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{{Short description|Baltic independence movements (1987–1991)}}
{{About|the revolution in the [[Baltic states]] in the late 1980s|the 2006 film about the revolution in the Baltic states|The Singing Revolution}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
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{{Infobox civil conflict
| title = Singing Revolution
| partof = the [[Revolutions of 1989]] and the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]]
| image = {{photo montage
 |photo1a=Öised laulupeod 88 (66).jpg
 |photo1b=BaltskýŘetěz.jpg
 |photo2a=Leaders of the Supreme Council of Lithuania on 11 March 1990.jpg
 |photo3a=Riga barricade 1991.jpg
 |photo3b=January 13 events in Vilnius Lithuania.jpg
 | size = 200
 | spacing = <!-- Number indicating width of spacing between the images (default: 1) -->
 | color = white
 | border = 0
}}
| caption = Clockwise from the top left: the Song of Estonia Festival in 1988, the [[Baltic Way]] human chain in 1989, leaders of the [[Supreme Council – Reconstituent Seimas|Supreme Council of Lithuania]] after the promulgation of the [[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania]] in 1990, a Lithuanian civilian confronts a Soviet tank during the [[January Events]] in 1991, [[The Barricades]] in Riga in 1991
| causes = * Soviet [[occupation of the Baltic states]]
* [[Political repression]]
* [[Economic stagnation]]
* [[Nationalist]] discontent
* [[Sovietization of the Baltic states|Sovietization]]
* [[Russification]]
* [[Religious persecution]]
| goals = * Independence of the three Baltic countries
* End of [[CPSU|Communist]] rule
* [[Democratization]]
* [[Civil rights]]
* [[Economic reform]]
| methods = * Protests
* [[Demonstration (people)|Demonstrations]]
* [[Strike action|Strikes]]
* [[Civil disobedience]]
* [[Human chain (politics)|Human chain]]
* [[Civil resistance]]
* [[Barricades]]
| result = Restoration of the independence of the Baltic states
* Declarations of state sovereignty of Estonia ([[Estonian Sovereignty Declaration|18 November 1988]]), Lithuania (18 May 1989), and Latvia (28 July 1989)
* Free elections in Lithuania ([[1990 Lithuanian Supreme Soviet election|24 February 1990]]), Latvia ([[1990 Latvian Supreme Soviet election|18 March 1990]]), and Estonia ([[1990 Estonian Supreme Soviet election|18 March 1990]])
* Declarations of independence of Lithuania ([[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania|11 March 1990]]), Latvia ([[On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia|4 May 1990]]), and Estonia ([[Estonian Restoration of Independence|20 August 1991]])
* Independence referendums in Lithuania ([[1991 Lithuanian independence referendum|9 February 1991]]), Latvia ([[1991 Latvian independence and democracy referendum|3 March 1991]]), Estonia ([[1991 Estonian independence referendum|3 March 1991]])
* Soviet Union recognizes the independence of the Baltic states (6 September 1991)
* Restoration of [[multi-party democracy]] in all three countries
* Transition to a [[market economy]] in all three countries
* Withdrawal of Soviet and then Russian troops from Lithuania by 1993, and Latvia and Estonia by 1994
| date = {{start and end dates|1987|06|14|1991|09|06|df=y}}<br />({{age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=6|day1=14|year1=1987|month2=9|day2=6|year2=1991}})
| place = [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]] (the three Baltic countries)
| side1 = {{tree list}}
* {{flag|Estonia}}
** [[Popular Front of Estonia|Popular Front]]
** [[Estonian Citizens' Committee|Citizens' Committee]]
** [[Congress of Estonia]]
** Heritage Society
** [[MRP-AEG]]
** [[Estonian National Independence Party|National Independence Party]]
** [[Estonian Social Democratic Independence Party|Social Democratic Independence Party]]
** [[Communist Party of Estonia|Communist Party]] (pro-independence faction)
*** [[Estonian Social Democratic Party|Social Democratic Party]]
{{Tree list/end}}
{{Tree list}}
* {{flag|Latvia}}
** [[Popular Front of Latvia|Popular Front]]
** [[Helsinki-86]]
** [[Latvian National Independence Movement|National Independence Movement]]
** [[Citizens' Congress of the Republic of Latvia|Citizens' Congress]]
** Environmental Protection Club
** [[Communist Party of Latvia|Communist Party]] (pro-independence faction)
*** [[Latvian Social Democratic Party|Social Democratic Party]]
{{Tree list/end}}
{{Tree list}}
* {{flag|Lithuania|1988}}
** [[File:Columns of Gediminas (Sąjūdis).png|22px]] [[Sąjūdis]]
** [[Lithuanian Liberty League|Liberty League]]
** [[Lithuanian Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]
** [[Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party|Christian Democratic Party]]
** [[Social Democratic Party of Lithuania|Social Democratic Party]]
** [[Communist Party of Lithuania|Communist Party]] (pro-independence faction)
*** [[Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania|Democratic Labour Party]]
** [[File:Insignia of Šaulių sąjunga.svg|22px]] [[Lithuanian Riflemen's Union|Riflemen's Union]]
{{Tree list/end}}
-----
'''Support:'''<br />{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR}}{{flag|Russian SFSR|1991}}
| side2 = {{Tree list}}
* {{flag|Soviet Union}}
** {{Flagicon image|Communist Hammer and Sickle Star Flag.svg}} [[Soviet Army]]
** [[File:Emblema KGB.svg|22px]] [[KGB]]
** [[File:Patch of the OMON.svg|22px]] [[OMON]]
** [[Internal troops of the Soviet Union|Internal Troops]]
** [[Militsiya]]
** [[File:КПСС.svg|22px]] [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]]
*** {{flagicon|Estonian SSR}} [[Communist Party of Estonia]] ([[Communist Party of Estonia (1990)|pro-Moscow faction]])
*** {{flagicon|Latvian SSR}} [[Communist Party of Latvia]] (pro-Moscow faction)
*** {{flagicon|Lithuanian SSR}} [[Communist Party of Lithuania]] (pro-Moscow faction)
** [[Interfront]]
*** [[Intermovement]]
*** [[International Front of the Working People of Latvia|Interfront of Latvia]]
*** [[Yedinstvo (Lithuania)|Yedinstvo]]
{{Tree list/end}}
| leadfigures1 = {{Plain list|
* {{Flagicon|Estonia}} [[Lennart Meri]]
* {{Flagicon|Estonia}} [[Tunne Kelam]]
* {{Flagicon|Estonia}} [[Edgar Savisaar]]
* {{Flagicon|Estonia}} [[Mart Laar]]
* {{Flagicon|Estonia}} [[Trivimi Velliste]]
* {{Flagicon|Estonia}} [[Marju Lauristin]]
* {{Flagicon|Estonia}} [[Alo Mattiisen]]
* {{Flagicon|Estonia}} [[Ülo Nugis]]
* {{Flagicon|Estonia}} [[Arnold Rüütel]]
* {{Flagicon|Latvia}} [[Anatolijs Gorbunovs]]
* {{Flagicon|Latvia}} [[Ivars Godmanis]]
* {{Flagicon|Latvia}} [[Eduards Berklavs]]
* {{Flagicon|Latvia}} [[Einars Repše]]
* {{Flagicon|Latvia}} [[Dainis Īvāns]]
* {{Flagicon|Latvia}} [[Konstantins Pupurs]]
* {{Flagicon|Latvia}} [[Romualds Ražuks]]
* {{Flagicon|Lithuania|1988}} [[Vytautas Landsbergis]]
* {{Flagicon|Lithuania|1988}} [[Kazimira Prunskienė]]
* {{Flagicon|Lithuania|1988}} [[Albertas Šimėnas]]
* {{Flagicon|Lithuania|1988}} [[Gediminas Vagnorius]]
* {{Flagicon|Lithuania|1988}} [[Audrius Butkevičius]]
* {{Flagicon|Lithuania|1988}} [[Algirdas Brazauskas]]
* {{Flagicon|Lithuania|1988}} [[Arvydas Juozaitis]]
}}
-----
{{flagdeco|Russian SFSR}}{{flagicon|Russian SFSR|1991}} [[Boris Yeltsin]]
| leadfigures2 = {{plainlist|
* {{Flagicon|USSR}} [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]
* {{Flagicon|USSR}} [[Vadim Bakatin]]
* {{Flagicon|USSR}} [[Vladimir Kryuchkov]]
* {{Flagicon|USSR}} [[Dmitry Yazov]]
* {{Flagicon|USSR}} [[Vladislav Achalov]]
* {{Flagicon|USSR}} [[Mikhail Golovatov]]
* {{Flagicon|USSR}} [[Vladimir Uskhopchik]]
* {{Flagicon|USSR}} [[Vladimir Antyufeyev]]
* {{Flagicon|USSR}} [[Viktor Alksnis]]
* {{Flagicon|Latvian SSR}} [[Boris Pugo]]
* {{Flagicon|Latvian SSR}} [[Alfrēds Rubiks]]
* {{Flagicon|Lithuanian SSR}} [[Mykolas Burokevičius]]
* {{Flagicon|Lithuanian SSR}} [[Ringaudas Songaila]]
* {{Flagicon|Estonian SSR}} [[Karl Vaino]]
}}
}}
{{Revolution sidebar}}

The '''Singing Revolution'''{{efn|name=languages|{{langx|et|laulev revolutsioon}}; {{langx|lv|dziesmotā revolūcija}}; {{langx|lt|dainuojanti revoliucija}}<!--; {{langx|ru|Поющая революция}}, ''Poyushchaya revolyutsiya''-->.}} was a series of events from 1987 to 1991 that led to the restoration of independence of the three [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet-occupied]] [[Baltic states|Baltic countries]] of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]]<!-- from the [[Soviet Union]]--> at the [[Cold War (1985–1991)|end of the Cold War]]. The Soviet Union [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|annexed the countries as republics around 1940]], following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression agreement with Nazi Germany, though this annexation was [[State continuity of the Baltic states|not widely recognized]]. During the subsequent occupation, local languages, religious institutions, and cultural expression were suppressed, and large-scale deportations and political repression were carried out.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Šmidchens |first=Guntis |date=October 2007 |title=National Heroic Narratives in the Baltics as a Source for Nonviolent Political Action |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/abs/national-heroic-narratives-in-the-baltics-as-a-source-for-nonviolent-political-action/A727529550CA6E2B8B1C5C02E4EE54E0 |journal=Slavic Review |language=en |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=484–508 |doi=10.2307/20060298 |jstor=20060298 |issn=0037-6779}}</ref>

In the late 1980s, massive demonstrations against the Soviet regime began after widespread liberalization of the regime failed to take into account national sensitivities. Civic organizations such as Sąjūdis in Lithuania, the Popular Front of Latvia, and the Estonian Popular Front coordinated petitions, rallies, and public forums to express dissent.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Hackmann |first=Jörg |date=2020-12-30 |title=Baltic national movements, 1986-1992. Origins, trajectories, agendas |url=https://openjournals.ugent.be/snm/article/id/85334/ |journal=Studies on National Movements |volume=6 |issue=1 |doi=10.21825/snm.85334 |issn=2295-1466}}</ref> Public song festivals became a key element of resistance, as tens of thousands of participants sang national and folk songs in mass gatherings, blending cultural revival with political protest.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Brokaw |first1=Alan J. |last2=Brokaw |first2=Marianne A. |date=2001-01-01 |title=Identity Marketing: The Case of the Singing Revolution |url=https://doi.org/10.1300/J054v08n04_03 |journal=Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=17–29 |doi=10.1300/J054v08n04_03 |issn=1049-5142}}</ref>

The situation deteriorated to such an extent that by 1989, there were campaigns aimed at freeing the nations from the Soviet Union altogether. The Baltic peoples staged mass [[Demonstration (political)|demonstrations]] against Soviet rule, most notably the [[Baltic Way]] of 1989 on the 50th anniversary of the Nazi-Soviet pact. Approximately two million people joined hands to form a continuous human chain across Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania to symbolize unity and a popular commitment to independence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mazur |first=Viktoria |date=2025-07-17 |title=The Baltic Chain's Political Impact and Memory Politics |url=https://pasadoymemoria.ua.es/article/view/28873 |journal=Pasado y Memoria |language=en |issue=31 |pages=85–107 |doi=10.14198/pasado.28873 |issn=2386-4745}}</ref>

In 1988–89, the three countries proclaimed [[Parade of sovereignties|sovereignty]] within the Soviet Union, the first republics to do so. Lithuania [[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania|declared independence]] in March 1990, followed by Latvia and Estonia in May. Soviet government [[Soviet economic blockade of Lithuania|economic pressure]] and armed crackdowns in [[January Events|Lithuania]] and [[The Barricades|Latvia]] failed, including the January 1991 assault on Vilnius in which fourteen civilians were killed. Citizens relied on civic committees, public readings of historical texts, and symbolic displays such as national flags to maintain pressure on Soviet authorities<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Petrauskaite |first=Audrone |date=2021-05-28 |title=Nonviolent civil resistance against military force: The experience of Lithuania in 1991 |url=https://securityanddefence.pl/Nonviolent-civil-resistance-against-military-force-The-experience-of-Lithuania-in,136317,0,2.html |journal=Security and Defence Quarterly |language=english |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=38–52 |doi=10.35467/sdq/136317 |issn=2300-8741}}</ref>. Following the failed [[August Coup]] by Communist hardliners, various countries began to recognize Baltic independence. The Soviet Union recognized the three Baltic states in September 1991, over two months before its [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|final dissolution]]. All three countries joined the [[European Union|EU]] and [[NATO]] in 2004.

The Singing Revolution is remembered as a major example of peaceful national mobilization and cultural resilience that demonstrated how organized civic action and public demonstrations can achieve political transformation without widespread armed conflict. Annual commemorations, song festivals, and educational programs continue to celebrate this period as a pivotal moment of national self-determination in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.<ref name=":2" />

==Background==
{{Main|Baltic states under Soviet rule}}
Following the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] of 1939, the Soviet Union [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|invaded and occupied]] the three Baltic countries, annexing them as [[Republics of the Soviet Union|republics]].  This annexation was [[State continuity of the Baltic states|not widely recognized]]. In particular, the [[United States]] [[Stimson Doctrine|refused]] to recognize the annexation neither ''[[de facto]]'' nor ''[[de jure]]'' and continued to host Baltic diplomats in [[Washington, DC]].  [[Nazi Germany]] [[German occupation of the Baltic states during World War II|occupied]] the Baltic states during its [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion of the Soviet Union]] in 1941, but the Soviet Union [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)|reconquered]] the three countries in 1944–45.  Thereafter the Soviets faced [[Guerilla war in the Baltic states|widespread armed resistance]] from Baltic [[Forest Brothers]], which was largely defeated by the early 1950s.  Thereafter, a [[Soviet dissident|dissident]] underground movement remained in the Soviet-controlled Baltic states, with sporadic acts of public dissent occurring.

In 1985, the last leader of the former Soviet Union, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] introduced ''[[glasnost]]'' ("openness") and ''[[perestroika]]'' ("restructuring"), hoping to stimulate the failing Soviet economy and encourage productivity, particularly in the areas of consumer goods, the liberalization of cooperative businesses, and growing the service economy. Glasnost rescinded limitations on [[Freedom (political)|political freedoms]] in the Soviet Union, which led to problems for the Soviet central government in retaining control over non-Russian areas, including the occupied Baltic countries.

Hitherto unrecognized issues previously kept secret by the Soviet central government in Moscow were admitted to in public, causing further popular dissatisfaction with the Soviet regime in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Combined with the [[Soviet–Afghan War|war in Afghanistan]] and the [[Chernobyl disaster|nuclear fallout in Chernobyl]], grievances were aired in a publicly explosive and politically decisive manner. Estonians were concerned about the [[demographic threat]] to their national identity posed by the influx of individuals from foreign ethnic groups to work on such large Soviet development projects as phosphate mining.<ref>''Estonia and the Estonians'', Toivo U. Raun, Hoover Press, 2001, p. 223</ref>

== Description ==
The ''Singing Revolution''{{efn|name=languages}} is the name given to the series of events from 1987 to 1991 that led to the restoration of independence of the three [[Occupation of the Baltic states|Soviet-occupied]] [[Baltic states|Baltic countries]] of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]]<!-- from the [[Soviet Union]]--> at the [[Cold War (1985–1991)|end of the Cold War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomson |first=Clare |title=The Singing Revolution: A Political Journey through the Baltic States |publisher=Joseph |year=1992 |isbn=0-7181-3459-1 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ginkel |first=John |date=September 2002 |title=Identity Construction in Latvia's "Singing Revolution": Why inter-ethnic conflict failed to occur |journal=Nationalities Papers |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=403–433 |doi=10.1080/0090599022000011697 |s2cid=154588618}}</ref> The term was coined by an Estonian activist and artist, [[Heinz Valk]], in an article published a week after the 10–11 June 1988 spontaneous mass evening singing demonstrations at the Estonian [[Tallinn Song Festival Grounds]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vogt |first=Henri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nI73PdnqQlcC |title=Between Utopia and Disillusionment: A Narrative of the Political Transformation in Eastern Europe |date=2005 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1571818959 |access-date=1 January 2022 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

Massive demonstrations against the Soviet regime began after widespread liberalization of the regime failed to take into account national sensitivities. It was hoped by [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Moscow]] that the non-Russian nations would remain within the USSR despite the removal of restrictions on freedom of speech and national icons (such as the local pre-1940 flags).<ref name=":4" /> However, the situation deteriorated to such an extent that by 1989, there were campaigns aimed at freeing the nations from the Soviet Union altogether.  The Baltic peoples staged mass [[Demonstration (political)|demonstrations]] against Soviet rule, most notably the [[Baltic Way]] of 1989 on the 50th anniversary of the Nazi-Soviet pact. In 1988–89, the three countries proclaimed [[Parade of sovereignties|sovereignty]] within the Soviet Union, the first republics to do so.

Lithuania [[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania|declared independence]] in March 1990, followed by Latvia and Estonia in May. The Soviet government attempted to crack down on this through [[Soviet economic blockade of Lithuania|economic pressure]] and then armed crackdowns in [[January Events|Lithuania]] and [[The Barricades|Latvia]] in January 1991, but failed.  Following the failed [[August Coup]] by Communist hardliners, various countries began to recognize Baltic independence.  The Soviet Union recognized the three Baltic states in September 1991, over two months before its [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|final dissolution]].  Later, all three countries joined the [[European Union|EU]] and [[NATO]] in 2004.{{Eastern Bloc sidebar}}

==Nonviolent Strategies==
The Singing Revolution is one of the most prominent examples of nonviolent collective action of the late twentieth century.<ref name=":2" /> Unlike many other struggles for national self-determination during the Cold War, the movements of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania deliberately adopted strategies of civil resistance rather than armed confrontation. The use of song, public gatherings, and symbolic acts enabled widespread participation while limiting the potential for violent escalation.<ref name=":2" /> 

In each republic, cultural and civic organizations provided the initial frameworks for coordinated activism. Estonia’s Heritage Society, Latvia’s Environmental Protection Club, and Lithuania’s Sąjūdis movement emerged from officially sanctioned cultural or ecological associations and soon became central to organized political protest.<ref name=":3" /> Public events, historical commentaries, and mass singing festivals reframed dissent as expressions of national identity and moral renewal rather than as direct challenges to state authority.<ref name=":2" /> 

The nonviolent approach was both cultural and strategic. Leaders of the Baltic independence movements drew on local traditions and international models of civil resistance to situate their actions within a broader discourse of peaceful change.<ref name=":5" /> This framing enhanced international legitimacy and helped attract support from Western governments by aligning the movements with global human rights principles.<ref name=":3" /> 

Music and collective singing played a distinctive role in maintaining nonviolent discipline. Researchers have described these performances as a form of ''emotional disarmament'', in which shared song helped sustain unity and reduce fear under conditions of repression.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kudiņs |first=Jānis |date=2019 |title=Phenomenon of the Baltic singing revolution in 1987-1991: Three Latvian songs as historical symbols of non-violent resistance |url=https://doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?ID=1450-98141926027K |journal=Muzikologija |language=en |issue=26 |pages=27–39 |doi=10.2298/MUZ1926027K |issn=1450-9814}}</ref> During major demonstrations – including the Tartu Pop Festival, the Baltic Way, and the 1991 protests in Vilnius and Riga – participants frequently sang national anthems and traditional songs, transforming public spaces into symbols of solidarity and peaceful resistance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Govardhan |first=S |date=2015 |title=Influence of Gandhian Principles of Nonviolence in the Singing Revolution (Sàjûdis Movement) of Lithuania |url=https://scientificresearchjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Social-Science-2_A-146-156-Full-Paper.pdf |journal=International Journal of Applied Social Science |volume=2 |issue=5&6 |pages=146–156 |via=Scientific Research Journal}}</ref> 

Although instances of provocation and limited Soviet military intervention occurred - most notably in Lithuania in January 1991 – the movements largely maintained a commitment to nonviolence. Disciplined civilian resistance contributed to the erosion of Soviet authority and accelerated its decline in the Baltic region.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Adam |title=Civil Resistance in the East European and Soviet Revolutions |date=1991 |publisher=The Albert Einstein Institute |isbn=1-880813-04-1 |publication-date=December 1991}}</ref> The Singing Revolution has been compared to other nonviolent transitions, such as those in East Germany and Czechoslovakia, all as primary examples of the use of cultural identity, moral conviction, and organized political strategy as successful nonviolent tactics.<ref name=":2" /> 

==Estonia==
{{History of Estonia}}
The Soviet government's plan to excavate phosphorite in the [[Lääne-Viru County|Lääne-Viru county]] with potentially catastrophic consequences for the environment and society was revealed in February 1987. That started the "[[Phosphorite War]]", a public environmental campaign.<ref>[http://www.estonica.org/en/Phosphorite_War/ Phosphorite War] Estonica. Ecyclopaedia about Estonia</ref> The [[MRP-AEG]] group held the [[Hirvepark meeting]] in the [[Vanalinn|Old Town]] of Tallinn on the anniversary of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]] on 23 August 1987, demanding to [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact#Aftermath|disclose and condemn]] its [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact#Secret protocol|secret protocol]].<ref name=":2" />

Access to Western émigré communities abroad and, particularly in Estonia, informal relations with [[Finland]], and access to Finnish TV showing the Western lifestyle also contributed to widespread dissatisfaction with the Soviet system and provoked mass demonstrations as repression on dissidents, nationalists, religious communities, and ordinary consumers eased substantially towards the end of the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ritvanen |first=Juha-Matti |date=2022-05-27 |title=The change in Finnish Baltic policy as a turning point in Finnish-Soviet relations. Finland, Baltic independence and the end of the Soviet Union 1988-1991 |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/03468755.2020.1765861 |journal=Scandinavian Journal of History |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=280–299 |doi=10.1080/03468755.2020.1765861 |issn=0346-8755}}</ref>

The "Five Patriotic Songs" series by [[Alo Mattiisen]] premiered at the [[Tartu]] Pop Festival in May 1988.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.estonica.org/en/The_Singing_Revolution/|title=The Singing Revolution|website=www.estonica.org|language=en|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref> In June, the Old Town Festival was held in Tallinn, and after the official part of the festival, the participants moved to [[The Tallinn Song Festival Grounds|the Song Festival Grounds]] and started to sing patriotic songs together spontaneously.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.onthisdeity.com/10th-june-1988-%E2%80%93%C2%A0the-singing-revolution/|title=10th June 1988 – the Singing Revolution|work=Dorian Cope presents On This Deity|access-date=2018-04-19|language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Baltic Way]], a [[Human chain (politics)|human chain]] of two million people, spanned from Tallinn to [[Vilnius]] on 23 August 1989.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/estonias-singing-revolution-1986-1991/|title=Estonia's Singing Revolution (1986–1991) |date=2016-02-25|work=ICNC|access-date=2018-04-19|language=en-US}}</ref> Mattiisen's "Five Patriotic Songs" were performed again at the Rock Summer festival in Tallinn held on 26–28 August 1988.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rocksummer.ee/en/history/1988-|title=1988 – Rock Summer I – Rock Summer|website=www.rocksummer.ee|language=en|access-date=2018-04-19}}</ref> The Song of Estonia festival was held at the Song Festival Grounds on 11 September.<ref name=":0" /> [[Trivimi Velliste]], Chairman of the Estonian Heritage Society, first voiced the public ambition to regain independence.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Song of Estonia|url = http://www.estonica.org/en/Song_of_Estonia/|website = Estonica.org|access-date = 2016-02-15}}</ref> The Supreme Soviet of Estonia issued the [[Estonian Sovereignty Declaration]] on 16 November.<ref name=":1" />

The Singing Revolution lasted over four years, with various protests and acts of defiance. The revolution was led by three different groups: the Heritage Society, the Popular Front, and the National Independence Party. The Heritage Society, established in 1987, focused on spreading awareness about Estonia's history to gather support for Estonia's independence from the Soviets. The Popular Front, founded in 1988, wanted to reform Estonia into self-government within a loose confederation of the Soviet Union. The National Independence Party, established in 1988 as well, was more radical than the other two organizations and demanded complete independence from the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Estonia's Singing Revolution (1986–1991) |url=https://www.nonviolent-conflict.org/estonias-singing-revolution-1986-1991/ |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=ICNC |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Singing Revolution and Estonia's Non-Violent Independence Movement |url=https://tavaana.org/en/case-studies/Singing_Revolution_En |access-date=2022-04-06 |website=tavaana.org|date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303155408/https://tavaana.org/en/case-studies/Singing_Revolution_En |archive-date=3 March 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1991, as the central government in Moscow and the Soviet Army attempted to stop the Estonian progress towards independence, the newly [[1990 Estonian Supreme Soviet election|elected legislature of Estonia]] together with an elected grassroots parliament, [[Congress of Estonia]], proclaimed the restoration of the independent [[Sovereign state|state]] of Estonia and repudiated Soviet legislation. Large groups of unarmed volunteers went to shield the parliament, radio, and TV buildings from any attacks by Soviet troops. Through these actions, Estonia regained its independence without any blood shed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stateofworldliberty.org/report/results.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100930180917/http://www.stateofworldliberty.org/report/results.html|url-status=dead|title=State of World Liberty|archive-date=30 September 2010|access-date=1 January 2022}}</ref>

Independence was declared on the late evening of 20 August 1991, after an agreement between different political parties was reached. The next morning, Soviet troops, according to Estonian TV, attempted to storm [[Tallinn TV Tower]] but were unsuccessful.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://etv.err.ee/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214015907/http://www.etv.ee/index.php?0536408|url-status=dead|title=ETV|archive-date=14 February 2008|website=Etv.err.ee|access-date=1 January 2022}}</ref> The Communist hardliners' [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup attempt]] failed amidst mass pro-democracy demonstrations in Moscow led by [[Boris Yeltsin]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lysenko |first=Pavlo |date=2024 |title=Nonviolent Resistance and Repression: Examining Civil Resistance and Authoritarian Adaptation in Post-Soviet States |journal=Journal on Baltic Security |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=26–64 |url=https://journalonbalticsecurity.com/journal/JOBS/article/123/info |doi=10.57767/JOBS_2024_005}}</ref>

On 22 August 1991, [[Iceland]] (independent country since 1944) announced the establishment of diplomatic relations with Estonia, and Iceland thus became the first foreign country to formally recognize the fully restored independence of Estonia in 1991. Today, a plaque commemorating this event is situated on the outside wall of the Foreign Ministry, which is on Islandi väljak 1, or "Iceland Square 1". The plaque reads; "The Republic of [[Iceland]] was the first to recognize, on 22 August 1991, the restoration of the independence of the Republic of Estonia", in [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], and [[English language|English]].  Some other nations did not recognize the annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chen|first1=Ti-Chiang Chen|title=The international law of recognition|date=1951|publisher=Рипол Классик|isbn=978-5875231827|page=157|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3g8KAwAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Toomas Hendrik Ilves|author-link=Toomas Hendrik Ilves|title=President of the Republic at the State Dinner hosted by President T. E. Mary McAleese and Dr. Martin McAleese, Dublin, Republic of Ireland, 14 April 2008|url=http://president.ee/en/official-duties/speeches/2625-president-of-the-republic-at-the-state-dinner-hosted-by-president-t-e-mary-mcaleese-and-dr-martin-mcaleese-14-april-2008-dublin-republic-of-ireland/index.html|website=President Republic of Estonia|publisher=Estonia|access-date=20 April 2015|quote=The President of Estonia Toomas Hendrik Ilves said: "... ... we are thankful that Ireland never recognised the illegal annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union after the Second World War.  We will never forget John McEvoy, Estonia's honorary consul in Dublin from 1938 to 1960.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223062704/https://president.ee/en/official-duties/speeches/2625-president-of-the-republic-at-the-state-dinner-hosted-by-president-t-e-mary-mcaleese-and-dr-martin-mcaleese-14-april-2008-dublin-republic-of-ireland/index.html|archive-date=23 December 2015}}</ref>

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==Latvia==
{{History of Latvia}}
During the second half of the 1980s, as [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] introduced [[glasnost]] and [[perestroika]] in the [[USSR]], which rolled back restrictions to freedom in the Soviet Union, aversion to the Soviet regime had grown into the third [[Latvian National Awakening]], which reached its peak in mid-1988.

In 1986, it became widely known to the public that the USSR was planning to build another [[hydroelectric power plant]] on Latvia's largest river [[Daugava River|Daugava]], and that a decision had been made to build a [[Riga Metro|metro]] in [[Riga]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Bunkše |first=E. V. |date=1992 |title=God, Thine Earth is Burning: Nature Attitudes and the Latvian Drive for Independence |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41145355 |journal=GeoJournal |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=203–209 |doi=10.1007/BF00241218 |jstor=41145355 |bibcode=1992GeoJo..26..203B |issn=0343-2521}}</ref> Both of these projects planned by Moscow could have led to the destruction of Latvia's landscape and cultural and historical heritage. In the press, journalists urged the public to protest against these decisions. The public reacted immediately, and in response, the [[Environmental Protection Club]] was founded on 28 February 1987. During the second half of the 1980s, the Environmental Protection Club became one of the most influential mass movements in the region and began to make demands for the restoration of Latvia's independence.<ref name=":6" />

On 14 June 1987, the anniversary of the [[June deportation|1941 deportations]], the human rights group "[[Helsinki-86]]", which had been founded a year earlier, organized people to place flowers at the [[Freedom Monument (Riga)|Freedom Monument]] (Latvia's symbol of independence, which was erected in 1935). This is widely cited as the beginning of the National Awakening. However, the [[Latvian Song and Dance Festival]] of 1985 also had been sometimes named as such for choirs requesting and performing the song ''[[Gaismas pils (song)|Gaismas pils]]'' conducted by Haralds Mednis after the main event. The song, which speaks about the rebirth of a free Latvian nation, usually a staple of the festival, had been removed from the repertoire; the conductor, disliked by Soviet authorities, was sidelined at the closing concert. He was called from his seat by the choir and 'Gaismas pils' was performed, airing live on [[Latvijas Televīzija|Riga Television]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kulturaskanons.lv/en/1/7/92/|title=JĀZEPS VĪTOLS'S "GAISMAS PILS": a ballad for mixed choir|work=Latvian Cultural Canon|access-date=28 March 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318070536/http://www.kulturaskanons.lv/en/1/7/92/|archive-date=18 March 2013}}</ref>

On 1 and 2 June 1988, the Writers' Union held a congress during which the democratization of society, Latvia's economic sovereignty, the cessation of immigration from the USSR, the transformation of industry, and the protection of Latvian language rights were discussed by delegates. Over the course of this conference, for the first time in post-war Latvia, the secret protocol of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], which had determined Latvia's fate after 1939, was publicly acknowledged.<ref name=":3" />

The congress of the Writers' Union stirred up public opinion and provided an additional stimulus for the general process of [[Romantic nationalism|national revival]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

In the summer of 1988, two of the most important organizations of the revival period began to assemble themselves—the [[Latvian People's Front]] and the [[Latvian National Independence Movement]] (LNIM). Soon afterwards, the more radically inclined [[Citizens' Congress of the Republic of Latvia|Citizens' Congress]] called for complete non-compliance with the representatives of the Soviet regime.<ref name=":3" /> All of these organizations had a common goal: the restoration of democracy and independence. On 7 October 1988, there was a mass public demonstration, calling for Latvia's independence and the establishment of a regular judicial order. On 8 and 9 October, the first congress of the Latvian People's Front was held. This organization, which attracted 200,000 members, became the main representative of the return to independence.<ref name=":3" />

On 23 August 1989, the fiftieth anniversary of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the People's Fronts of all three Baltic countries held a huge demonstration of unity—the "[[Baltic Way]]". A {{convert|600|km|mi|0|adj=mid|-long}} human "chain" from Tallinn through Riga to [[Vilnius]] was assembled. This was a symbolic demonstration of the people's call for independence from the Soviet Union.

New elections to the [[Supreme Soviet]] took place on 18 March 1990, in which the supporters of independence gained a victory. On 4 May 1990, the new Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSR adopted a motion, "[[On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia|Declaration of Independence]]", which called for the restoration of the inter-war Latvian state and the 1922 Constitution.

In January 1991, however, pro-communist political forces attempted to restore Soviet power. With the use of force, attempts were made to overthrow the new assembly. Latvian demonstrators managed to stop the Soviet troops from re-occupying strategic positions, and these events are known as the "[[January 1991 events in Latvia|Days of the Barricades]]".

On 19 August 1991, an unsuccessful attempt at a [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup d'état]] took place in Moscow when a small group of prominent Soviet functionaries failed to regain power due to large pro-democracy demonstrations in Russia. This event resulted in Latvia swiftly moving toward independence. After the coup's failure, the Supreme Soviet of the Latvian Republic announced, on 21 August 1991, that the transition period to full independence declared on 4 May 1990 had come to an end. Therefore, Latvia was proclaimed a fully independent nation whose judicial foundation stemmed back to the statehood that existed before the occupation on 17 June 1940.<gallery>
File:Baltic Way Colorized.jpg|Baltic Way participants between [[Cēsis]] and [[Valmiera]]
File:Baltic Way in Latvia near Krekava.jpeg|Participants near [[Ķekava]]
File:Riga barricade 1991.jpg|[[The Barricades]] in Riga in 1991
</gallery>

==Lithuania==
{{History of Lithuania}}
Between 1956 and 1987, open public resistance to the Soviet regime was rare. It became more persistent in the 1970s and 1980s. One example of this could be the Kaunas events of 1972. Many popular singers often used the poetry of nationalist poets, such as [[Bernardas Brazdžionis]] or [[Justinas Marcinkevičius]], as the lyrics of their songs. In 1987, the [[Roko Maršas|Rock March]] also promoted awareness of the issue among the people.<ref name=":2" />

In 1987, various organizations (mainly environmental ones) were founded. On 3 June 1988, the [[Sąjūdis]], a political and social movement, was established. Some initiators of this movement were active members of environmental organizations, established in 1987 (e.g. [[Zigmas Vaišvila]], [[Gintaras Songaila]]). Initially, this organization supported the regime, but in early autumn of the same year, after Lithuania-wide growth, it became an opposing force to the CPL.

In response to this, Sąjūdis became a more centralized organization. The active nationalist opposition (mostly the [[Lithuanian Liberty League]]) towards the regime culminated in various public protests. The most notorious of them [[Bananų balius|took place on 28 October 1988]], which ended up with violent dispersal. The resulting public anger caused resignations in the [[Communist Party of Lithuania]] (including the then-First Secretary of the party, [[Ringaudas Songaila]], who served just over a year) and replaced them with more moderate members.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.delfi.lt/a/81678163|title=Anapilin iškeliavusio sovietinės Lietuvos vadovo klystkeliai: po "bananų baliaus" tapo visų užmiršta praeities šmėkla|website=Delfi.lt|access-date=1 January 2022}}</ref>

As the CPL leadership changed, it decided to return [[Vilnius Cathedral]], formerly used as a museum of fine arts, to the Catholic community on 21 October 1988. The [[Tautiška giesmė|national anthem of Lithuania]] and the traditional national [[Flag of Lithuania|Tricolore]] were legalized in Lithuania on 18 November 1988, officially replacing the [[flag of Lithuanian SSR|flag]] and the [[anthem of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic]]. It was followed by the recognition of the [[Lithuanian language]] as a state language, which meant that it became the sole legal language on an institutional level.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vki.lrv.lt/lt/naujienos/1988-m-lapkricio-18-m-lietuviu-kalbai-grazintas-valstybines-kalbos-statusas|title=1988 m. lapkričio 18 m. lietuvių kalbai grąžintas valstybinės kalbos statusas|website=Vki.lrv.lt|access-date=1 January 2022}}</ref> The latter change was instrumental in the removal of some officials (e.g. Nikolai Mitkin, who served as the Second Secretary of the CPL), but fueled tensions in Polish and Russian speaking communities.

It was followed by the gradual rebuilding of national symbols, which included erecting or restoring independence monuments throughout the country in late 1988 and 1989.

During 1989, various organisations (e.g. The Writers Union) split from the Soviet ones. Prior to the [[1989 Soviet Union legislative election|election of the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union]], Sąjūdis media became more restricted, but after the defeat of the CPL (it won just six seats of 42, other seats were won by Sąjūdis supported candidates), restrictions were lifted. By the end of the year, the CPL gave up its power monopoly and agreed to hold free elections for [[1990 Lithuanian Supreme Soviet election|Supreme Soviet of Lithuanian SSR in 1990]], which it lost.

Five decades after Lithuania was occupied and incorporated into the Soviet Union, Lithuania became the first republic to [[Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania|declare its independence]] from the USSR on 11 March 1990, while Estonia and Latvia declared Soviet rule to have been illegal from the start and since full restoration of independence was not yet feasible, started a period of transition towards independence, culminating with the failure of the August coup. For the same reason, almost all nations in the international community, except [[Iceland]], hesitated to recognize independence for Lithuania until August 1991.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}

The Soviet military responded harshly. On 13 January 1991, fourteen non-violent protesters in Vilnius died and hundreds were injured defending the [[Vilnius Television Tower]] and the [[Seimas|Parliament]] from Soviet assault troops and tanks. Lithuanians refer to the event as [[Day of the Defenders of Freedom]]. The discipline and courage of its citizens – linking arms and singing in the face of tanks and armour-piercing bullets – avoided a much greater loss of life and showed the world that Lithuania's citizens were prepared to defend their national independence.<ref name=":5" />

International governments began recognizing Lithuanian independence after the failure of the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup d'état]] in August 1991.

<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px">
File:1990 01 12 GorbačiovasŠiauliuose10.jpg|Lithuanian people in [[Šiauliai]] (Gorbachev visit, 1990)
File:UkmPaminkl.JPG|[[Ukmergė]]'s monument of independence, ''Lituania Restituta'', restored in 1989
</gallery>

==Notable protest songs==
* "[[The Baltics Are Waking Up]]" ({{langx|lt|Bunda jau Baltija}}, {{langx|lv|Atmostas Baltija}}, {{langx|et|Ärgake, Baltimaad}}) (LIT/LAT/EST)
* "Brīvību Baltijai"<ref name="uzd"/> (LAT) ("Freedom for the Baltics")
* "Dzimtā valoda"<ref name="uzd"/> (LAT) ("Mother tongue")
* OST from the rock opera "[[Lāčplēsis (rock opera)|Lāčplēsis]]" (LAT) ("Bear Slayer", released 1988)
* "Manai Tautai"<ref name="uzd">{{cite web|url=http://www.uzdevumi.lv/ExerciseRun/RunExercise?exerciseId=62c3eab0-edcb-4ed4-bcb2-5b8950581565&parentType=VirtualSchool&parentId=4193|title=Latvijas neatkarības atjaunošana|language=lv|access-date=29 March 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522204140/http://www.uzdevumi.lv/ExerciseRun/RunExercise?exerciseId=62c3eab0-edcb-4ed4-bcb2-5b8950581565&parentType=VirtualSchool&parentId=4193|archive-date=22 May 2013}}</ref> (LAT) ("To My Nation")
* "Gaismas pils"<ref name="Kudiņš">{{cite journal |last=Kudiņš |first=Jānis |year=2019 |title= Phenomenon of the Baltic singing revolution in 1987–1991: Three Latvian songs as historical symbols of non-violent resistance |url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/1450-9814/2019/1450-98141926027K.pdf |journal=Muzikologija |issue=26 |pages=27–39 |access-date=18 November 2020 |doi=10.2298/MUZ1926027K|doi-access=free }}</ref> (LAT) ("Castle of Light")
* "Pūt, Vējiņi!"<ref name="Kudiņš"/> – Latvian version of a [[Livonian people|Livonian]] wedding folk song ("Pūgõ tūļ") and often used in place of the [[Dievs, svētī Latviju!|national anthem]] during the Soviet era. (LAT) ("Blow, Winds!")
* "[[Saule, Pērkons, Daugava]]"<ref name="Kudiņš"/> (LAT) ("Sun, Thunder, [[Daugava]]")
* "Ei ole üksi ükski maa"<ref name="uzd"/> (EST) ("There Is No Land Alone")
* "[[Eestlane olen ja eestlaseks jään]]"<ref name="uzd"/> (EST) ("Estonian I Am and Estonian I Will Be")
* "Isamaa ilu hoieldes"<ref name="uzd"/> (EST) ("Keeping the Beauty of Fatherland")
* "Sind surmani"<ref name="uzd"/> (EST) ("Until I Die")
* "Mingem üles mägedele"<ref name="uzd"/> (EST) ("Let's Go up the Mountains")
* "Laisvė" (canonical perf. {{ill|Eurika Masytė|lt}}) (LIT) ("Freedom")
* "Palaimink Dieve mus" (LIT) ("God Bless Us")
* "Dėl Tos Dainos" (LIT) ("For That Song")
* "Pabudome ir kelkimės" (LIT) ("We Woke Up, Now Let's Get Up")
* "Kokia nuostabi, Lietuva esi" (canonical perf. {{ill|Kipras Mašanauskas|lt}}) (LIT) ("How amazing you are, Lithuania")
* "Šaukiu aš tautą" (canonical perf. [[Vytautas Kernagis]]) (LIT) ("I Call the Nation")
* "Tėvyne dainų ir artojų" (canonical perf. {{ill|Rondo (Lithuanian group)|lt|Rondo (grupė)|lt=Rondo}}) (LIT) ("Homeland of Songs and Sons of the Soil")
* "Mano mylimoji / per pasaulio sniegą ..." (canonical perf. [[Gintarė Jautakaitė]]) (LIT) ("My Beloved/Through the Snow of the World")
* "Broli, neverk!" (LIT) ("Brother, Don't Cry")
* "Pīmiņ bruoļ" (LTG) ("Remember, Brother") [[Latgalians (modern)|Latgalian]] awakening song.

==See also==
* [[Baltic Way]]
* [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Forest Brothers]]
* [[Nonviolent revolution]]
* [[Revolutions of 1989]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://lietuviu-bendruomene.org/lithuania.html A Lithuanian history, including information about Bloody Sunday]
* [http://www.tallinn-life.com/tallinn/estonian-singing-revolution "The Sound of Freedom..."]—Estonian Singing Revolution - Local Life at Tallinn-Life
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111114094618/http://www.okupatsioon.ee/en/lists/47-aadu-jogisoo Aadu Jogiaas: Disturbing soviet transmissions in August 1991] Museum of Occupations
* [http://www.singingrevolution.com ''The Singing Revolution'', US documentary film of the Estonian Singing Revolution]
* [http://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/estonians-campaign-independence-singing-revolution-1987-1991 General information about The Singing Revolution]
* [http://www.artsci.washington.edu/newsletter/Dec13/Baltics.asp "When Songs Trumped Rifles"]—''Washington Newsletter''
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=15lKhXhKljc Singing Revolution Cantata performance at UIC pavilion, Chicago, IL, Summer 2015]

{{Restoration of Baltic independence}}
{{Eastern Bloc}}
{{Fall of Communism}}
{{Estonia topics}}
{{Latvia topics}}
{{Lithuania topics}}
{{Soviet Union topics}}

[[Category:Singing Revolution| ]]
[[Category:1980s revolutions]]
[[Category:1990s revolutions]]
[[Category:1987 protests]]
[[Category:1988 protests]]
[[Category:1989 protests]]
[[Category:1990 protests]]
[[Category:1991 protests]]
[[Category:1988 in Estonia]]
[[Category:1988 in Latvia]]
[[Category:1988 in Lithuania]]
[[Category:1988 in international relations]]
[[Category:1987 in music]]
[[Category:1988 in music]]
[[Category:1989 in music]]
[[Category:1990 in music]]
[[Category:1991 in music]]
[[Category:Eastern Bloc]]
[[Category:Music of Estonia]]
[[Category:Nonviolent revolutions]]
[[Category:Soviet military occupations]]
[[Category:Decommunization]]
[[Category:Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic]]
[[Category:Dissolution of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Music of Lithuania]]
[[Category:Music of Latvia]]
[[Category:Perestroika]]
[[Category:Democratic revolutions]]
[[Category:Democratization]]