View source for Slavic languages

{{Short description|Subfamily of Indo-European languages}}
{{Redirect|Slavic language|other uses|Slavic language (disambiguation)}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Slavic
| altname = Slavonic
| region = Throughout [[Central Europe]], [[Eastern Europe]], and [[Southeast Europe]], plus [[Central Asia]] and [[North Asia]] ([[Siberia]])
| speakers = {{circa}} 315 million
| date = 2001
| ref = {{sfn|Ivanov|2021|loc=section 1: "The Slavic languages, spoken by some 315 million people at the turn of the 21st century"}}
| ethnicity = [[Slavs]]
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
| protoname = [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]]
| child1 = [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]
| child2 = [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]]
| child3 = [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]
| iso2 = sla
| iso5 = sla
| lingua = 53 (phylozone)
| glotto = slav1255
| glottorefname = Slavic
| map = Slavic europe (Kosovo shaded).svg
| mapcaption = Political map of Europe with countries where a Slavic language is a national language<br />
{{legend|#007600|East Slavic languages}}
{{legend|#003333|South Slavic languages}}
{{legend|#72d97e|West Slavic languages}}
}}

The '''Slavic languages''', also known as the '''Slavonic languages''', are [[Indo-European languages]] spoken primarily by the [[Slavs|Slavic peoples]] and their descendants. They are thought to descend from a [[proto-language]] called [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]], spoken during the [[Early Middle Ages]], which in turn is thought to have descended from the earlier [[Proto-Balto-Slavic language]], linking the Slavic languages to the [[Baltic languages]] in a [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic group]] within the Indo-European family.

The current geographical distribution of natively spoken Slavic languages includes the [[Balkans]], [[Central and Eastern Europe]], and all the way from [[Western Siberia]] to the [[Russian Far East]]. Furthermore, the diasporas of many Slavic peoples have established isolated minorities of speakers of their languages all over the world. The number of speakers of all Slavic languages together was estimated to be 315 million at the turn of the twenty-first century.{{sfn|Ivanov|2021|loc=section 1: "The Slavic languages, spoken by some 315 million people at the turn of the 21st century"}} It is the largest and most diverse ethno-linguistic group in Europe.{{sfn|Misachi|2017}}{{sfn|Barford|2001|p=1}}

The Slavic languages are conventionally (that is, also on the basis of extralinguistic features, such as geography) divided into three subgroups: [[East Slavic languages|East]], [[South Slavic languages|South]], and [[West Slavic languages|West]], which together constitute more than 20 languages. Of these, 10 have at least one million speakers and official status as the [[national language]]s of the countries in which they are predominantly spoken: [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (of the East group), [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]] (of the West group), [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] (eastern members of the South group), and [[Serbo-Croatian]] and [[Slovene language|Slovene]] (western members of the South group). In addition, [[Aleksandr Dulichenko]] recognizes a number of [[Slavic microlanguages]]: both isolated ethnolects and peripheral dialects of more well-established Slavic languages.{{sfn|Dulichenko|2005}}{{sfn|Dulichenko|1981}}{{Page needed|date=December 2022}}{{sfn|Duličenko|1994}}

All Slavic languages have [[Fusional language|fusional]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and, with a partial exception of [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], they have fully developed [[inflection]]-based [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] and [[declension]]. In their [[synthetic language|relational synthesis]] Slavic languages distinguish between  [[derivation (linguistics)|lexical]] and [[inflection]]al [[suffixes]]. In all cases, the lexical suffix precedes the inflectional in an [[Agglutinative language|agglutination]] mode. The [[Fusional language|fusional]] categorization of Slavic languages is based on grammatic [[inflection]]al [[suffixes]] alone.

[[Prefixes]] are also used, particularly for lexical modification of verbs. For example, the equivalent of English "came out" in Russian is "vyshel", where the [[prefix]] "vy-" means "out", the reduced [[Root (linguistics)|root]] "-sh" means "come", and the [[suffix]] "-el" denotes [[past tense]] of [[masculine gender]]. The equivalent phrase for a [[grammatical gender|feminine]] [[subject (grammar)|subject]] is "vyshla". The gender [[grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] of [[verbs]], as in the preceding example, is another feature of some Slavic languages rarely found in other language groups.

The well-developed fusional grammar allows Slavic languages to have a somewhat unusual feature of virtually free [[word order]] in a [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] [[clause]], although [[subject–verb–object]] and [[adjective-before-noun]] is the preferred order in the neutral [[style of speech]].<ref>Siewierska, Anna and Uhliřová, Ludmila. "An overview of word order in Slavic languages". 1 Constituent Order in the Languages of Europe, edited by Anna Siewierska, Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 1998, pp. 105-150. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110812206.105</ref>

==Branches==
[[File:Slavic languages tree.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.36|Balto-Slavic language tree{{citation needed|reason=This diagram is based on a self-made work without any references to reliable data sources |date=December 2022}}]]
[[File:Slavic languages.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Linguistic maps of Slavic languages]]
Since the interwar period,{{specify inline}} scholars have conventionally divided Slavic languages, on the basis of geographical and genealogical principle, and with the use of the extralinguistic feature of script, into three main branches, that is, East, South, and West (from the vantage of linguistic features alone, there are only two branches of the Slavic languages, namely North and South).{{sfn|Trudgill|2003|loc=p. 36, 95–96, 124–125}} These three conventional branches feature some of the following sub-branches:

{{tree list}}
* '''Slavic'''
** [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]{{sfn|Ivanov|2021|loc=section 2: "The Slavic language group is classified into three branches: (1) the South Slavic branch, with its two subgroups Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian-Slovene and Bulgarian-Macedonian, (2) the West Slavic branch, with its three subgroups Czech-Slovak, Sorbian, and Lekhitic (Polish and related tongues), and (3) the East Slavic branch, comprising Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian"}}
*** [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
*** [[Russian language|Russian]]
*** [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]] (often seen as a dialect of Ukrainian){{sfn|IRB|2004}}
*** [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
**** [[Podlachian language|Podlachian]] (often seen as a dialect of Ukrainian)
**** [[West Polesian]] (often seen as a dialect of Ukrainian)
** [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]]
*** [[Eastern South Slavic]]
**** [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
**** [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
**** [[Old Church Slavonic]]
*** {{ill|Western South Slavic{{!}}Western South Slavic|ru|Западные южнославянские языки|v=sup}}
**** [[Serbo-Croatian]]
***** [[Serbian language|Serbian]]
***** [[Croatian language|Croatian]]
***** [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]
***** [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]
**** [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
** [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]
*** [[Czech–Slovak languages|Czech–Slovak]]
**** [[Czech language|Czech]]
**** [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
*** [[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]]
**** [[Polabian language|Polabian]]
**** [[Polish language|Polish]] 
**** [[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]]
***** [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]
***** [[Slovincian language|Slovincian]] (often seen as a dialect of Kashubian)
**** [[Silesian language|Silesian]]
*** [[Sorbian languages|Sorbian]]
**** [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]
**** [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]
{{tree list/end}}

Some linguists speculate that a [[North Slavic languages|North Slavic]] branch has existed as well. The [[Old Novgorod dialect]] may have reflected some idiosyncrasies of this group.<ref>{{Cite web |title=North Slavic languages {{!}} Information, explanation, historical facts {{!}} iNFOPEDIA |url=https://infodlapolaka.pl/en/infopedia/North-Slavic-languages/ |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=Info dla Polaka - Ważne informacje: Polityka, Sport, Motoryzacja |language=en}}</ref>

Slavic languages diverged from a common [[proto-language]] later than any other groups of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]], and enough differences exist between the any two geographically distant Slavic languages to make spoken communication between such speakers cumbersome. As usually found within other [[language groups]], mutual intelligibility between Slavic languages is better for geographically adjacent languages and in the written (rather than oral) form.<ref>Fesenmeier, L., Heinemann, S., & Vicario, F. (2014). "The mutual intelligibility of Slavic languages as a source of support for the revival of the Sorbian language" [Sprachminderheiten: gestern, heute, morgen- Minoranze linguistiche: ieri, oggi, domani]. In Language minorities: yesterday, today, tomorrow. Peter Lang. https://doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-04817-9/11</ref><ref>Fischer, A., Jágrová, K., Stenger, I., Avgustinova, T., Klakow, D., & Marti, R. (2016). Orthographic and morphological correspondences between related Slavic languages as a base for modeling of mutual intelligibility. 10th International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation, LREC 2016.</ref><ref>Fischer, A. K., Jagrova, K., Stenger, I., Avgustinova, T., Klakow, D., & Marti, R. (2016, 2016/05/01). LREC - Orthographic and Morphological Correspondences between Related Slavic Languages as a Base for Modeling of Mutual Intelligibility.</ref><ref>Golubović, J. (2016). "Mutual intelligibility in the Slavic language area". Dissertation in Linguistics, 152. https://www.narcis.nl/publication/RecordID/oai%3Apure.rug.nl%3Apublications%2F19c19b5b-a43e-47bf-af6e-f68c0713342b;  https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/mutual-intelligibility-in-the-slavic-language-area ; 
https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/31880568/Title_and_contents_.pdf ; 
https://lens.org/000-445-299-792-024</ref><ref>Golubovic, J., & Gooskens, C. (2015). "Mutual intelligibility between West and South Slavic languages". Russian Linguistics, 39(3), 351-373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11185-015-9150-9</ref><ref>Kyjánek, L., & Haviger, J. (2019). "The Measurement of Mutual Intelligibility between West-Slavic Languages" [Article]. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 26(3), 205-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/09296174.2018.1464546</ref><ref>Lindsay, R. (2014). "Mutual intelligibility of languages in the Slavic family". Academia. 
Stenger, I., Avgustinova, T., & Marti, R. (2017). "Levenshtein distance and word adaptation surprisal as methods of measuring mutual intelligibility in reading comprehension of Slavic languages". Computational Linguistics and Intellectual Technologies: International Conference 'Dialogue 2017' Proceedings, 16, 304-317. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85021828413&partnerID=40&md5=c9a8557c3da885eb1be39898bfacf6e4</ref> Recent studies of [[mutual intelligibility]] between Slavic languages have said, that their traditional three-branch division does not withstand quantitative scrutiny.<ref>Golubović, J.,  Gooskens, C. (2015). "Mutual intelligibility between West and South Slavic languages" [Article]. Russian Linguistics, 39(3), 351-373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11185-015-9150-9</ref>{{npov inline|date=September 2025}} While the grouping of [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]] and [[Polish language|Polish]] into [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] turned out to be appropriate, Western South Slavic [[Serbo-Croatian]] and [[Slovene language|Slovene]] were found to be closer to [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]] (West Slavic languages) than to Eastern South Slavic [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]].

The traditional tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken [[dialect]]s of each language. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as those of Russian, or to a much greater degree, like those of Slovene. In certain cases transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that do not stand out when comparing Slavic literary (i.e. standard) languages. For example, Slovak (West Slavic) and Ukrainian (East Slavic) are bridged by the [[Rusyn language]] spoken in [[Transcarpathia|Transcarpatian Ukraine]] and adjacent counties of Slovakia and Ukraine.{{Sfn|Magocsi|Pop|2002|loc=p. 274}} Similarly, the Croatian [[Kajkavian]] dialect is more similar to [[Slovene language|Slovene]] than to the standard Croatian language.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Modern [[Russian language|Russian]] differs from other Slavic languages in an unusually high percentage{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tsvetkova |first=Svetoslava |title=How Russian differs from other Slavic languages |url=https://www.gw2ru.com/education/88191-russian-differs-slavic-language}}</ref> of words of non-Slavic origin, particularly of [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (e.g. for [[naval]] terms introduced during the reign of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]]), [[French language|French]] (for household and culinary terms during the reign of [[Catherine the Great|Catherine II]]) and [[German language|German]] (for medical, scientific and military terminology in the mid-1800s).

Another difference between the East, South, and West Slavic branches is in the orthography of the standard languages: West Slavic languages (and Western South Slavic languages – [[Croatian language|Croatian]] and [[Slovene language|Slovene]]) are written in the [[Latin script]], and have had more [[Western Europe]]an influence due to their proximity and speakers being historically [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], whereas the East Slavic and Eastern South Slavic languages are written in [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] and, with [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] or [[Eastern Catholic Churches#Uniate|Eastern-Catholic]] faith, have had more [[Greek language|Greek]] influence.{{sfn|Kamusella|2005|loc=p. 77}} Two Slavic languages, [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Serbo-Croatian]], are biscriptal, i.e. written in either alphabet either presently or in a recent past.

==History==
{{Indo-European topics}}
{{Main|History of the Slavic languages}}
{{See also|Proto-Slavic language|History of Proto-Slavic|Proto-Balto-Slavic language}}

===Common roots and ancestry===
[[File:Balto-Slavic lng.png|thumb|left|upright=1.18|Area of Balto-Slavic dialectic continuum (''purple'') with proposed material cultures correlating to speakers Balto-Slavic in Bronze Age (''white''). ''Red'' dots = archaic Slavic hydronyms.]]

Slavic languages descend from [[Proto-Slavic]], their immediate [[parent language]], ultimately deriving from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], the ancestor language of all [[Indo-European languages]], via a [[Proto-Balto-Slavic language|Proto-Balto-Slavic]] stage. During the Proto-Balto-Slavic period a number of exclusive [[isogloss]]es in phonology, morphology, lexis, and syntax developed, which makes Slavic and [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] the closest related of all the Indo-European branches. The secession of the Balto-Slavic dialect ancestral to Proto-Slavic is estimated on archaeological and glottochronological criteria to have occurred sometime in the period 1500–1000 BCE.{{sfn|Novotná|Blažek|2007|loc=p. 185–210: ""Classical glottochronology" conducted by Czech Slavist M. Čejka in 1974 dates the Balto-Slavic split to −910±340 BCE, Sergei Starostin in 1994 dates it to 1210 BCE, and "recalibrated glottochronology" conducted by Novotná & Blažek dates it to 1400–1340 BCE. This agrees well with Trziniec-Komarov culture, localized from Silesia to Central Ukraine and dated to the period 1500–1200 BCE"}}

A minority of Baltists maintain the view that the Slavic group of languages differs so radically from the neighboring Baltic group ([[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and the now-extinct [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]]), that they could not have shared a parent language after the breakup of the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] continuum about five millennia ago. Substantial advances in Balto-Slavic [[accentology]] that occurred in the last three decades, however, make this view very hard to maintain nowadays, especially when one considers that there was most likely no "[[Proto-Baltic language|Proto-Baltic]]" language and that [[Western Baltic languages|West Baltic]] and [[Eastern Baltic languages|East Baltic]] differ from each other as much as each of them does from Proto-Slavic.{{sfn|Kapović|2008|loc=p. 94: "Kako rekosmo, nije sigurno je li uopće bilo prabaltijskoga jezika. Čini se da su dvije posvjedočene, preživjele grane baltijskoga, istočna i zapadna, različite jedna od druge izvorno kao i svaka posebno od praslavenskoga"}}

[[File:Bascanska ploca.jpg|thumb|right|[[Baška tablet]], 11th century, [[Krk]], [[Croatia]]]]

===Differentiation===
The [[Proto-Slavic language]] originated in the area of modern [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]] mostly overlapping with the northern part of [[Kurgan hypothesis|Indoeuropean]] [[Linguistic homeland|Urheimat]], which is within the boundaries of modern [[Ukraine]] and [[Southern Federal District]] of Russia.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.mpg.de/20666229/0725-evan-origin-of-the-indo-european-languages-150495-x | title=New insights into the origin of the Indo-European languages }}</ref>

The [[Proto-Slavic language]] existed until around AD 500. By the 7th century, it had broken apart into large dialectal zones.{{Citation needed|reason=based on what I learned in school, that Protoslavic broke down by 0 AD. i.e. 500 years earlier, than what wiki says now|date=September 2024}} There are no reliable hypotheses about the nature of the subsequent breakups of West and South Slavic. East Slavic is generally thought to converge to one [[Old East Slavic]] language of [[Kievan Rus]], which existed until at least the 12th century.

Linguistic differentiation was accelerated by the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over a large territory, which in [[Central Europe]] exceeded the current extent of Slavic-speaking majorities. Written documents of the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries already display some local linguistic features. For example, the [[Freising manuscripts]] show a language that contains some phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to [[Slovene dialects]] (e.g. [[Rhotacism (sound change)|rhotacism]], the word ''krilatec''). The Freising manuscripts are the first [[Latin script|Latin-script]] continuous text in a Slavic language.

The migration of Slavic speakers into the Balkans in the declining centuries of the [[Byzantine Empire]] expanded the area of Slavic speech, but the pre-existing writing (notably Greek) survived in this area. The arrival of the [[Hungarians]] in [[Pannonia]] in the 9th century interposed non-Slavic speakers between South and West Slavs. [[Franks|Frankish]] conquests completed the geographical separation between these two groups, also severing the connection between Slavs in [[Moravia]] and [[Lower Austria]] ([[Moravians (ethnic group)|Moravians]]) and those in present-day [[Styria]], [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]], [[East Tyrol]] in [[Austria]], and in the provinces of modern [[Slovenia]], where the ancestors of the [[Slovenes]] settled during first colonization.

[[File:Slavic languages tree and map from Kushniarevich article.png|thumb|Map and tree of Slavic languages, according to Kassian and A. Dybo]]
In September 2015, Alexei Kassian and [[Anna Vladimirovna Dybo|Anna Dybo]] published,{{sfn|Kassian|Dybo|2015}} as a part of interdisciplinary study of Slavic ethnogenesis,{{sfn|Kushniarevich et al.|2015}} a lexicostatistical classification of Slavic languages. It was built using qualitative 110-word Swadesh lists that were compiled according to the standards of the Global Lexicostatistical Database project{{sfn|RSUH|2016}} and processed using modern phylogenetic algorithms.

The resulting dated tree complies with the traditional expert views on the Slavic group structure. Kassian-Dybo's tree suggests that Proto-Slavic first diverged into three branches: Eastern, Western and Southern. The Proto-Slavic break-up is dated to around 100 A.D., which correlates with the archaeological assessment of Slavic population in the early 1st millennium A.D. being spread on a large territory{{sfn|Sussex|Cubberley|2006|loc=p. 19}} and already not being monolithic.{{sfn|Sedov|1995|loc=p. 5}} Then, in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., these three Slavic branches almost simultaneously divided into sub-branches, which corresponds to the fast spread of the Slavs through Eastern Europe and the Balkans during the second half of the 1st millennium A.D. (the so-called Slavicization of Europe).{{sfn|Sedov|1979}}{{sfn|Barford|2001}}{{sfn|Curta|2001|loc=p. 500-700}}{{sfn|Heather|2010}}

The Slovenian language was excluded from the analysis, as both Ljubljana koine and Literary Slovenian show mixed lexical features of Southern and Western Slavic languages (which could possibly indicate the Western Slavic origin of Slovenian, which for a long time was being influenced on the part of the neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects),{{original research inline|date=January 2019}} and the quality Swadesh lists were not yet collected for Slovenian dialects. Because of scarcity or unreliability of data, the study also did not cover the so-called Old Novgordian dialect, the Polabian language and some other Slavic lects.

The above Kassian-Dybo's research did not take into account the findings by Russian linguist [[Andrey Zaliznyak]] who stated that, until the 14th or 15th century, major language differences were not between the regions occupied by modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine,{{sfn|Zaliznyak|2012|loc=section 111: "…ростовско-суздальско-рязанская языковая зона от киевско-черниговской ничем существенным в древности не отличалась. Различия возникли позднее, они датируются сравнительно недавним, по лингвистическим меркам, временем, начиная с XIV–XV вв […the Rostov-Suzdal-Ryazan language area did not significantly differ from the Kiev-Chernigov one. Distinctions emerged later, in a relatively recent, by linguistic standards, time, starting from the 14th-15th centuries]"}} but rather between the north-west (around modern Velikiy Novgorod and Pskov) and the center (around modern [[Kyiv]], [[Suzdal]], [[Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast|Rostov]], [[Moscow]] as well as Belarus) of the East Slavic territories.{{sfn|Zaliznyak|2012|loc=section 88: "Северо-запад — это была территория Новгорода и Пскова, а остальная часть, которую можно назвать центральной, или центрально-восточной, или центрально-восточно-южной, включала одновременно территорию будущей Украины, значительную часть территории будущей Великороссии и территории Белоруссии … Существовал древненовгородский диалект в северо-западной части и некоторая более нам известная классическая форма древнерусского языка, объединявшая в равной степени Киев, Суздаль, Ростов, будущую Москву и территорию Белоруссии [The territory of Novgorod and Pskov was in the north-west, while the remaining part, which could either be called central, or central-eastern, or central-eastern-southern, comprised the territory of the future Ukraine, a substantial part of the future Great Russia, and the territory of Belarus … The Old Novgorodian dialect existed in the north-western part, while a somewhat more well-known classical variety of the Old Russian language united equally Kiev, Suzdal, Rostov, the future Moscow and the territory of Belarus]"}} The [[Old Novgorodian dialect]] of that time differed from the central East Slavic dialects as well as from all other Slavic languages much more than in later centuries.{{sfn|Zaliznyak|2012|loc=section 82: "…черты новгородского диалекта, отличавшие его от других диалектов Древней Руси, ярче всего выражены не в позднее время, когда, казалось бы, они могли уже постепенно развиться, а в самый древний период […features of the Novgorodian dialect, which made it different from the other dialects of the Old Rus', were most pronounced not in later times, when they seemingly could have evolved, but in the oldest period]"}}{{sfn|Zaliznyak|2012|loc=section 92: "…северо-западная группа восточных славян представляет собой ветвь, которую следует считать отдельной уже на уровне праславянства […north-western group of the East Slavs is a branch that should be regarded as separate already in the Proto-Slavic period]"}} According to Zaliznyak, the Russian language developed as a convergence of that dialect and the central ones,{{sfn|Zaliznyak|2012|loc=section 94: "…великорусская территория оказалась состоящей из двух частей, примерно одинаковых по значимости: северо-западная (новгородско-псковская) и центрально-восточная (Ростов, Суздаль, Владимир, Москва, Рязань) […the Great Russian territory happened to include two parts of approximately equal importance: the north-western one (Novgorod-Pskov) and the central-eastern-southern one (Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir, Moscow, Ryazan)]"}} whereas Ukrainian and Belarusian were continuation of development of the central dialects of East Slavs.{{sfn|Zaliznyak|2012|loc=section 94: "…нынешняя Украина и Белоруссия — наследники центрально-восточно-южной зоны восточного славянства, более сходной в языковом отношении с западным и южным славянством […today's Ukraine and Belarus are successors of the central-eastern-southern area of the East Slavs, more linguistically similar to the West and South Slavs]"}}

Also Russian linguist Sergey Nikolaev, analysing historical development of Slavic dialects' accent system, concluded that a number of other tribes in Kievan Rus came from different Slavic branches and spoke distant Slavic dialects.{{sfn|Dybo|Zamyatina|Nikolaev|1990}}{{Page needed|date=December 2022}}

Zaliznyak and Nikolaev's points mean that there was a convergence stage before the divergence or simultaneously, which was not taken into consideration by Kassian-Dybo's research.

Ukrainian linguists ([[Stepan Smal-Stotsky]], [[Ivan Ohienko]], [[George Shevelov]], Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, [[Olena Kurylo]]) deny the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past.{{sfn|Nimchuk|2001}} According to them, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages.{{sfn|Shevelov|1979}}

===Linguistic history===
{{Main|History of the Slavic languages#Historical development up to Proto-Slavic|l1=Historical development of the Slavic languages up to the Proto-Slavic}}
{{See also|Proto-Slavic}}

The following is a summary of the main changes from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) leading up to the [[Common Slavic]] (CS) period immediately following the [[Proto-Slavic language]] (PS).

# [[Centum and satem languages|Satemisation]]:
#* PIE *ḱ, *ǵ, *ǵʰ → *ś, *ź, *źʰ (→ CS *s, *z, *z)
#* PIE *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ → *k, *g, *gʰ
# [[Ruki sound law|Ruki]] rule: Following *r, *u, *k or *i, PIE *s → *š (→ CS *x)
# Loss of [[voiced aspirate]]s: PIE *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ → *b, *d, *g
# Merger of *o and *a: PIE *a/*o, *ā/*ō → PS *a, *ā (→ CS *o, *a)
# Law of [[open syllable]]s: All [[closed syllable]]s (syllables ending in a consonant) are eventually eliminated, in the following stages:
## [[Nasalization]]: With *N indicating either *n or *m not immediately followed by a vowel: PIE *aN, *eN, *iN, *oN, *uN → *ą, *ę, *į, *ǫ, *ų (→ CS *ǫ, *ę, *ę, *ǫ, *y). (NOTE: *ą *ę etc. indicates a nasalized vowel.)
## In a cluster of [[obstruent]] (stop or fricative) + another consonant, the obstruent is deleted unless the cluster can occur word-initially.
## (occurs later, see below) [[Monophthongization]] of [[diphthong]]s.
## (occurs much later, see below) [[Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony|Elimination of liquid diphthongs]] (e.g. *er, *ol when not followed immediately by a vowel).
# [[Slavic first palatalization|First palatalization]]: *k, *g, *x → CS *č, *ž, *š (pronounced {{IPAblink|tʃ}}, {{IPAblink|ʒ}}, {{IPAblink|ʃ}} respectively) before a front vocalic sound (*e, *ē, *i, *ī, *j).
# Iotation: Consonants are [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]] by an immediately following *j:
#** sj, *zj → CS *š, *ž
#** nj, *lj, *rj → CS *ň, *ľ, *ř (pronounced {{IPA|[nʲ lʲ rʲ]}} or similar)
#** tj, *dj → CS *ť, *ď (probably [[palatal stop]]s, e.g. {{IPA|[c ɟ]}}, but developing in different ways depending on the language)
#** bj, *pj, *mj, *wj → *bľ, *pľ, *mľ, *wľ (the [[lateral consonant]] *ľ is mostly lost later on in [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]])
# Vowel fronting: After *j or some other palatal sound, back vowels are fronted (*a, *ā, *u, *ū, *ai, *au → *e, *ē, *i, *ī, *ei, *eu). This leads to hard/soft alternations in noun and adjective declensions.
# Prothesis: Before a word-initial vowel, *j or *w is usually inserted.
# [[Monophthongization]]: *ai, *au, *ei, *eu, *ū → *ē, *ū, *ī, *jū, *ȳ {{IPA|[ɨː]}}
# [[Slavic second palatalization|Second palatalization]]: *k, *g, *x → CS *c {{IPA|[ts]}}, *dz, *ś before new *ē (from earlier *ai). *ś later splits into *š (West Slavic), *s (East/South Slavic).
# Progressive palatalization (or "third palatalization"): *k, *g, *x → CS *c, *dz, *ś ''after'' *i, *ī in certain circumstances.
# Vowel quality shifts: All pairs of long/short vowels become differentiated as well by [[vowel quality]]:
#** a, *ā → CS *o, *a
#** e, *ē → CS *e, *ě (originally a low-front sound {{IPA|[æ]}} but eventually raised to {{IPA|[ie]}} in most dialects, developing in divergent ways)
#** i, *u → CS *ь, *ъ (also written *ĭ, *ŭ; lax vowels as in the English words ''pit, put'')
#** ī, *ū, *ȳ → CS *i, *u, *y
# [[Slavic liquid metathesis and pleophony|Elimination of liquid diphthongs]]: [[Liquid diphthong]]s (sequences of vowel plus *l or *r, when not immediately followed by a vowel) are changed so that the syllable becomes [[open syllable|open]]:
#** or, *ol, *er, *el → *ro, *lo, *re, *le in [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]].
#** or, *ol, *er, *el → *oro, *olo, *ere, *olo in [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]].
#** or, *ol, *er, *el → *rā, *lā, *re, *le in [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]].
#* Possibly, *ur, *ul, *ir, *il → syllabic *r, *l, *ř, *ľ (then develops in divergent ways).
# Development of phonemic tone and [[vowel length]] (independent of vowel quality): Complex developments (see [[History of the Slavic languages#Accentual developments|History of accentual developments in Slavic languages]]).

==Features==
The Slavic languages are a relatively homogeneous family, compared with other families of [[Indo-European languages]] (e.g. [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Romance languages|Romance]], and [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]). As late as the 10th century AD, the entire Slavic-speaking area still functioned as a single, dialectally differentiated language, termed ''[[Common Slavic]]''. Compared with most other Indo-European languages, the Slavic languages are quite conservative, particularly in terms of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (the means of inflecting nouns and verbs to indicate grammatical differences). Most Slavic languages have a rich, [[fusional language|fusional]] morphology that conserves much of the [[inflection]]al morphology of [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]].{{sfn|Comrie|Corbett|2002|loc=p. 6}} The vocabulary of the Slavic languages is also of Indo-European origin. Many of its elements, which do not find exact matches in the ancient Indo-European languages, are associated with the Balto-Slavic community.{{sfn|Skorvid|2015|loc=p. 389, 396–397}}

===Consonants===
The following table shows the inventory of consonants of Late Common Slavic:{{sfn|Schenker|2002|loc=p. 82}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonants of Late Proto-Slavic
|-
!
! colspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|m}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|n}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|nʲ}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
| {{IPA link|tʲː}}
| {{IPA link|dʲː}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA link|ts}}
| {{IPA link|dz}}
| {{IPA link|tʃ}}
|
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|z}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}, ({{IPA link|sʲ}}<sup>1</sup>)
| {{IPA link|ʒ}}
| {{IPA link|x}}
|
|-
! [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|r}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|rʲ}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|l}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|lʲ}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ʋ}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|j}}
| colspan="2" |
|}

<sup>1</sup>The sound {{IPA|/sʲ/}} did not occur in West Slavic, where it had developed to {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.

This inventory of sounds is quite similar to what is found in most modern Slavic languages. The extensive series of [[palatal consonant]]s, along with the [[affricate]]s *ts and *dz, developed through a series of [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]]s that happened during the [[Proto-Slavic]] period, from earlier sequences either of [[velar consonant]]s followed by [[front vowel]]s (e.g. *ke, *ki, *ge, *gi, *xe, and *xi), or of various consonants followed by *j (e.g. *tj, *dj, *sj, *zj, *rj, *lj, *kj, and *gj, where *j is the [[palatal approximant]] ({{IPA|[j]}}, the sound of the English letter "y" in "yes" or "you").

The biggest change in this inventory results from a further [[History of the Slavic languages#General palatalization|general palatalization]] occurring near the end of the Common Slavic period, where ''all'' consonants became palatalized before front vowels. This produced a large number of new palatalized (or "soft") sounds, which formed pairs with the corresponding non-palatalized (or "hard") consonants{{sfn|Comrie|Corbett|2002|loc=p. 6}} and absorbed the existing palatalized sounds {{IPA link|*lʲ *rʲ *nʲ *sʲ}}. These sounds were best preserved in Russian but were lost to varying degrees in other languages (particularly Czech and Slovak). The following table shows the inventory of modern Russian:

{| class="wikitable nowrap" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Consonant phonemes of Russian
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]] & <br /> [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]]/<br />[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! <small>hard</small>
! <small>soft</small>
! <small>hard</small>
! <small>soft</small>
! <small>hard</small>
! <small>soft</small>
! <small>hard</small>
! <small>soft</small>
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}} || {{IPA link|mʲ}}
| {{IPA link|n}} || {{IPA link|nʲ}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{IPA link|p}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|b}} || {{IPA link|pʲ}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|bʲ}}
| {{IPA link|t̪|t}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|d̪|d}} || {{IPA link|tʲ}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|dʲ}}
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA link|k}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|ɡ}} || {{IPA link|kʲ}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|ɡʲ}}
|-
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA link|t͡s}} || ({{IPA link|t͡sʲ}})
| &nbsp; || {{IPA link|t͡ɕ}}
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| {{IPA link|f}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|v}} || {{IPA link|fʲ}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|vʲ}}
| {{IPA link|s}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|z}} || {{IPA link|sʲ}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|zʲ}}
| {{IPA link|ʂ}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|ʐ}} || {{IPA link|ɕː}} &nbsp; {{IPA link|ʑː}}
| {{IPA link|x}} &nbsp; &nbsp; || {{IPA link|xʲ}} &nbsp;
|-
! [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA link|r}} || {{IPA link|rʲ}}
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" |
|-
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| colspan="2" |
| {{IPA link|ɫ|l}} || {{IPA link|lʲ}}
| &nbsp; || {{IPA link|j}}
| colspan="2" |
|}

This general process of palatalization did not occur in Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian. As a result, the modern consonant inventory of these languages is nearly identical to the Late Common Slavic inventory.

Late Common Slavic tolerated relatively few [[consonant cluster]]s. However, as a result of the loss of certain formerly present vowels (the weak [[yer]]s), {{failed verification span|the modern Slavic languages allow quite complex clusters, as in the Russian word {{lang|ru|'''взбл'''еск}} {{IPA|ru|vzblʲesk|}} ("flash"). Also present in many Slavic languages are clusters rarely found cross-linguistically, as in Russian {{lang|ru|'''рт'''уть}} {{IPA|ru|rtutʲ|}} ("mercury") or Polish {{lang|pl|'''mch'''u}} {{IPA|pl|mxu|}} ("moss", gen. sg.). The word for "mercury" with the initial ''rt-'' cluster, for example, is also found in the other East and West Slavic languages, although Slovak retains an [[epenthetic]] vowel ({{lang|sk|ortuť}}).|date=October 2020}}{{sfn|Nilsson|2014|loc=p. 41}}

===Vowels===
A typical vowel inventory is as follows:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | [[Close vowel|Close]]
| style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|i}}
| style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|ɨ|(ɨ)}}
| style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|e}}
| style="font-size:120%" |
| style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! style="text-align: left;" | [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| style="font-size:120%" | {{IPA link|a}}
|
|}

The sound {{IPAblink|ɨ}} occurs only in some languages (e.g. Russian and Belarusian), and even in these languages, it is often unclear whether it is its own [[phoneme]] or an [[allophone]] of /i/. Nonetheless, it is a quite prominent and noticeable characteristic of the languages in which it is present.
* Russian {{lang|ru|мышь}} {{Audio-IPA|Ru-мышь.ogg|[mɨʂ]}} and Polish {{lang|pl|mysz}} {{Audio-IPA|Pl-mysz.ogg|[mɨʂ]|help=no}} "mouse"

Common Slavic also had two [[nasal vowel]]s: *ę {{IPA link|[ẽ]}} and *ǫ {{IPA link|[õ]}}. However, these are preserved only in modern Polish (along with a few lesser-known dialects and microlanguages; see [[Yus]] for more details).
* Polish {{lang|pl|wąż}} {{Audio-IPA|Pl-wąż.ogg|/vɔ̃ʐ/|help=no}} and {{lang|pl|węże}} {{Audio-IPA|Pl-węże.ogg|/vɛ̃ʐɛ/|help=no}} "snake, snakes"

Other phonemic vowels are found in certain languages (e.g. the [[schwa]] {{IPA|/ə/}} in Bulgarian and Slovenian, distinct [[high-mid]] and [[low-mid]] vowels in Slovenian, and the lax front vowel {{IPA|/ɪ/}} in Ukrainian).

===Length, accent, and tone===
An area of great difference among Slavic languages is that of [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] (i.e. syllabic distinctions such as [[vowel length]], [[accent (phonetics)|accent]], and [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]). Common Slavic had a complex system of prosody, inherited with little change from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]. This consisted of [[phonemic]] vowel length and a free, mobile [[pitch accent]]:
* All vowels could occur either short or long, and this was phonemic (it could not automatically be predicted from other properties of the word).
* There was (at most) a single accented syllable per word, distinguished by higher pitch (as in modern [[Japanese language|Japanese]]) rather than greater dynamic stress (as in English).
* Vowels in accented syllables could be pronounced with either a rising or falling tone (i.e. there was ''pitch accent''), and this was phonemic.
* The accent was ''free'' in that it could occur on any syllable and was phonemic.
* The accent was ''mobile'' in that its position could potentially vary among closely related words within a single paradigm (e.g. the accent might land on a different syllable between the nominative and genitive singular of a given word).
* Even within a given inflectional class (e.g. masculine ''i''-stem nouns), there were multiple accent patterns in which a given word could be inflected. For example, most nouns in a particular inflectional class could follow one of three possible patterns: Either there was a consistent accent on the root (pattern A), predominant accent on the ending (pattern B), or accent that moved between the root and ending (pattern C). In patterns B and C, the accent in different parts of the paradigm shifted not only in location but also type (rising vs. falling). Each inflectional class had its own version of patterns B and C, which might differ significantly from one inflectional class to another.

The modern languages vary greatly in the extent to which they preserve this system. On one extreme, Serbo-Croatian preserves the system nearly unchanged (even more so in the conservative [[Chakavian dialect]]); on the other, Macedonian has basically lost the system in its entirety. Between them are found numerous variations:
* Slovenian preserves most of the system but has shortened all unaccented syllables and lengthened non-final accented syllables so that vowel length and accent position largely co-occur.
* Russian and Bulgarian have eliminated distinctive vowel length and tone and converted the accent into a [[stress (linguistics)|stress accent]] (as in English) but preserved its position. As a result, the complexity of the mobile accent and the multiple accent patterns still exists (particularly in Russian because it has preserved the Common Slavic noun inflections, while Bulgarian has lost them).
* Czech and Slovak have preserved phonemic vowel length and converted the distinctive tone of accented syllables into length distinctions. The phonemic accent is otherwise lost, but the former accent patterns are echoed to some extent in corresponding patterns of vowel length/shortness in the root. Paradigms with mobile vowel length/shortness do exist but only in a limited fashion, usually only with the zero-ending forms (nom. sg., acc. sg., and/or gen. pl., depending on inflectional class) having a different length from the other forms. (Czech has a couple of other "mobile" patterns, but they are rare and can usually be substituted with one of the "normal" mobile patterns or a non-mobile pattern.)
* [[Old Polish]] had a system very much like Czech. Modern Polish has lost vowel length, but some former short-long pairs have become distinguished by quality (e.g. {{IPA link|[o oː]}} > {{IPA|[o u]}}), with the result that some words have vowel-quality changes that exactly mirror the mobile-length patterns in Czech and Slovak.

===Grammar===

{{expand section|date=February 2013}}

Similarly, Slavic languages have extensive morphophonemic alternations in their derivational and inflectional morphology,{{sfn|Comrie|Corbett|2002|loc=p. 6}} including between velar and postalveolar consonants, front and back vowels, and a vowel and no vowel.{{sfn|Comrie|Corbett|2002|loc=p. 8}}

===Selected cognates===
{{Main|Slavic vocabulary}}
The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Slavic language family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them.
{| class="wikitable"
! [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]]
! [[Russian language|Russian]]
! [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
! [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
! [[Carpatho-Rusyn language|Rusyn]]
! [[Polish language|Polish]]
! [[Czech language|Czech]]
! [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
! [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
! [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]
! [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
! [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
|-
! {{lang|sla|*uxo}} (ear)
| {{lang|ru|ухо}} ({{Transliteration|ru|úkho}})
| {{lang|uk|вухо}} ({{Transliteration|uk|vúkho}})
| {{lang|be|вуха}} ({{Transliteration|be|vúkha}})
| {{lang|rue|ухо}} ({{Transliteration|rue|úkho}})
| {{lang|pl|ucho}}
| {{lang|cs|ucho}}
| {{lang|sk|ucho}}
| {{lang|sl|uho}}
| {{lang|sr|уво}} / {{Transliteration|sr|uvo}} (Serbia only)<br />{{lang|sh|ухо}} / {{Transliteration|sh|uho}} (Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia)
| {{lang|bg|ухо}} ({{Transliteration|bg|ukhó}})
| {{lang|mk|уво}} ({{Transliteration|mk|úvo}})
|-
! {{lang|sla|*ognь}} (fire)
| {{lang|ru|огонь}} ({{Transliteration|ru|ogónʹ}})
| {{lang|uk|вогонь}} ({{Transliteration|uk|vohónʹ}})
| {{lang|be|агонь}} ({{Transliteration|be|ahónʹ}})
| {{lang|rue|огинь}} ({{lang|rue|ohénʹ}})
| {{lang|pl|ogień}}
| {{lang|cs|oheň}}
| {{lang|sk|oheň}}
| {{lang|sl|ogenj}}
| {{lang|sh|огањ}} / {{Transliteration|sh|oganj}}
| {{lang|bg|огън}} ({{Transliteration|bg|ógǎn}})
| {{lang|mk|оган}}/{{lang|mk|огин}} ({{Transliteration|mk|ógan}}/{{Transliteration|mk|ógin}})
|-
! {{lang|sla|*ryba}} (fish)
| {{lang|ru|рыба}} ({{Transliteration|ru|rýba}})
| {{lang|uk|риба}} ({{Transliteration|uk|rýba}})
| {{lang|be|рыба}} ({{Transliteration|be|rýba}})
| {{lang|rue|рыба}} ({{Transliteration|rue|rýba}})
| {{lang|pl|ryba}}
| {{lang|cs|ryba}}
| {{lang|sk|ryba}}
| {{lang|sl|riba}}
| {{lang|sh|риба}} / {{Transliteration|sh|riba}}
| {{lang|bg|риба}} ({{Transliteration|bg|ríba}})
| {{lang|mk|риба}} ({{Transliteration|mk|ríba}})
|-
! {{lang|sla|*gnězdo}} (nest)
| {{lang|ru|гнездо}} ({{Transliteration|ru|gnezdó}})
| {{lang|uk|гнiздо}} ({{Transliteration|uk|hnizdó}})
| {{lang|be|гняздо}} ({{Transliteration|be|hnyazdó}})
| {{lang|rue|гнïздо}} ({{Transliteration|rue|hnʹizdó}})
| {{lang|pl|gniazdo}}
| {{lang|cs|hnízdo}}
| {{lang|sk|hniezdo}}
| {{lang|sl|gnezdo}}
| {{lang|sh|гнездо}} / {{Transliteration|sh|gnezdo}} ([[Ekavian|ek.]])<br />{{lang|sh|гнијездо}} / {{Transliteration|sh|gnijezdo}} ([[Ijekavian|ijek.]])<br />{{lang|sh|гниздо}} / {{Transliteration|sh|gnizdo}} ([[Ikavian|ik.]])
| {{lang|bg|гнездо}} ({{Transliteration|bg|gnezdó}})
| {{lang|mk|гнездо}} ({{Transliteration|mk|gnézdo}})
|-
! {{lang|sla|*oko}} (eye)
| {{lang|ru|око}} ({{Transliteration|ru|óko}}) (dated, poetic or in set expressions)<br />modern: {{lang|ru|глаз}} ({{Transliteration|ru|glaz}})
| {{lang|uk|око}} ({{Transliteration|uk|óko}})
| {{lang|be|вока}} ({{Transliteration|be|vóka}})
| {{lang|rue|око}} ({{Transliteration|rue|óko}})
| {{lang|pl|oko}}
| {{lang|cs|oko}}
| {{lang|sk|oko}}
| {{lang|sl|oko}}
| {{lang|sh|око}} / {{Transliteration|sh|oko}}
| {{lang|bg|око}} ({{Transliteration|bg|óko}})
| {{lang|mk|око}} ({{Transliteration|mk|óko}})
|-
! {{lang|sla|*golva}} (head)
| {{lang|ru|голова}} ({{Transliteration|ru|golová}})<br />{{lang|ru|глава}} ({{Transliteration|ru|glavá}}) "chapter or chief, leader, head"
| {{lang|uk|голова}} ({{Transliteration|uk|holová}})
| {{lang|be|галава}} ({{Transliteration|be|halavá}})
| {{lang|rue|голова}} ({{Transliteration|rue|holová}})
| {{lang|pl|głowa}}
| {{lang|cs|hlava}}
| {{lang|sk|hlava}}
| {{lang|sl|glava}}
| {{lang|sh|глава}} / {{Transliteration|sh|glava}}
| {{lang|bg|глава}} ({{Transliteration|bg|glavá}})
| {{lang|mk|глава}} ({{Transliteration|mk|gláva}})
|-
! {{lang|sla|*rǫka}} (hand)
| {{lang|ru|рука}} ({{Transliteration|ru|ruká}})
| {{lang|uk|рука}} ({{Transliteration|uk|ruká}})
| {{lang|be|рука}} ({{Transliteration|be|ruká}})
| {{lang|rue|рука}} ({{Transliteration|rue|ruká}})
| {{lang|pl|ręka}}
| {{lang|cs|ruka}}
| {{lang|sk|ruka}}
| {{lang|sl|roka}}
| {{lang|sh|рука}} / {{Transliteration|sh|ruka}}
| {{lang|bg|ръка}} ({{Transliteration|bg|rǎká}})
| {{lang|mk|рака}} ({{Transliteration|mk|ráka}})
|-
! {{lang|sla|*noktь}} (night)
| {{lang|ru|ночь}} ({{Transliteration|ru|nočʹ}})
| {{lang|uk|ніч}} ({{Transliteration|uk|nič}})
| {{lang|be|ноч}} ({{Transliteration|be|noč}})
| {{lang|rue|нуч}} ({{Transliteration|rue|nuč}})
| {{lang|pl|noc}}
| {{lang|cs|noc}}
| {{lang|sk|noc}}
| {{lang|sl|noč}}
| {{lang|sh|ноћ}} / {{Transliteration|sh|noć}}
| {{lang|bg|нощ}} ({{Transliteration|bg|nosht}})
| {{lang|mk|ноќ}} ({{Transliteration|mk|noḱ}})
|}

==Influence on neighboring languages==
{{main|Slavicism}}
Most languages of the former [[Soviet Union]] and of some neighbouring countries (for example, [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]) are [[Russianism|significantly influenced by Russian]], especially in vocabulary. The [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] languages show the influence of the neighboring Slavic nations, especially in vocabulary pertaining to urban life, agriculture, and crafts and trade—the major cultural innovations at times of limited long-range cultural contact. In each one of these languages, Slavic lexical borrowings represent at least 15% of the total vocabulary. This is potentially because Slavic tribes crossed and partially settled the territories inhabited by ancient [[Illyria]]ns and [[Vlach]]s on their way to the [[Balkans]].{{sfn|Skorvid|2015|loc=p. 389, 396–397}}

=== Germanic languages ===
{{Expand section|No discussion of areal interactions with Scandinavian languages|date=June 2024}}
[[Max Vasmer]], a specialist in Slavic etymology, has claimed that there were no Slavic loans into [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]]. However, there are isolated Slavic loans (mostly recent) into other Germanic languages. For example, the word for "border" (in modern [[German language|German]] {{lang|de|Grenze}}, [[Dutch language|Dutch]] {{lang|nl|grens}}) was borrowed from the Common Slavic {{lang|sla|granica}}. There are, however, many cities and villages of Slavic origin in Eastern Germany, the largest of which are [[Berlin]], [[Leipzig]] and [[Dresden]]. English derives ''[[Quark (cheese)|quark]]'' (a kind of cheese and [[Quark|subatomic particle]]) from the German {{lang|de|Quark}}, which in turn is derived from the Slavic {{lang|sla|tvarog}}, which means "curd". Many German surnames, particularly in Eastern Germany and Austria, are Slavic in origin. The [[Nordic languages]] also have {{lang|sv|torg}}/''torv'' (market place) from Old Russian {{lang|orv|tъrgъ}} ({{Transliteration|orv|trŭgŭ}}) or Polish {{lang|pl|targ}},{{sfn|Hellquist|1922a}} {{lang|sv|humle}} ([[hops]]),{{sfn|Hellquist|1922b}}
{{lang|sv|räka}}/''reke''/''reje'' (shrimp, prawn),{{sfn|Hellquist|1922c}}
and, via [[Middle Low German]] {{lang|sv|tolk}} (interpreter) from Old Slavic {{lang|sla|tlŭkŭ}},{{sfn|Hellquist|1922d}} and {{lang|sv|pråm}}/''pram'' (barge) from West Slavonic {{lang|zlw|pramŭ}}.{{sfn|Hellquist|1922e}}

=== Finno-Ugric languages ===
[[Finnic languages|Finnic]] languages have many words in common with Slavic languages. According to Petri Kallio, this suggests Slavic words being borrowed into Finnic languages, as early as Proto-Finnic.{{sfn|Kallio|2006}} Many loanwords have acquired a Finnicized form, making it difficult to say whether such a word is natively Finnic or Slavic.{{sfn|Mustajoki|Protassova|2014}}

[[Russian dialects]] have numerous borrowings from [[Finno-Ugric languages]], particularly for forest terms and geographical names.<ref>Teush, O. À. (2019). "Borrowed names of forest and forest loci in the Russian dialects of the European North of Russia: Lexemes of Baltic-Finnish origin" [Article]. Bulletin of Ugric Studies, 9(2), 297-317. https://doi.org/10.30624/2220-4156-2019-9-2-297-317</ref><ref>Teush, O. А. (2019). "Borrowed names of forest and forest loci in the Russian dialects of European North of Russia: Lexemes of Sami and Volga-Finnish origin" [Article]. Bulletin of Ugric Studies, 9(3), 485-498. https://doi.org/10.30624/2220-4156-2019-9-3-485-49</ref> This is related to the expansion in 7th to the 11th centuries AD of [[Slavic people]] into the areas of Central Russia (near [[Moscow]]) previously populated by [[Finno-Ugric peoples]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://smarthistories.com/early-russia-2/#:~:text=From%20the%207th%20to%20the,later%20also%20with%20East%20Slavs | title=Early Russia and East Slavs &#124; Smart History of Russia }}</ref> and the resulting genetic, cultural and linguistic exchange.

=== Other ===
The [[Czech language|Czech]] word {{lang|cs|[[wikt:robot|robot]]}} is now found in most languages worldwide, and the word ''[[pistol]]'', probably also from Czech,{{sfn|Titz|1922}} is found in many European languages.

A well-known Slavic word in almost all European languages is [[vodka]], a borrowing from Russian {{lang|ru|водка}} ({{Transliteration|ru|vodka}}, {{lit|little water}}), from common Slavic {{lang|sla|voda}} ('[[water]]', [[cognate]] to the English word ''water'') with the [[diminutive]] ending {{lang|sla|-ka}}.{{sfn|Merriam-Webster}}{{efn|{{OEtymD|vodka|accessdate = 18 May 2007}}}} Owing to the medieval [[fur trade]] with Northern Russia, Pan-European loans from Russian include such familiar words as ''[[sable]]''.{{efn|{{OEtymD|sable|accessdate = 18 May 2007}}}} The English word "[[vampire]]" was borrowed (perhaps via [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|vampire}}) from [[German language|German]] {{lang|de|Vampir}}, in turn derived from Serbo-Croatian {{lang|sh-cyrl|вампир}} ({{Transliteration|sh|vampir}}), continuing [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]] {{lang|sla|*ǫpyrь}},{{sfn|Wörterbuchnetz|2023}}{{sfn|Dauzat|1938}}{{sfn|Pfeifer|2006}}{{sfn|Skok|1974}}{{sfn|Tokarev|1982}}{{sfn|Vasmer|1953}}{{efn|{{OEtymD|vampire|accessdate = 21 September 2007}}}} although [[Poland|Polish]] scholar K. Stachowski has argued that the origin of the word is early Slavic {{lang|sla|*vąpěrь}}, going back to Turkic {{lang|trk|oobyr}}.{{sfn|Stachowski|2005}}

Several European languages, including [[English language|English]], have borrowed the word {{lang|zls|[[polje]]}} (meaning 'large, flat plain') directly from the former [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] languages (i.e. [[Slovene language|Slovene]] and [[Serbo-Croatian]]). During the heyday of the [[USSR]] in the 20th century, many more Russian words became known worldwide: {{Transliteration|ru|da}}, ''[[Soviet Union|Soviet]]'', {{Transliteration|ru|[[Sputnik 1|sputnik]]}}, {{Transliteration|ru|[[perestroika]]}}, {{Transliteration|ru|[[glasnost]]}}, {{Transliteration|ru|[[kolkhoz]]}}, etc. Another borrowed Russian term is {{Transliteration|ru|[[samovar]]}} ({{lit|self-boiling}}).

==Detailed list==
The following tree for the Slavic languages derives from the [[Ethnologue]] report for Slavic languages.{{sfn|Ethnologue|2022}} It includes the [[ISO 639-1]] and [[ISO 639-3]] codes where available.

[[File:Idioma ruso.PNG|thumb|250px|Map of all areas where the [[Russian language]] is the language spoken by the majority of the population]]
[[File:South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg|thumb|right|250px|South Slavic dialect continuum with major dialect groups]]
[[File:Zapadoslovanske.jpg|thumb|right|250px|West Slavic dialect continuum with major dialect groups]]

'''[[East Slavic languages]]:'''
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''be'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''bel'''
* [[Russian language|Russian]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''ru'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''rus'''
* [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]]: ISO 639-3 code: '''rue'''
* [[Pannonian Rusyn|Ruthenian]]: ISO 639-3 code: '''rsk'''
* [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''uk'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''ukr'''

'''[[South Slavic languages]]:'''
* [[Western South Slavic|Western South Slavic languages]]
** [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''bs'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''bos'''
** [[Chakavian]]: ISO 639-3 code: '''ckm'''
** [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''hr'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''hrv'''
** [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]: ISO 639-3 code: '''cnr'''
** [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''sr'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''srp'''
** [[Slavomolisano dialect|Slavomolisano]]: ISO 639-3 code: '''svm'''
** [[Slovene language|Slovene]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''sl'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''slv'''
* [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern South Slavic languages]]
** [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''bg'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''bul'''
** [[Church Slavonic]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''cu'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''chu'''
** [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''mk'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''mkd'''

'''[[West Slavic languages]]:'''
* [[Sorbian languages]]
** [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]] (also known as '''''Lusatian'''''): ISO 639-3 code: '''dsb'''
** [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]: ISO 639-3 code: '''hsb'''
* [[Lechitic languages]]
** [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]: ISO 639-3 code: '''csb'''
** [[Polish language|Polish]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''pl'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''pol'''
** [[Silesian language|Silesian]]: ISO 639-3 code: '''szl'''
* [[Czech–Slovak languages]]
** [[Czech language|Czech]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''cs'''; ISO 639-3 '''ces'''
** [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ISO 639-1 code: '''sk'''; ISO 639-3 code: '''slk'''

'''Para- and supranational languages'''
* [[Church Slavonic|Church Slavonic language]], variations of Old Church Slavonic with significant replacement of the original vocabulary by forms from the [[Old East Slavic]] and other regional forms. The [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], [[Russian Orthodox Church]], [[Polish Orthodox Church]], [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]], [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], and even some Roman Catholic Churches in Croatia continue to use Church Slavonic as a [[liturgical language]]. While not used in modern times, the text of a Church Slavonic Roman Rite Mass survives in [[Croatia]] and the [[Czech Republic]],{{sfn|Dominikánská}}{{sfn|Bartoň|2018}} which is best known through [[Leoš Janáček|Janáček]]'s musical setting of it (the ''[[Glagolitic Mass]]'').
* [[Interslavic|Interslavic language]], a modernized and simplified form of Old Church Slavonic, largely based on material that the modern Slavic languages have in common. Its purpose is to facilitate communication between representatives of different Slavic nations and to enable people who do not know any Slavic language to communicate with Slavs. Because Old Church Slavonic had become too archaic and complex for everyday communication, [[Pan-Slavic language]] projects have been created from the 17th century onwards in order to provide the Slavs with a common literary language. Interslavic in its current form was standardized in 2011 after the merger of several older projects.{{sfn|Steenbergen|2018|loc=p. 52–54}}

==See also==
* [[Language family]]
* [[List of Slavic studies journals]]
* [[Outline of Slavic history and culture]]
* [[Slavic microlanguages]]
* [[Slavic names]]
* [[Slavic studies]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Dulichenko |first=Aleksandr Dmitrievich |editor-last1=Moldovan |editor-first1=A. M. |editor-last2=Skorvid |editor-first2=S. S. |editor-last3=Kibrik |editor-first3=A. A. |editor-last4=Rogova |editor-first4=N. V. |editor-last5=Yakushkina |editor-first5=E. I. |editor-last6=Zhuravlev |editor-first6=A. F. |editor-last7=Tolstaya |editor-first7=S. M. |display-editors=1 |title=Yazyki mira. Slavyanskie yazyki |trans-title=Languages of the World. Slavic Languages |script-title=ru:Языки мира. Славянские языки |chapter=Malye slavyanskie literaturnye yazyki (mikroyazyki) |trans-chapter=Minor Slavic Literary Languages (Micro-Languages) |script-chapter=ru:Малые славянские литературные языки (микроязыки) |date=2005 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/iazykymyra/page/595/mode/1up |url=https://archive.org/details/iazykymyra |language=ru |publisher=Academia |location=Moscow |pages=595–615}}
* {{cite book |last=Dulichenko |first=Aleksandr Dmitrievich |date=1981 |title=Slavyanskie literaturnye mikroyazyki. Voprosy formirovania i razvitia |trans-title=Slavic Literary Micro-Languages. The Questions of their Founding and Development |script-title=ru:Славянские литературные микроязыки. Вопросы формирования и развития |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IyyONAEACAAJ |language=ru |location=Tallinn |publisher=Valgus}}
* {{cite journal |last=Duličenko |first=A. D. |date=1994 |title=Kleinschriftsprachen in der slawischen Sprachenwelt |trans-title=Minor Languages in the Slavic Language World |journal=Zeitschrift für Slawistik |volume=39 |issue=4 |doi=10.1524/slaw.1994.39.4.560 |s2cid=170747896 |language=de}}
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* {{cite web |url=http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/slavic-countries.html |last=Misachi |first=John |date=25 April 2017 |title=Slavic Countries |website=WorldAtlas}}
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* {{cite journal |url=https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/12905 |title=The Triple Division of the Slavic Languages: A linguistic finding, a product of politics, or an accident? |hdl-access=free |last=Kamusella |first=Tomasz |author-link=Tomasz Kamusella |publisher=[[Institute for Human Sciences]] |journal=IWM Working Papers |place=[[Vienna]] |date=2005 |access-date=27 March 2020 |hdl=10023/12905}}
* {{cite book |last1=Magocsi |first1=Paul R. |last2=Pop |first2=Ivan Ivanovich |date=2002 |title=Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture |location=Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |page=274}}
* {{cite journal |first1=Petra |last1=Novotná |first2=Václav |last2=Blažek |title=Glottochronology and its Application to the Balto-Slavic Languages |journal=Baltistica |volume=XLII (2) |year=2007 |url=http://www.leidykla.eu/fileadmin/Baltistika/42-2/04_Blazeko.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031023440/http://www.leidykla.eu/fileadmin/Baltistika/42-2/04_Blazeko.pdf |archive-date=31 October 2008}}
* {{cite book |last=Kapović |first=Mate |author-link=Mate Kapović |title=Uvod u indoeuropsku lingvistiku |trans-title=An Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics |location=[[Zagreb]] | publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] | year=2008| isbn=978-953-150-847-6 |language=sh}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kassian |first1=Alexei |last2=Dybo |first2=Anna |date=2015 |title=Supplementary Information 2: Linguistics: Datasets; Methods; Results |bibcode-access=free |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=10 |issue=9 |article-number=e0135820 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0135820 |pmid=26332464 |pmc=4558026 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1035820K |doi-access=free }}
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* {{cite web|url=http://starling.rinet.ru/new100/main.htm |date=2016 |title=The Global Lexicostatistical Database |publisher=Russian State University for the Humanities, Moscow |ref={{SfnRef|RSUH|2016}}}}
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* {{cite book |last=Sedov |first=Valentin V. |date=1995 |title=Slavyane v rannem srednevekov'ye |trans-title=Slavs in the Early Middle Ages |script-title=ru:Славяне в раннем средневековье |language=ru |location=Moscow |publisher=Fond Arheologii}}
* {{cite book |last=Sedov |first=Valentin V. |date=1979 |title=Proishozhdenie i rannyaya istoria slavyan |trans-title=The Origin and Early History of Slavs |script-title=ru:Происхождение и ранняя история славян |language=ru |location=Moscow |publisher=Nauka}}
* {{cite book |last=Curta |first=F. |date=2001 |title=The Making of the Slavs: History and Archaeology of the Lower Danube Region |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Heather |first=P. |date=2010 |title=Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite web |url=https://elementy.ru/nauchno-populyarnaya_biblioteka/431649/Ob_istorii_russkogo_yazyka |last=Zaliznyak |first=Andrey Anatolyevich |date=2012 |title=Ob istorii russkogo yazyka |trans-title=About Russian Language History |script-title=ru: Об истории русского языка |language=ru |website=Elementy |publisher=Mumi-Troll School |access-date=2022-12-28}}
* {{cite book |last1=Dybo |first1=V. A. |last2=Zamyatina |first2=G. I. |last3=Nikolaev |first3=S. L. |editor-last=Bulatova |editor-first=R.V. |date=1990 |title=Osnovy slavyanskoy aktsentologii |trans-title=Fundamentals of Slavic Accentology |script-title=ru:Основы славянской акцентологии |url=https://inslav.ru/publication/dybo-v-zamyatina-g-i-nikolaev-s-l-osnovy-slavyanskoy-akcentologii-m-1990 |language=ru |location=Moscow |publisher=Nauka |isbn=5-02-011011-6}}
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* {{cite book |last=Shevelov |first=George Yurii |translator-last1=Vakulenko |translator-first1=Serhiy |translator-last2=Danilenko |translator-first2=Andriy |date=1979 |title=Istorychna fonolohiia ukrains'koi movy |trans-title=A Historical Phonology of the Ukrainian Language |script-title=uk:Історична фонологія української мови |url=http://www.litopys.org.ua/shevelov/shev.htm |language=uk |location=Kharkiv |publisher=Acta |publication-date=2000 |access-date=2022-12-28}}
* {{cite book |last=Skorvid |first=Sergey |date=2015 |editor-last=Osipov |editor-first=Yury |editor-link=Yury Osipov |title=Slavyanskie yazyki |trans-title=Slavic Languages |script-title=ru:Славянские языки |url=https://bigenc.ru/linguistics/text/3625253 |language=ru |publisher=[[Great Russian Encyclopedia]] |volume=30 |pages=389, 396–397 |access-date=3 August 2022 |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904000000/https://bigenc.ru/linguistics/text/3625253 }}
* {{cite book |last=Schenker |first=Alexander M. |chapter=Proto-Slavonic |pages=60–124 |title=The Slavonic Languages |editor1-last=Comrie |editor1-first=Bernard |editor2-last=Corbett |editor2-first=Greville. G. |location=London |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=0-415-28078-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uRF9Yiso1OIC |editor1-link=Bernard Comrie }}
* {{cite book |chapter=Introduction |last1=Comrie |first1=Bernard |last2=Corbett |first2=Greville. G. |pages=1–19 |title=The Slavonic Languages |editor1-last=Comrie |editor1-first=Bernard |editor2-last=Corbett |editor2-first=Greville. G. |location=London |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=0-415-28078-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uRF9Yiso1OIC |editor1-link=Bernard Comrie }}
* {{cite book |url=https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/36304 |title=Vowel–Zero Alternations in West Slavic Prepositions |last=Nilsson |first=Morgan |publisher=[[University of Gothenburg]] |date=8 November 2014 |access-date=27 March 2020 |isbn=978-91-981198-3-1 |hdl=2077/36304}}
* {{cite dictionary |last=Hellquist |first=Elof |title=torg |dictionary=Svensk etymologisk ordbok |via=[[Project Runeberg]] |year=1922a |url=https://runeberg.org/svetym/1079.html |language=sv}}
* {{cite dictionary |last=Hellquist |first=Elof |title=humle |dictionary=Svensk etymologisk ordbok |via=[[Project Runeberg]] | year=1922b |url=https://runeberg.org/svetym/0334.html |language=sv}}
* {{cite dictionary |last=Hellquist |first=Elof |title=räka |dictionary=Svensk etymologisk ordbok |via=[[Project Runeberg]] |year=1922c |url=https://runeberg.org/svetym/0763.html |language=sv}}
* {{cite dictionary |last=Hellquist |first=Elof |title=tolk |dictionary= Svensk etymologisk ordbok |via=[[Project Runeberg]] |year=1922d |url=https://runeberg.org/svetym/1075.html |language=sv}}
* {{cite dictionary |last=Hellquist |first=Elof |title=pråm |dictionary= Svensk etymologisk ordbok |via=[[Project Runeberg]] |year=1922e |url=https://runeberg.org/svetym/0692.html |language=sv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kallio |first=Petri |editor-last=Nuorluoto |editor-first=Juhani |date=2006 |title=On the Earliest Slavonic Loanwords in Finnic |url=https://blogs.helsinki.fi/slavica-helsingiensia/files/2019/11/sh27-Kallio.pdf |publisher=Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures |location=Helsinki |isbn=952-10-2852-1}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mustajoki |first1=Arto |last2=Protassova |first2=Ekaterina |date=2014 |url=https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-finnish-russian-relationships-the-interplay-of-economics-history-psychology-and-language |title=The Finnish-Russian Relationships: the Interplay of Economics, History, Psychology and Language |journal=Russian Journal of Linguistics |issue=4 |pages=69–81 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Titz |first1=Karel |title=Naše řeč – Ohlasy husitského válečnictví v Evropě |journal=Československý Vědecký ústav Vojenský |trans-title=Our Speech – Echoes of Hussite Warfare in Europe |date=1922 |page=88 |url=http://nase-rec.ujc.cas.cz/archiv.php?art=1876 |access-date=26 January 2019 |language=cs}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/vodka |title=Vodka |website=Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary |access-date=28 December 2022 |ref={{SfnRef|Merriam-Webster}}}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.dwds.de/wb/Vampir |date=2023 |title=Vampyr |trans-title=Vampire |work=Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm, digitalisierte Fassung im Wörterbuchnetz des Trier Center for Digital Humanities |trans-work=The German Dictionary by Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm, Digitized Edition in Wörterbuchnetz of the Trier Center for Digital Humanities |language=de |publisher=Wörterbuchnetz |access-date=2023-02-19 |version=01/23 |ref={{SfnRef|Wörterbuchnetz|2023}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Dauzat |first=Albert |date=1938 |title=Dictionnaire étymologique |trans-title=Etymological Dictionary |language=fr |publisher=Librairie Larousse}}
* {{cite book |last=Pfeifer |first=Wolfgang |date=2006 |title=Etymologisches Wörterbuch |trans-title=Etymological Dictionary |language=de |page=1494}}
* {{cite book |last=Skok |first=Petar |date=1974 |title=Etimologijski rjecnk hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika |trans-title=Etymological dictionary of the Croatian or Serbian language |language=sh}}
* {{cite book |last=Tokarev |first=S. A. |date=1982 |title=Mify narodov mira |trans-title=Myths of the Peoples of the World |script-title=ru:Мифы народов мира |volume=1 |publisher=Sovetskaya Entsiklopedia |language=ru}}
* {{cite book |last=Vasmer |first=Max |date=1953 |title=Russisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch |trans-title=Russian Etymological Dictionary |publisher=Carl Winter Universitätsverlag |language=de}}
* {{cite journal |last=Stachowski |first=Kamil |date=2005 |title=Wampir na rozdrożach. Etymologia wyrazu upiór – wampir w językach słowiańskich |trans-title=A vampire at the crossroads. The etymology of the word "upiór" - vampire in Slavic languages |language=pl |location=Wrocław |journal=Rocznik Slawistyczny |volume=55 |pages=73–92}}
* {{cite web |title=Indo-European, Slavic |work=Language Family Trees |publisher=[[Ethnologue]] |year=2022 |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/slavic |ref={{SfnRef|Ethnologue|2022}}}}
* {{cite web |url=https://knihovna.op.cz/library/olomouc/detail/21270 |title=Rimskyj misal slověnskym jazykem |website=Dominikánská knihovna Olomouc |ref={{SfnRef|Dominikánská}}}}
* {{cite journal |last=Bartoň |first=Josef |year=2018 |title=Miroslav Vepřek: Hlaholský misál Vojtěcha Tkadlčíka |trans-title=Miroslav Vepřek: Glagolitic missal by Vojtěch Tkadlčík |journal=AUC Theologica |volume=7 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323263500 |language=cs |location=Olomouc |publisher=Nakladatelství Centra Aletti Refugium Velehrad-Roma |issue=2 |pages=173–178 |doi=10.14712/23363398.2017.25|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last=Steenbergen |first=Jan van |editor-last1=Koutny |editor-first1=Ilona |editor-last2=Stria |editor-first2=Ida |year=2018 |title=Język międzysłowiański jako lingua franca dla Europy Środkowej |trans-title=Interslavic Language as a Lingua Franca for the Central Europe |journal=Język. Komunikacja. Informacja |issue=13 |url=http://jki.amu.edu.pl/files/04%20Steenbergen.pdf |language=pl |location=Poznań |publisher=Wydawnictwo Rys |isbn=978-83-65483-72-0 |issn=1896-9585 |pages=47–61 |access-date=18 August 2020 |archive-date=1 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701104031/http://jki.amu.edu.pl/files/04%20Steenbergen.pdf }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/403dd2220.html |date=29 January 2004 |title=Ukraine: Treatment of Carpatho-Rusyns by authorities and society; state protection |publisher=Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |website=Refworld |access-date=2023-02-19 |id=UKR42354.E |ref={{SfnRef|IRB|2004}}}}
{{Refend}}

== General references ==
{{refbegin|30em}}

* Lockwood, W.B. ''A Panorama of Indo-European Languages''. Hutchinson University Library, 1972. {{ISBN|0-09-111020-3}} hardback, {{ISBN|0-09-111021-1}} paperback.
* Marko Jesensek, The Slovene Language in the Alpine and Pannonian Language Area, 2005. {{ISBN|83-242-0577-2}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Kalima|first1=Jalo|title=Classifying Slavonic languages: Some remarks|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.185585/2015.185585.The-Slavonic-Reviewvol64#page/n489/mode/2up|journal=The Slavonic and East European Review|date=April 1947|volume=25|issue=65}}
* {{Cite book|last=Richards|first=Ronald O.|title=The Pannonian Slavic Dialect of the Common Slavic Proto-language: The View from Old Hungarian|year=2003|location=Los Angeles|publisher=University of California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDFiAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-0-9742653-0-8}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Slavic languages}}
{{Wikibooks|False Friends of the Slavist}}
{{Wiktionary|Appendix:Slavic Swadesh lists}}
* [http://www.slavicnet.com/ Slavic dictionaries on Slavic Net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070117045902/http://www.slavicnet.com/ |date=17 January 2007 }}
* [http://www.slavistik-portal.de/en.html Slavistik-Portal] The Slavistics Portal (Germany)
* {{Cite Americana|short=1|wstitle=Slavic Languages|author=Leo Wiener|author-link=Leo Wiener}}

{{Indo-European languages}}
{{Slavic languages|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Slavic Languages}}
[[Category:Slavic languages| ]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:Balto-Slavic languages]]