[preceramic polymers]], silicon carbide in a glassy amorphous form is also produced.<ref name="Wang Schmidt Additive manufacturing"/> The polymorphism of SiC is characterized by a large family of similar crystalline structures called polytypes. They are variations of the same chemical compound that are identical in two dimensions and differ in the third. Thus, they can be viewed as layers stacked in a certain sequence.<ref name=jap>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1063/1.358463|title = Large-band-gap SiC, III-V nitride, and II-VI ZnSe-based semiconductor device technologies|year = 1994|author = Morkoç, H.|journal = Journal of Applied Physics|volume = 76|issue = 3|page = 1363|last2 = Strite|first2 = S.|last3 = Gao|first3 = G. B.|last4 = Lin|first4 = M. E.|last5 = Sverdlov|first5 = B.|last6 = Burns|first6 = M.|bibcode = 1994JAP....76.1363M }}</ref>

Alpha silicon carbide (α-SiC) is the most commonly encountered [[Polymorphism (materials science)|polymorph]], and is formed at temperatures greater than 1,700&nbsp;°C and has a [[hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal]] [[crystal structure]] (similar to [[Wurtzite]]). The beta modification (β-SiC), with a [[zincblende (crystal structure)|zinc blende crystal structure]] (similar to [[diamond cubic|diamond]]), is formed at temperatures below 1,700&nbsp;°C.<ref name="muranaka" /> Until recently, the beta form has had relatively few commercial uses, although there is now increasing interest in its use as a support for [[heterogeneous catalyst]]s, owing to its higher surface area compared to the alpha form.

{| class="wikitable"  style="margin:10px; text-align:center; float:right;"
|+ Properties of major SiC polytypes<ref name=ioffe>{{cite web| url = http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/SiC/| title = Properties of Silicon Carbide (SiC)| publisher = Ioffe Institute| access-date = 2009-06-06}}</ref><ref name="prop" />
!Polytype
!3C (β)
!4H
!6H (α)
|-
!Crystal structure
| Zinc blende (cubic)
| Hexagonal
| Hexagonal
|-
![[Space group]]
| T<sup>2</sup><sub>d</sub>-F{{overline|4}}3m
| C<sup>4</sup><sub>6v</sub>-P6<sub>3</sub>mc
| C<sup>4</sup><sub>6v</sub>-P6<sub>3</sub>mc
|-
![[Pearson symbol]]
| cF8
| hP8
| hP12
|-
!Lattice constants (Å)
| 4.3596
| 3.0730; 10.053
| 3.0810; 15.12
|-
!Density (g/cm<sup>3</sup>)
| 3.21
| 3.21
| 3.21
|-
![[Bandgap]] (eV)
| 2.36
| 3.23
| 3.05
|-
![[Bulk modulus]] (GPa)
| 250
| 220
| 220
|-
![[Thermal conductivity]] (W⋅m<sup>−1</sup>⋅K<sup>−1</sup>)<br />@300&nbsp;K (see <ref>[http://www.ioffe.rssi.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/SiC/thermal.html Silicon Carbide. Thermal properties]. Ioffe Institute Semiconductors Database.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=Qiye |last2=Li |first2=Chunhua |last3=Rai |first3=Akash |last4=Leach |first4=Jacob H. |last5=Broido |first5=David A. |last6=Cahill |first6=David G. |date=2019-01-03 |title=Thermal conductivity of GaN, $^{71}\mathrm{GaN}$, and SiC from 150 K to 850 K |journal=Physical Review Materials |volume=3 |issue=1 |article-number=014601 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.3.014601 |doi-access=free }}</ref> for temp. dependence)
| 320
| 348
| 325
|-
!Thermal Expansion Coefficient (10<sup>−6</sup> K<sup>−1</sup>)<br />@300 K (see <ref name="alpha" /> for temp. dependence)
| -- 
| 2.28 (⊥ ''c'');  2.49 (∥ ''c'')
| 2.25
|}

Pure SiC is colorless. The brown to black color of the industrial product results from [[iron]] impurities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Adept Armor - Silicon Carbide |url=https://www.ade.pt/silicon-carbide/ |website=ADEPT |date=6 December 2022 |access-date=21 March 2023}}</ref> The rainbow-like luster of the crystals is due to the [[thin-film interference]] of a [[Passivation (chemistry)|passivation layer]] of [[silicon dioxide]] that forms on the surface.

The high sublimation temperature of SiC (approximately 2,700&nbsp;°C) makes it useful for [[bearing (mechanical)|bearings]] and furnace parts. Silicon carbide does not melt but begins to sublimate near 2,700&nbsp;°C like graphite, having an appreciable vapor pressure near that temperature. It is also highly inert chemically, partly due to the formation of a thin passivated layer of SiO<sub>2</sub>. There is currently much interest in its use as a [[semiconductor material]] in electronics, where its high thermal conductivity, high [[electric field]] breakdown strength and high maximum [[Current (electricity)|current]] density make it more promising than silicon for high-powered devices.<ref name="baliga" /> SiC has a very low [[coefficient of thermal expansion]] of about 2.3 × 10<sup>−6</sup> K<sup>−1</sup> near 300 K (for 4H and 6H SiC) and experiences no [[phase transition]]s in the temperature range 5 K to 340 K that would cause discontinuities in the thermal expansion coefficient.<ref name="growth" /><ref name=alpha>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1016/j.jpcs.2023.111860|title = Thermal expansion of 4H and 6H SiC from 5 K to 340 K|year = 2024|author = Neumeier, J.J.|journal = Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids|volume = 187|issue = 1|article-number = 11860|last2 = Shvyd'ko|first2 = Y.V.|last3 = Haskel|first3 = Daniel |bibcode = 2024JPCS..18711860N | osti=2368999 }}</ref>

=== Electrical conductivity ===
Silicon carbide is a [[semiconductor]], which can be doped n-type by [[nitrogen]] or [[phosphorus]] and p-type by [[beryllium]], [[boron]], [[aluminium]], or [[gallium]].<ref name="ioffe" /> Metallic conductivity has been achieved by heavy doping with boron, aluminium, or nitrogen.

[[Superconductivity]] has been detected in 3C-SiC:Al, 3C-SiC:B and 6H-SiC:B at similar temperatures ~1.5 K.<ref name=muranaka>{{cite journal|author = Muranaka, T.|journal = Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater.|volume = 9|issue = 4|year = 2008| article-number = 044204|title =Superconductivity in carrier-doped silicon carbide|pmc=5099635| doi = 10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044204| bibcode=2008STAdM...9d4204M|last2 = Kikuchi|first2 = Yoshitake|last3 = Yoshizawa|first3 = Taku|last4 = Shirakawa|first4 = Naoki|last5 = Akimitsu|first5 = Jun| pmid=27878021}}</ref><ref name=kriener>{{cite journal|author = Kriener, M.|journal =  Science and Technology of Advanced Materials|volume = 9|issue = 4|year = 2008| article-number = 044205|title = Superconductivity in heavily boron-doped silicon carbide|pmc=5099636| bibcode=2008STAdM...9d4205K|last2 = Muranaka|first2 = Takahiro|last3 = Kato|first3 = Junya|last4 = Ren|first4 = Zhi-An|last5 = Akimitsu|first5 = Jun|last6 = Maeno|first6 = Yoshiteru|arxiv = 0810.0056|doi = 10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044205|pmid=27878022}}</ref> A crucial difference is however observed for the magnetic field behavior between aluminium and boron doping: 3C-SiC:Al is [[Type II superconductor|type-II]]. In contrast, 3C-SiC:B is [[Type I superconductor|type-I]], as is 6H-SiC:B. Thus, the superconducting properties seem to depend more on dopant (B vs. Al) than on polytype (3C- vs 6H-). In an attempt to explain this dependence, it was noted that B substitutes at C sites in SiC, but Al substitutes at Si sites. Therefore, Al and B "see" different environments, in both polytypes.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Yanase, Y.  |author2=Yorozu, N. |name-list-style=amp |title =Superconductivity in compensated and uncompensated semiconductors|pmc=5099632|journal = Science and Technology of Advanced Materials|volume = 9|issue = 4|year = 2008| article-number = 044201| doi =10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044201|bibcode=2008STAdM...9d4201Y |pmid=27878018}}</ref>

== Uses ==

=== Abrasive and cutting tools ===
[[File:Ultra-thin separated (Carborundum) disk.jpg|thumb|Cutting disks made of SiC]]

In manufacturing, it is used for its hardness in [[abrasive machining]] processes such as [[Grinding (abrasive cutting)|grinding]], [[Honing (metalworking)|honing]], [[water-jet cutting]] and [[sandblasting]]. SiC provides a much sharper and harder alternative for sand blasting as compared to [[aluminium oxide]]. Particles of silicon carbide are laminated to paper to create [[sandpaper]]s and the grip tape on [[skateboard]]s.<ref>Fuster, Marco A. (1997). "Skateboard grip tape", {{US patent|5622759}}.</ref>

In the arts, silicon carbide is a popular abrasive in modern [[lapidary]] due to the durability and low cost of the material.

In 1982, an exceptionally strong composite of [[aluminium oxide]] and silicon carbide [[whisker (metallurgy)|whiskers]] was discovered. Development of this laboratory-produced composite to a commercial product took only three years. In 1985, the first commercial cutting tools made from this alumina and silicon carbide whisker-reinforced composite were introduced into the market.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tiegs |first=Terry |year=2005 |chapter=Chapter 13: Whisker Reinforced Alumina |editor-last=Bansal |editor-first=Narottam P. |title=Handbook of Ceramic Composites |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oSYdgu3on_oC |location=Boston |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oSYdgu3on_oC&pg=PA319 319] |isbn=978-1-4020-8133-0 |oclc=58542120}}</ref>

=== Structural material ===
[[File:Soldier Plate Carrier System (SPCS).jpg|thumb|upright|Silicon carbide is used for trauma plates of [[Bulletproof vest|ballistic vests]]]]

In the 1980s and 1990s, silicon carbide was studied in several research programs for high-temperature gas turbines in [[Europe]], [[Japan]], and the [[United States]]. The components were intended to replace [[nickel]] [[superalloy]] [[turbine]] blades or nozzle vanes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Production of Silicon Carbide|url=http://siliconcarbide.net/|website=siliconcarbide.net}}</ref> However, none of these projects resulted in a production quantity, mainly because of its low impact resistance and its low fracture [[toughness]].<ref>{{cite news| url = http://www.unipass.com/predictionprobe/Industry%20News/Ceramics%20for%20turbine%20engines.htm| title = Ceramics for turbine engines| access-date = 2009-06-06| work = unipass.com| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090406052441/http://www.unipass.com/predictionprobe/Industry%20News/Ceramics%20for%20turbine%20engines.htm| archive-date = 2009-04-06}}</ref>

Like other hard ceramics (namely alumina and [[boron carbide]]), silicon carbide is used in [[composite armour|composite armor]] (e.g. [[Chobham armour|Chobham armor]]), and in ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. [[Dragon Skin (body armor)|Dragon Skin]], which was produced by [[Pinnacle Armor]], used disks of silicon carbide.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.futurefirepower.com/dragon-skin-most-protective-body-armor-lightweight| title = Dragon Skin – Most Protective Body Armor – Lightweight| access-date = 2009-06-06| publisher = Future Firepower| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120217002551/http://www.futurefirepower.com/dragon-skin-most-protective-body-armor-lightweight| archive-date = 2012-02-17}}</ref> Improved fracture toughness in SiC armor can be facilitated through the phenomenon of [[abnormal grain growth]] or AGG. The growth of abnormally long silicon carbide grains may serve to impart a toughening effect through crack-wake bridging, similar to whisker reinforcement. Similar
AGG-toughening effects have been reported in [[Silicon nitride]] (Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>).<ref>{{cite journal | arxiv=1303.2761 | doi=10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2012.08.015 | title=Abnormal grain growth of rutile TiO2 induced by ZrSiO4 | year=2012 | last1=Hanaor | first1=Dorian A.H. | last2=Xu | first2=Wanqiang | last3=Ferry | first3=Michael | last4=Sorrell | first4=Charles C. | journal=Journal of Crystal Growth | volume=359 | pages=83–91 | bibcode=2012JCrGr.359...83H }}</ref>

Silicon carbide is used as a support and shelving material in high-temperature kilns such as for firing ceramics, glass fusing, or glass casting. SiC kiln shelves are considerably lighter and more durable than traditional alumina shelves.<ref>{{cite web | url =http://ceramicartsdaily.org/glossary/silicon-carbide/ | title =Silicon Carbide | publisher =Ceramic Arts Daily | access-date =2012-02-09 | archive-date =2012-01-26 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120126225050/http://ceramicartsdaily.org/glossary/silicon-carbide/ }}</ref>

In December 2015, infusion of silicon carbide nano-particles in molten [[magnesium]] was mentioned as a way to produce a new strong and plastic alloy suitable for use in aeronautics, aerospace, automobile, and micro-electronics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/ucla-researchers-create-exceptionally-strong-and-lightweight-new-metal|title=UCLA researchers create exceptionally strong and lightweight new metal|website=UCLA}}</ref>

=== Automobile parts ===
[[File:PCCB Brake Carrera GT.jpg|thumb|The Porsche Carrera GT's silicon carbide "carbon-ceramic" disc brake]]

Silicon-infiltrated [[reinforced carbon-carbon|carbon-carbon composite]] is used for high-performance "ceramic" [[disc brake|brake discs]], as they can withstand extreme temperatures. The silicon reacts with the graphite in the carbon-carbon composite to become carbon-fiber-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC). These brake discs are used on some road-going sports cars, supercars, as well as other performance cars including the [[Porsche Carrera GT]], the [[Bugatti Veyron]], the [[Chevrolet Corvette (C6)#ZR1|Chevrolet Corvette ZR1]], the [[McLaren P1]],<ref>{{cite web| access-date = 2009-06-06| url = http://www.topmost10.com/topDetail.php?alias=fastest_cars| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090326020231/http://www.topmost10.com/topDetail.php?alias=fastest_cars| archive-date = 2009-03-26| title = Top 10 Fast Cars|work=topmost10.com}}</ref> [[Bentley]], [[Ferrari]], [[Lamborghini]] and some specific high-performance [[Audi]] cars. Silicon carbide is also used in a [[Sintering|sintered]] form for [[diesel particulate filter]]s.<ref>{{cite journal| title = Degradation resistance of silicon carbide diesel particulate filters to diesel fuel ash deposits|author1=O'Sullivan, D. |author2=Pomeroy, M.J. |author3=Hampshire, S. |author4=Murtagh, M.J. |journal = MRS Proceedings| volume = 19| issue = 10| pages = 2913–2921| doi = 10.1557/JMR.2004.0373| year = 2004|bibcode = 2004JMatR..19.2913O }}</ref> It is also used as an oil additive{{dubious|date=December 2021}}{{clarify|date=December 2021}} to reduce friction, emissions, and harmonics.<ref>{{cite web|  url = https://www.cermastore.com/what-is-sic.html| title = SiC Lubrication|work=Cerma}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0043-1648(87)90208-0|title=Influence of lubricating oil additives on friction of ceramics under conditions of boundary lubrication|journal=Wear|volume=115|issue=1–2|pages=185–191|year=1987|last1=Studt|first1=P.}}</ref>

==== Foundry crucibles ====
SiC is used in crucibles for holding melting metal in small and large foundry applications.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Friedrichs, Peter |author2=Kimoto, Tsunenobu |author3=Ley, Lothar |author4=Pensl, Gerhard |title=Silicon Carbide: Volume 1: Growth, Defects, and Novel Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pPj9UABAZG8C&pg=PA49|date=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-3-527-62906-0|pages=49–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Brown, John |title=Foseco Non-Ferrous Foundryman's Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgZQKH12Z6IC&pg=PA52|date= 1999|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=978-0-08-053187-8|pages=52–}}</ref>

=== Electric systems ===
The earliest electrical application of SiC was as a [[surge protection]] in [[lightning arrester]]s in electric power systems. These devices must exhibit high [[electrical resistance|resistance]] until the [[voltage]] across them reaches a certain threshold V<sub>T</sub> at which point their resistance must drop to a lower level and maintain this level until the applied voltage drops below V<sub>T</sub> flushing current into the ground.<ref>{{cite book| page = 1108| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FdSQSAC3_EwC| title = The electronics handbook| author = Whitaker, Jerry C.| publisher = CRC Press| year = 2005| isbn = 978-0-8493-1889-4}}</ref>

It was recognized early on{{when|date=December 2021}} that SiC had such a [[voltage-dependent resistance]], and so columns of SiC pellets were connected between high-voltage [[electric power transmission|power lines]] and the earth. When a [[lightning strike]] to the line raises the line voltage sufficiently, the SiC column will conduct, allowing strike current to pass harmlessly to the earth instead of along the power line. The SiC columns proved to conduct significantly at normal power-line operating voltages and thus had to be placed [[Series and parallel circuits|in series]] with a [[spark gap]]. This spark gap is [[ion]]ized and rendered conductive when lightning raises the voltage of the power line conductor, thus effectively connecting the SiC column between the power conductor and the earth. Spark gaps used in lightning arresters are unreliable, either failing to strike an arc when needed or failing to turn off afterwards, in the latter case due to material failure or contamination by dust or salt. Usage of SiC columns was originally intended to eliminate the need for the spark gap in lightning arresters. Gapped SiC arresters were used for lightning-protection and sold under the [[GE]] and [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation (1886)|Westinghouse]] brand names, among others. The gapped SiC arrester has been largely displaced by no-gap [[varistors]] that use columns of [[zinc oxide]] pellets.<ref>{{cite book| page = 250| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EUUZrPcU3twC| title = Transmission and distribution electrical engineering| author = Bayliss, Colin R.| publisher = Newnes| year = 1999| isbn = 978-0-7506-4059-6}}</ref>

=== Electronic circuit elements ===
Silicon carbide was the first commercially important semiconductor material. A [[crystal radio]] "carborundum" (synthetic silicon carbide) detector diode was patented by [[Henry Harrison Chase Dunwoody]] in 1906. It found much early use in shipboard receivers.

==== Power electronic devices ====
In 1993, the silicon carbide was considered a [[semiconductor]] in both research and early [[mass production]] providing advantages for fast, high-temperature and/or high-voltage devices. The first devices available were [[Schottky diode]]s, followed by [[JFET|junction-gate FETs]] and [[MOSFET]]s for high-power switching. [[Bipolar transistor]]s and [[thyristors]] were described.<ref name=baliga>{{cite journal |last1=Bhatnagar |first1=M. |last2=Baliga |first2=B.J. |title=Comparison of 6H-SiC, 3C-SiC, and Si for power devices |journal=IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices |date=March 1993 |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=645–655 |doi=10.1109/16.199372 |bibcode=1993ITED...40..645B}}</ref>

A major problem for SiC commercialization has been the elimination of defects: edge dislocations, screw dislocations (both hollow and closed core), triangular defects and basal plane dislocations.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= MRS Proceedings|year=2006 |volume=911 |page=169 |title= Effects of Different Defect Types on the Performance of Devices Fabricated on a 4H-SiC Homoepitaxial Layer|doi=10.1557/PROC-0911-B12-03 |last1=Chen |first1=H. |last2=Raghothamachar |first2=Balaji |last3=Vetter |first3=William |last4=Dudley |first4=Michael |last5=Wang |first5=Y. |last6=Skromme |first6=B.J. |article-number=0911-B12-03 }}</ref> As a result, devices made of SiC crystals initially displayed poor reverse blocking performance, though researchers have been tentatively finding solutions to improve the breakdown performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Madar |first=Roland |title=Materials science: Silicon carbide in contention |journal=Nature |volume=430 |issue=7003 |pages=974–975 |date=2004-08-26 |df=dmy-all |doi=10.1038/430974a |pmid=15329702 |bibcode=2004Natur.430..974M }}</ref>
Apart from crystal quality, problems with the interface of SiC with silicon dioxide have hampered the development of SiC-based power MOSFETs and [[insulated-gate bipolar transistor]]s. Although the mechanism is still unclear, [[nitriding]] has dramatically reduced the defects causing the interface problems.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2010 |journal= Journal of Electronic Materials|volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=526–529 |title=MOS Characteristics of C-Face 4H-SiC  |doi=10.1007/s11664-010-1096-5 |last1=Chen |first1=Z. |last2=Ahyi |first2=A.C. |last3=Zhu |first3=X. |last4=Li |first4=M. |last5=Isaacs-Smith |first5=T. |last6=Williams |first6=J.R. |last7=Feldman |first7=L.C. |bibcode=2010JEMat..39..526C }}</ref>

In 2008, the first commercial [[JFET]]s rated at 1,200&nbsp;V were introduced to the market,<ref name=reut>{{cite press release |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUS119430+05-May-2011+BW20110505 |archive-date=2016-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315023429/http://www.reuters.com/article/idUS119430+05-May-2011+BW20110505 |title=At 1200&nbsp;V and 45&nbsp;milliohms, SemiSouth introduces the industry's lowest resistance SiC power transistor for efficient power management |work=Reuters |date=2011-05-05 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> followed in 2011 by the first commercial MOSFETs rated at 1200&nbsp;V. JFETs are now available rated 650 V to 1,700 V with resistance as low as 25 mΩ. Beside SiC switches and SiC Schottky diodes (also Schottky barrier diode, [[Schottky diode|SBD]]) in the popular TO-247 and [[TO-220]] packages, companies started even earlier to implement the bare chips into their [[power module|power electronic modules]].

SiC SBD diodes found wide market spread being used in [[Power factor correction|PFC]] circuits and [[IGBT]] [[power module]]s.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.cree.com/News-and-Events/Cree-News/Press-Releases/2011/January/110117-MOSFET |title=Cree launches industry's first commercial silicon carbide power MOSFET; destined to replace silicon devices in high-voltage (≥&nbsp;1200&nbsp;V) power electronics |publisher=Cree |date=2011-01-17 |df=dmy-all |access-date=2015-09-11 |archive-date=2016-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126064702/http://www.cree.com/News-and-Events/Cree-News/Press-Releases/2011/January/110117-MOSFET }}</ref>
Conferences such as the [[International Conference on Integrated Power Electronics Systems]] (CIPS) report regularly about the technological progress of SiC power devices.
Major challenges for fully unleashing the capabilities of SiC power devices are:
* Gate drive: SiC devices often require gate drive voltage levels that are different from their silicon counterparts and may be even unsymmetric, for example, +20&nbsp;V and −5&nbsp;V.<ref>{{cite book |author=Meißer, Michael |title=Resonant Behaviour of Pulse Generators for the Efficient Drive of Optical Radiation Sources Based on Dielectric Barrier Discharges |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FiWkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 |year=2013 |publisher=KIT Scientific Publishing |isbn=978-3-7315-0083-4 |page=94}}</ref>
* Packaging: SiC [[die (integrated circuit)|chips]] may have a higher power density than silicon power devices and are able to handle higher temperatures exceeding the silicon limit of 150&nbsp;°C. New die attach technologies such as [[sintering]] are required to efficiently get the heat out of the devices and ensure a reliable interconnection.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Packaging Technologies for SiC Power Modules |author1=Horio, Masafumi |author2=Iizuka, Yuji |author3=Ikeda, Yoshinari |journal=Fuji Electric Review |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=75–78 |year=2012 |url=http://www.fujielectric.com/company/tech/pdf/58-02/FER-58-2-075-2012.pdf}}</ref>

Beginning with [[Tesla Model 3]] the [[power inverter|inverters]] in the drive unit use 24 pairs of silicon carbide (SiC) [[MOSFET]] chips rated for 650 volts each. Silicon carbide in this instance gave Tesla a significant advantage over chips made of silicon in terms of size and weight. A number of automobile manufacturers are planning to incorporate silicon carbide into power electronic devices in their products. A significant increase in production of silicon carbide is projected, beginning with a large plant opened 2022 by [[Wolfspeed]], in upstate New York.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.systemplus.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/SP18413-STM_SiC_Module_Tesla_Model_3_Inverter_sample-3.pdf |title=STMicroelectronics SiC Module in Tesla Model3 Inverter|publisher=SystemPlus Consulting|date=June 25, 2018|first=Elena|last=Barbarini |quote=full SiC power module, in its Model 3. ... STMicroelectronics ... Tesla inverter ... 24 1-in-1 power modules ... module contains two [[Silicon Carbide|SiC]] MOSFETs|access-date=September 20, 2018|archive-date=December 27, 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201227074859/https://www.systemplus.fr/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/SP18413-STM_SiC_Module_Tesla_Model_3_Inverter_sample-3.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NYT51622">{{cite news |author1=Amos Zeeberg |title=What's Down the Road for Silicon?: Meet the new materials overpowering the electric economy. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/16/science/electronics-silicon-gallium.html |access-date=May 17, 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=May 16, 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Uv-LED.jpg|thumb|Ultraviolet LED (based on [[Indium gallium nitride|InGaN]])]]

==== LEDs ====
The phenomenon of [[electroluminescence]] was discovered in 1907 using silicon carbide and some of the first commercial [[Light-emitting diode|LEDs]] were based on this material. When General Electric of America introduced its SSL-1 Solid State Lamp in March 1967, using a tiny chip of semi-conducting SiC to emit a point of yellow light, it was then the world's brightest LED.<ref>{{cite web |author=Hooker, James |url=http://www.lamptech.co.uk/Spec%20Sheets/LED%20GE%20SSL-1.htm |title=GE SSL-1 Yellow SiC LED at the Museum of Electric Lamp Technology |access-date=2024-10-21 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>  By 1970 it had been usurped by brighter red LEDs, but yellow LEDs made from 3C-SiC continued to be manufactured in the Soviet Union in the 1970s<ref>{{cite web |author=Klipstein, Don |url=http://donklipstein.com/yellosic.html |title=Yellow SiC LED |access-date=2009-06-06 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> and [[blue LED]]s (6H-SiC) worldwide in the 1980s.<ref name=LED>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gRvvM7skEzQC |title=High brightness light emitting diodes |last=Stringfellow |first=Gerald B. |publisher=Academic Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-12-752156-5 |pages=48, 57, 425}}</ref>

Carbide LED production soon stopped when a different material, [[gallium nitride]], showed 10–100&nbsp;times brighter emission. This difference in efficiency is due to the unfavorable [[Direct and indirect band gaps|indirect bandgap]] of SiC, whereas GaN has a [[Direct and indirect band gaps|direct bandgap]] which favors light emission. However, SiC is still one of the important LED components: It is a popular substrate for growing GaN devices, and it also serves as a heat spreader in high-power LEDs.<ref name="LED" />

=== Astronomy ===
The low thermal expansion coefficient,<ref name="alpha" /> high hardness, rigidity and thermal conductivity make silicon carbide a desirable [[mirror]] material for [[astronomy|astronomical]] telescopes. The growth technology ([[chemical vapor deposition]]) has been scaled up to produce disks of polycrystalline silicon carbide up to {{convert|3.5|m|abbr=on}} in diameter, and several telescopes like the [[Herschel Space Telescope]] are already equipped with SiC optics,<ref>{{Cite news |title=The Largest Telescope Mirror Ever Put into Space |url=http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMC7W1PGQD_index_0.html |publisher=European Space Agency |date=23 February 2004 |access-date=6 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal  |last1=Petrovsky |first1=Gury Timofeevic |last2=Tolstoy |first2=Michael N. |last3=Lubarsky |first3=Sergey V. |last4=Khimitch |first4=Yuri P. |last5=Robb |first5=Paul N. |date=June 1994 |editor1-last=Stepp |editor1-first=Larry M. |title=2.7-meter-diameter silicon carbide primary mirror for the SOFIA telescope |bibcode=1994SPIE.2199..263P |journal=Proc. SPIE |series=Advanced Technology Optical Telescopes V |volume=2199 |page=263 |doi=10.1117/12.176195 }}</ref> as well the [[Gaia (spacecraft)|Gaia]] [[space observatory]] spacecraft subsystems are mounted on a rigid silicon carbide frame, which provides a stable structure that will not expand or contract due to heat.

=== Thin-filament pyrometry ===
[[File:SiCpyrometer.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|Test flame and glowing SiC fibers. The flame is about {{convert|7|cm|abbr=on}} tall.]]
{{Main|Thin-filament pyrometry}}

Silicon carbide fibers are used to measure gas temperatures in an optical technique called thin-filament pyrometry. It involves the placement of a thin filament in a hot gas stream. Radiative emissions from the filament can be correlated with filament temperature. Filaments are SiC fibers with a diameter of 15&nbsp;micrometers, about one fifth that of a human hair. Because the fibers are so thin, they do little to disturb the flame and their temperature remains close to that of the local gas. Temperatures of about 800–2,500&nbsp;K can be measured.<ref>{{cite news| publisher = NASA| url = http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/2003/6000/6711sunderland.html| title = Thin-Filament Pyrometry Developed for Measuring Temperatures in Flames| access-date = 2009-06-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120315171904/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/2003/6000/6711sunderland.html| archive-date = 2012-03-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1364/AO.46.000483| title=Thin-filament pyrometry with a digital still camera| year=2007| author=Maun, Jignesh D.| journal=Applied Optics| volume=46| pages=483–8| pmid=17230239| last2=Sunderland| first2=P. B.| last3=Urban| first3=D. L.| issue=4|bibcode = 2007ApOpt..46..483M | url=http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/3602/1/umi-umd-3450.pdf| hdl=1903/3602| hdl-access=free}}</ref>

=== Heating elements ===
References to silicon carbide heating elements exist from the early 20th century when they were produced by Acheson's Carborundum Co. in the U.S. and EKL in Berlin. Silicon carbide offered increased [[operating temperature]]s compared with metallic heaters. Silicon carbide elements are used today in the melting of glass and non-ferrous metal, [[heat treatment]] of metals, [[float glass]] production, production of ceramics and electronics components, igniters in [[pilot lights]] for gas heaters, etc.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1201/9781420027556 |title=Industrial Heating: Principles, Techniques, Materials, Applications, and Design |date=2005 |last1=Deshmukh |first1=Yeshvant V. |isbn=978-1-4200-2755-6 |chapter=Nonmetallic Heating Elements |pages=383–386 }}</ref>

=== Heat shielding ===
The outer thermal protection layer of NASA's LOFTID inflatable heat shield incorporates a woven ceramic made from silicon carbide, with fiber of such small diameter that it can be bundled and spun into a yarn.<ref>{{cite news| publisher = NASA| url = https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-inflatable-heat-shield-finds-strength-in-flexibility| title = NASA Inflatable Heat Shield Finds Strength in Flexibility| access-date = 2022-11-10 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221111010353/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-inflatable-heat-shield-finds-strength-in-flexibility| archive-date = 2022-11-11}}</ref>

=== Nuclear applications ===
Due to SiC's exceptional [[neutron]] absorption capability, it is used as fuel cladding in [[nuclear reactors]] and as [[nuclear waste]] containment material.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.preciseceramic.com/products/silicon-carbide-sic.html |title=Silicon Carbide (SiC) |website=Precise Ceramics |access-date=June 10, 2024}}</ref> It is also used in producing radiation detectors for monitoring radiation levels in nuclear facilities, environmental monitoring, and [[medical imaging]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Napoli |first1=Marzio |date=2022 |title=SiC detectors: A review on the use of silicon carbide as radiation detection material |journal=Frontiers in Physics |volume=10 |article-number=898833 |bibcode=2022FrP....10.8833D |doi= 
10.3389/fphy.2022.898833 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Again, SiC sensors and electronics for nuclear reactor applications are being developed potentially for future [[Martian]] nuclear power and the emerging terrestrial micro nuclear power plants.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20220017890 |title=Silicon Carbide Sensors and Electronics Technology for Extreme Environments: Opportunities for Nuclear Power Applications |website=NASA |date=30 November 2022 |access-date=June 10, 2024}}</ref>

==== Nuclear fuel particles and cladding ====
Silicon carbide is an important material in [[TRISO]]-coated fuel particles, the type of [[nuclear fuel]] found in [[high temperature gas cooled reactor]]s such as the [[Pebble Bed Reactor]]. A layer of silicon carbide gives coated fuel particles structural support and is the main diffusion barrier to the release of fission products.<ref>{{cite journal| journal = Journal of Nuclear Materials| volume = 392| issue = 2| year = 2009| pages = 219–224| doi = 10.1016/j.jnucmat.2009.03.013| title = TRISO coated fuel particles with enhanced SiC properties|author= López-Honorato, E.|bibcode = 2009JNuM..392..219L| last2 = Tan| first2 = J.| last3 = Meadows| first3 = P. J.| last4 = Marsh| first4 = G.| last5 = Xiao| first5 = P. }}</ref>

Silicon carbide [[composite material]] has been investigated for use as a replacement for [[Zircaloy]] cladding in [[light water reactors]].  One of the reasons for this investigation is that, Zircaloy experiences hydrogen embrittlement as a consequence of the corrosion reaction with water. This produces a reduction in fracture toughness with increasing volumetric fraction of radial hydrides. This phenomenon increases drastically with increasing temperature to the detriment of the material.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bertolino, Meyer|first=G.|date=2002|title=Degradation of the mechanical properties of Zircaloy-4 due to hydrogen embrittlement|journal=Journal of Alloys and Compounds|volume=330-332|pages=408–413|doi=10.1016/S0925-8388(01)01576-6}}</ref> Silicon carbide cladding does not experience this same mechanical degradation, but instead retains strength properties with increasing temperature. The composite consists of SiC fibers wrapped around a SiC inner layer and surrounded by an SiC outer layer.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://canes.mit.edu/reports/assessment-silicon-carbide-cladding-high-performance-light-water-reactors| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120425062648/http://canes.mit.edu/reports/assessment-silicon-carbide-cladding-high-performance-light-water-reactors| archive-date = 2012-04-25|author1=Carpenter, David |author2=Ahn, K. |author3=Kao, S.P. |author4=Hejzlar, Pavel |author5=Kazimi, Mujid S. |work=Nuclear Fuel Cycle Program, Volume MIT-NFC-TR-098 (2007)| access-date = 2011-10-13| title=Assessment of Silicon Carbide Cladding for High Performance Light Water Reactors}}</ref> Problems have been reported with the ability to join the pieces of the SiC composite.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearfabrication.org/sic-fuel-cladding/ |access-date=2011-10-13 |title=SiC Fuel Cladding |work=Nuclear Fabrication Consortium, nuclearfabrication.org |date=June 17, 2010 |author=Ames, Nate |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425062642/http://nuclearfabrication.org/sic-fuel-cladding/ |archive-date=April 25, 2012 }}</ref>

=== Jewelry ===
[[File:Moissanite ring natural light.jpg|thumb|left|A [[moissanite]]
 engagement ring]]

As a [[gemstone]] used in [[jewellery|jewelry]], silicon carbide is called "synthetic moissanite" or just "moissanite" after the mineral name. Moissanite is similar to [[diamond]] in several important respects: it is transparent and hard (9–9.5 on the [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|Mohs scale]], compared to 10 for diamond), with a [[refractive index]] between 2.65 and 2.69 (compared to 2.42 for diamond). Moissanite is somewhat harder than common [[cubic zirconia]]. Unlike diamond, moissanite can be strongly [[birefringent]]. For this reason, moissanite jewels are cut along the [[optic axis]] of the crystal to minimize birefringent effects. It is lighter (density 3.21 g/cm<sup>3</sup> vs. 3.53 g/cm<sup>3</sup>), and much more resistant to heat than diamond. This results in a stone of higher [[Lustre (mineralogy)|luster]], sharper facets, and good resilience. Loose moissanite stones may be placed directly into wax ring moulds for lost-wax casting, as can diamond,<ref>Teague, Tyler. [http://www.jettresearch.com/sites/default/files/casting%20stones%20in%20place%202001.pdf Casting Metal Directly onto Stones] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910075733/http://www.jettresearch.com/sites/default/files/casting%20stones%20in%20place%202001.pdf |date=2016-09-10 }}, Jett Industries</ref> as moissanite remains undamaged by temperatures up to {{convert|1800|C}}. Moissanite has become popular as a diamond substitute, and may be misidentified as diamond, since its [[thermal conductivity]] is closer to diamond than any other substitute. Many thermal diamond-testing devices cannot distinguish moissanite from diamond, but the gem is distinct in its [[birefringence]] and a very slight green or yellow fluorescence under ultraviolet light. Some moissanite stones also have curved, string-like inclusions, which diamonds never have.<ref name=don>{{cite book| author = O'Donoghue, M. |title = Gems|publisher = Elsevier| year = 2006| isbn = 978-0-7506-5856-0|page = 89|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwcM5H-wHNoC&pg=PA89}}</ref>

=== Steel production ===
[[File:Silicon carbide chunk.jpg|thumb|Piece of silicon carbide used in steel making]]
Silicon carbide, dissolved in a [[basic oxygen furnace]] used for making [[steel]], acts as a [[fuel]]. The additional energy liberated allows the furnace to process more scrap with the same charge of hot metal. It can also be used to raise [[Basic oxygen steelmaking#Process|tap]] temperatures and adjust the carbon and silicon content. Silicon carbide is cheaper than a combination of [[ferrosilicon]] and carbon, produces cleaner steel and lower emissions due to low levels of [[trace element]]s, has a low gas content, and does not lower the temperature of steel.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.millerandco.com/products/briquettes_steel/| access-date = 2009-06-06| title = Silicon carbide (steel industry)| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120204195558/http://www.millerandco.com/products/briquettes_steel/| archive-date = 2012-02-04}}</ref>

=== Catalyst support ===
The natural resistance to oxidation exhibited by silicon carbide, as well as the discovery of new ways to synthesize the cubic β-SiC form, with its larger surface area, has led to significant interest in its use as a heterogeneous [[catalyst support]]. This form has already been employed as a catalyst support for the oxidation of [[hydrocarbon]]s, such as n-[[butane]], to [[maleic anhydride]].<ref>{{cite book|page = 258| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=s_1SomN_GVQC| title = Handbook of commercial catalysts: heterogeneous catalysts| author = Rase, Howard F.| publisher = CRC Press| year = 2000| isbn = 978-0-8493-9417-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| title = High surface area silicon carbide from rice husk: A support material for catalysts|author=Singh, S. K.|journal=Reaction Kinetics and Catalysis Letters|volume=54| issue = 1|year=1995|pages=29–34|doi=10.1007/BF02071177| last2 = Parida| first2 = K. M.| last3 = Mohanty| first3 = B. C.| last4 = Rao| first4 = S. B. }}</ref>

=== Carborundum printmaking ===
Silicon carbide is used in [[carborundum printmaking]] – a [[collagraph]] [[printmaking]] technique. Carborundum grit is applied in a paste to the surface of an aluminium plate. When the paste is dry, ink is applied and trapped in its granular surface, then wiped from the bare areas of the plate. The ink plate is then printed onto paper in a rolling-bed press used for [[intaglio printmaking]]. The result is a print of painted marks embossed into the paper.

Carborundum grit is also used in stone Lithography. Its uniform particle size allows it to be used to "Grain" a stone which removes the previous image. In a similar process to sanding, coarser grit Carborundum is applied to the stone and worked with a [[Levigator]], typically a round plate eccentric on a perpendicular shaft, then gradually finer and finer grit is applied until the stone is clean. This creates a grease sensitive surface.<ref>{{cite news| url = http://www.birchamgallery.co.uk/glossary/printmaking/| title = Printmaking|work=Bircham Gallery, birchamgallery.co.uk| access-date = 2009-07-31}}</ref>

=== Graphene production ===
Silicon carbide can be used in the production of [[graphene]] because of its chemical properties that promote the production of graphene on the surface of SiC nanostructures.

When it comes to its production, silicon is used primarily as a substrate to grow the graphene. But there are actually several methods that can be used to grow the graphene on the silicon carbide. The confinement controlled sublimation (CCS) growth method consists of a SiC chip that is heated under vacuum with graphite. Then the vacuum is released very gradually to control the growth of graphene. This method yields the highest quality graphene layers. But other methods have been reported to yield the same product as well.

Another way of growing graphene would be thermally decomposing SiC at a high temperature within a vacuum.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ruan|first1=Ming|last2=Hu|first2=Yike|last3=Guo|first3=Zelei|last4=Dong|first4=Rui|last5=Palmer|first5=James|last6=Hankinson|first6=John|last7=Berger|first7=Claire|last8=Heer|first8=Walt A. de|date=December 2012|title=Epitaxial graphene on silicon carbide: Introduction to structured graphene|journal=MRS Bulletin|language=en|volume=37|issue=12|pages=1138–1147|doi=10.1557/mrs.2012.231|bibcode=2012MRSBu..37.1138R |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00911229/file/Ruan_MRS_draft1.pdf}}</ref> But, this method turns out to yield graphene layers that contain smaller grains within the layers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Emtsev|first1=Konstantin V.|last2=Bostwick|first2=Aaron|last3=Horn|first3=Karsten|last4=Jobst|first4=Johannes|last5=Kellogg|first5=Gary L.|last6=Ley|first6=Lothar|last7=McChesney|first7=Jessica L.|last8=Ohta|first8=Taisuke|last9=Reshanov|first9=Sergey A.|date=2009-02-08|title=Towards wafer-size graphene layers by atmospheric pressure graphitization of silicon carbide|journal=Nature Materials |volume=8|issue=3|pages=203–207|doi=10.1038/nmat2382|pmid=19202545 |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0010-FA05-E|hdl-access=free|bibcode=2009NatMa...8..203E}}</ref> So, there have been efforts to improve the quality and yield of graphene. One such method is to perform ''ex situ'' [[graphitization]] of silicon terminated SiC in an atmosphere consisting of argon. This method has proved to yield layers of graphene with larger domain sizes than the layer that would be attainable via other methods. This new method can be very viable to make higher quality graphene for a multitude of technological applications.

When it comes to understanding how or when to use these methods of graphene production, most of them mainly produce or grow this graphene on the SiC within a growth enabling environment. It is utilized most often at rather higher temperatures (such as 1,300&nbsp;°C) because of SiC thermal properties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=de Heer|first1=Walt A.|last2=Berger|first2=Claire|last3=Wu|first3=Xiaosong|last4=First|first4=Phillip N.|last5=Conrad|first5=Edward H.|last6=Li|first6=Xuebin|last7=Li|first7=Tianbo|last8=Sprinkle|first8=Michael|last9=Hass|first9=Joanna|date=July 2007|title=Epitaxial graphene|journal=Solid State Communications|volume=143|issue=1–2|pages=92–100|doi=10.1016/j.ssc.2007.04.023 |arxiv=0704.0285|bibcode=2007SSCom.143...92D }}</ref> However, there have been certain procedures that have been performed and studied that could potentially yield methods that use lower temperatures to help manufacture graphene. More specifically this different approach to graphene growth has been observed to produce graphene within a temperature environment of around 750&nbsp;°C. This method entails the combination of certain methods like chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and surface segregation. And when it comes to the substrate, the procedure would consist of coating a SiC substrate with thin films of a transition metal. And after the rapid heat treating of this substance, the carbon atoms would then become more abundant at the surface interface of the transition metal film which would then yield graphene. And this process was found to yield graphene layers that were more continuous throughout the substrate surface.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009-07-01|title=Synthesis of graphene on silicon carbide substrates at low temperature|journal=Carbon |volume=47|issue=8|pages=2026–2031|doi=10.1016/j.carbon.2009.03.051 |last1=Juang|first1=Zhen-Yu|last2=Wu|first2=Chih-Yu|last3=Lo|first3=Chien-Wei|last4=Chen|first4=Wei-Yu|last5=Huang|first5=Chih-Fang|last6=Hwang|first6=Jenn-Chang|last7=Chen|first7=Fu-Rong|last8=Leou|first8=Keh-Chyang|last9=Tsai|first9=Chuen-Horng|bibcode=2009Carbo..47.2026J }}</ref>

=== Quantum physics ===
Silicon carbide can host point defects in the crystal lattice, which are known as [[Silicon Carbide Color Centers|color centers]]. These defects can produce single photons on demand and thus serve as a platform for [[single-photon source]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castelletto |first1=Stefania |last2=Johnson |first2=Brett |last3=Iv{\'a}dy |first3=Viktor |last4=Stavrias |first4=Nicholas |last5=Umeda |first5=T |last6=Gali |first6=Adam |last7=Ohshima |first7=Takeshi |title=A silicon carbide room-temperature single-photon source |journal=Nature Materials |year=2014 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=151–156 |doi=10.1038/nmat3806|pmid=24240243 |bibcode=2014NatMa..13..151C }}</ref> Such a device is a fundamental resource for many emerging applications of quantum information science. If one pumps a color center via an external optical source or electric current, the color center will be brought to the excited state and then relax with the emission of one photon.<ref>{{cite journal| journal = Nature Communications| volume = 6| year = 2015| article-number = 7783| doi =  10.1038/ncomms8783 | title = Single-photon emitting diode in silicon carbide |author1= Lohrmann, A. |author2= Iwamoto, N. |author3= Bodrog, Z. |author4=Castalletto, S. |author5=Ohshima, T. |author6=Karle, T.J. |author7=Gali, A. |author8=Prawer, S. |author9=McCallum, J.C. |author10= Johnson, B.C. | pmid = 26205309|arxiv=1503.07566 |bibcode=2015NatCo...6.7783L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| journal = npj Quantum Information| volume = 4| year = 2018| page = 15| doi =  10.1038/s41534-018-0066-2 | title = Enhancing the brightness of electrically driven single-photon sources using color centers in silicon carbide |author1= Khramtsov, I.A. |author2= Vyshnevyy, A.A. |author3= Fedyanin, D. Yu.| issue = 1|bibcode= 2018npjQI...4...15K| doi-access = free}}</ref>

One well known point defect in silicon carbide is the divacancy which has a similar electronic structure as the [[nitrogen-vacancy center]] in diamond. In 4H-SiC, the divacancy has four different configurations which correspond to four zero-phonon lines (ZPL). These ZPL values are written using the notation V<sub>Si</sub>-V<sub>C</sub> and the unit eV: hh(1.095), kk(1.096), kh(1.119), and hk(1.150).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davidsson |first1=Joel |last2=Ivády |first2=Viktor |last3=Armiento |first3=Rickard |last4=Son |first4=N T |last5=Gali |first5=Adam |last6=Abrikosov |first6=Igor A |title=First principles predictions of magneto-optical data for semiconductor point defect identification: the case of divacancy defects in 4H–SiC |journal=New Journal of Physics |date=15 February 2018 |volume=20 |issue=2 |page=023035 |doi=10.1088/1367-2630/aaa752 |arxiv=1708.04508 |bibcode=2018NJPh...20b3035D }}</ref>

=== Fishing rod guides ===
Silicon carbide is used in the manufacturing of fishing guides because of its durability and wear resistance.<ref>{{cite news| url = https://www.chicagotribune.com/consumer-reviews/sns-bestreviews-sports-outdoors-the-best-spinning-rod-20200129-cd5tofiyfffn3l6mafidgremca-story.html| title = The best spinning rod| access-date = 2020-06-27}}</ref>  Silicon Carbide rings are fit into a guide frame, typically made from stainless steel or titanium which keep the line from touching the rod blank.  The rings provide a low friction surface which improves casting distance while providing adequate hardness that prevents abrasion from braided fishing line.<ref name="Pfeiffer2013">{{cite book|author=C. Boyd Pfeiffer|title=Complete Book of Rod Building and Tackle Making|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OPlOY8q-Af8C|date=15 January 2013|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7627-9502-4}}</ref>

=== Pottery glazes ===
Silicon carbide is used as a raw ingredient in some [[Ceramic glaze|glazes]] applied to ceramics. At high temperatures it can reduce metal oxides forming [[Silicon dioxide|silica]] and carbon dioxide. This can be used to make the glaze foam and crater due to the evolved carbon dioxide gas, or to reduce the colorant oxides and achieve colors such as [[Sang de boeuf glaze|copper reds]] otherwise only possible in a fuel powered [[Reducing atmosphere|reduction firing]] in an electric kiln.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hansen |first=Tony |title=Silicon carbide |url=https://digitalfire.com/material/silicon+carbide |access-date=30 April 2023 |website=Digital Fire}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Carborundum Universal]]
* [[Globar]]
* [[Molybdenum disilicide]]
* [[Reaction bonded silicon carbide]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Silicon carbide}}
{{EB1911 poster|Carborundum}}
* {{cite web |url=http://img.chem.ucl.ac.uk/www/kelly/moissanite.htm |title=A Brief History of Silicon Carbide |first=J.F. |last=Kelly |publisher=University of London}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.mindat.org/min-2743.html |title=Moissanite |publisher=Mindat.org}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0555.html |title=Silicon carbide |work=NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards}}
* {{cite web |first1=Alan |last1=Mantooth |first2=Carl-Mikael |last2=Zetterling |first3=Ana |last3=Rusu  |title=The Radio We Could Send to Hell: Silicon carbide radio circuits can take the volcanic heat of Venus |date=28 April 2021 |work=IEEE Spectrum |publisher= |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-radio-we-could-send-to-hell}}
* {{cite web |author=Asianometry |title=Silicon Carbide: A Power Electronics Revolution |date=July 2022 |publisher=YouTube |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHn_LvwQMcg}}

{{Silicon compounds}}
{{Silicides}}
{{Molecules detected in outer space}}
{{Carbon compounds}}
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[[Category:Abrasives]]
[[Category:Carbides]]
[[Category:Ceramic materials]]
[[Category:Deoxidizers]]
[[Category:Diamond simulants]]
[[Category:Gemstones]]
[[Category:Group IV semiconductors]]
[[Category:Inorganic silicon compounds]]
[[Category:Refractory materials]]
[[Category:Semiconductors]]
[[Category:Superhard materials]]
[[Category:Synthetic minerals]]