View source for Slovene language

{{Short description|Slavic language, mainly spoken in Slovenia}}
{{redirect|Slovenščina|the West Slavic language spoken in Slovakia|Slovak language}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Slovene
| altname          = Slovenian
| nativename       = {{lang|sl|slovenščina}}, {{lang|sl|slovenski jezik}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|sl|slɔˈʋèːnʃtʃina|}},<ref>{{cite web |title=Slovenski pravopis 2001: slovenščina |url=http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/c/SP/neva.exe?name=sp&expression=sloven%C5%A1%C4%8Dina&hs=1}}</ref> {{IPA|sl|slɔˈʋèːnski ˈjɛ̀ːzik|}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Slovenski pravopis 2001: slovenski |url=http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/c/SP/neva.exe?name=sp&expression=slovenski&hs=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Slovenski pravopis 2001: jezik |url=http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/c/SP/neva.exe?name=sp&expression=jezik&hs=1}}</ref>
| states           = {{plainlist|
* [[Slovenia]]
* [[Italy]] ([[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]])
* [[Austria]] ([[Carinthia]] and [[Styria]])
* [[Hungary]] ([[Vas County]])
}}
| region           = 
| ethnicity        = [[Slovenes]]
| speakers         = 2.5 million
| date             = 2010
| ref              = <ref name="MLD 2010">{{cite news |url=http://www.stat.si/eng/novica_prikazi.aspx?id=2957 |title=International Mother Language Day 2010 |publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia |date=19 February 2010 |access-date=29 January 2011 |archive-date=13 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113170007/http://www.stat.si/eng/novica_prikazi.aspx?id=2957 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
| fam3             = [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
| fam4             = [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]]
| fam5             = [[Western South Slavic]]
| fam6             = 
| dia1             = [[Prekmurian dialect|Prekmurje]]
| dia2             = [[Resian dialect|Resian]]
| dia3             = approx. [[Slovene dialects|48 unstandardised dialects]]
| script           = {{plainlist|
* [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Slovene alphabet]])
* [[Slovene Braille]]
}}
| nation           = {{plainlist|
* {{SLO}}
* ''{{EU}}''
}}
| minority         = {{AUT}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Österreichischer Staatsvertrag |url=https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10000265}}</ref><br />{{HUN}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Hungary: demographic situation, languages and religions|url=https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/hungary/population-demographic-situation-languages-and-religions|language=en|access-date=29 May 2023|archive-date=24 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224132059/https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/hungary/population-demographic-situation-languages-and-religions|url-status=dead}}</ref><br />{{ITA}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche |url=http://www.parlamento.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm|language=it}}</ref>
| agency           = [[Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts]]
| iso1             = sl
| iso2             = slv
| iso3             = slv
| glotto           = slov1268
| lingua           = 53-AAA-f (51 varieties)
| map              = File:Slovenes_distribution_map.png
| mapcaption       = Slovene-speaking areas
| notice           = IPA
}}
{{South Slavic languages sidebar}}

'''Slovene''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Slovene2.ogg|ˈ|s|l|oʊ|v|iː|n}} {{respell|SLOH|veen}} or {{IPAc-en|s|l|oʊ|ˈ|v|iː|n|,_|s|l|ə|-}} {{respell|sloh|VEEN|,_|slə|-}}{{refn|{{Citation |last=Jones |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor=Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-date=1917 |year=2003 |isbn=3-12-539683-2 }}}}) or '''Slovenian''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Slovenian.ogg|s|l|oʊ|ˈ|v|iː|n|i|ə|n|,_|s|l|ə|-}} {{respell|sloh|VEE|nee|ən|,_|slə|-}};{{refn|Cf. ''Slovenia'' in {{Citation |last=Jones |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title=English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor=Peter Roach |editor2=James Hartmann |editor3=Jane Setter |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-date=1917 |year=2003 |isbn=3-12-539683-2 }}}}{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Slovenian}}}} {{lang|sl|slovenščina}} {{IPA|sl|slɔˈʋèːnʃtʃina|}}) is a [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] language of the [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]]. Most of its 2.5 million speakers are the inhabitants of [[Slovenia]], the majority of them ethnic [[Slovenes]]. As Slovenia is part of the [[European Union]], Slovene is also one of its 24 [[Languages of the European Union|official and working languages]]. Its grammar is highly [[fusional languages|fusional]], and it has a [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual grammatical number]], an archaic feature shared with some other Indo-European languages. Two accentual norms (one characterized by [[Pitch-accent language|pitch accent]]) are used. Its flexible [[word order]] is often adjusted for emphasis or stylistic reasons, although basically it is an [[subject–verb–object word order|SVO]] language. It has a [[T–V distinction]]: the use of the V-form demonstrates a respectful attitude towards superiors and the elderly, while it can be sidestepped through the passive form.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.rtvslo.si/kultura/jezikovni-spletovalec/jezikovni-spletovalec-tikanje-vikanje-na-polvikanje-in-onikanje/411038 |title=TIkanje, VIkanje, (na) polVIkanje in ONIkanje |language=sl|publisher=MMC RTV Slovenia |date=4 January 2017}}</ref>

==Standard Slovene==
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2021}}
Standard Slovene is the national [[standard language]] that was formed in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on the [[Upper Carniolan dialect group|Upper]] and [[Lower Carniolan dialect group]]s, more specifically on the language of [[Ljubljana]] and adjacent areas. The Lower Carniolan dialect group was the dialect used in the 16th century by [[Primož Trubar]] for his writings, while he also used Slovene as spoken in Ljubljana,<ref>{{citation|last1=Trubar |first1=Primož |title=Slovenski Biografski Leksikon}}</ref> since he lived in the city for more than 20 years. It was the speech of Ljubljana that Trubar took as a foundation of what later became standard Slovene, with small addition of his native speech, the Lower Carniolan dialect.<ref name="Osnove Trubarjevega jezika">{{cite journal |last1=Rigler |first1=Jakob |title=Osnove Trubarjevega jezika |journal=Jezik in slovstvo |date=1965 |volume=10 |issue=6–7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rigler |first1=Jakob |title=Nekdanja ljubljanščina kot osnova Trubarjevega jezika |journal=Začetki Slovenskega Knjižnega Jezika |date=1965 |pages=100–110}}</ref> Trubar's choice was also later adopted by other [[Protestantism|Protestant]] writers in the 16th century, and ultimately led to the formation of a more standard language. The Upper dialect was also used by most authors during the language revival in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and was also the language spoken by [[France Prešeren]], who, like most Slovene writers and poets, lived and worked in Ljubljana, where the speech was growing closer to the Upper Carniolan dialect group.<ref name="Osnove Trubarjevega jezika"/> Unstandardized dialects are better preserved in regions of the [[Slovene Lands]] where compulsory schooling was in languages other than Standard Slovene, as was the case with the [[Carinthian Slovenes]] in [[Austria]], and the [[Slovene minority in Italy]]. For example, the [[Resian dialect|Resian]] and [[Torre Valley dialect|Torre]] (Ter) dialects in the Italian [[Province of Udine]] differ most from other Slovene dialects.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

==Classification==
Slovene is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] belonging to the Western subgroup of the [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] branch of the [[Slavic languages]], together with [[Serbo-Croatian]]. It is close to the [[Chakavian dialect|Chakavian]] and especially [[Kajkavian dialect]]s of Serbo-Croatian, but genealogically more distant from the [[Shtokavian dialect]], the basis for the [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]], and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] standard languages. Slovene in general, and [[Prekmurje Slovene]] in particular, shares the highest level of [[mutual intelligibility]] with transitional Kajkavian dialects of [[Hrvatsko Zagorje]] and [[Međimurje County|Međimurje]].<ref name="Greenberg">Greenberg, Marc L., ''A Short Reference Grammar of Slovene,'' (''LINCOM Studies in Slavic Linguistics'' 30). Munich: LINCOM, 2008. {{ISBN|3-89586-965-1}}</ref> Furthermore, Slovene shares certain linguistic characteristics with all South Slavic languages, including those of the Eastern subgroup, namely [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], and [[Torlakian dialects]].

Mutual intelligibility with varieties of Serbo-Croatian is hindered by differences in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation,<ref>{{cite book|last=Kordić|first=Snježana|author-link=Snježana Kordić|editor-last1=Nomachi|editor-first1=Motoki|editor-link1=Motoki Nomachi|editor-last2=Kamusella|editor-first2=Tomasz|editor-link2=Tomasz Kamusella|title=Languages and Nationalism Instead of Empires|publisher=[[Routledge]]|series=Routledge Histories of Central and Eastern Europe|pages=167{{hyphen}}179|chapter=Ideology Against Language: The Current Situation in South Slavic Countries|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372202077|chapter-format=PDF|location=London|year=2024|doi=10.4324/9781003034025-11|doi-access=|isbn=978-0-367-47191-0|lccn=|oclc=1390118985|s2cid=259576119|s2cid-access=|ssrn=4680766|ssrn-access=free|id={{COBISS.SR|125229577}}. {{COBISS|171014403}}|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/kordic-ideology-against-language |archive-date=2024-01-10|access-date=2024-01-23|quote=In the Slavic area, there is one instance of a significant asymmetric intelligibility: Slovenians understand Croats better (79.4%) than Croats understand Slovenians (43.7%).|quote-page=174|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Kajkavian]] being firmly the most mutually intelligible. Slovene has some commonalities with the [[West Slavic language]]s that are not found in other South Slavic languages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vlada.si/si/o_sloveniji/slovenscina/jezikovni_polozaj/ |title=Jezikovni položaj |language=sl |trans-title=Language Situation |publisher=Government of the Republic of Slovenia |first=Janez |last=Dular |author-link=Janez Dular |year=2001 |access-date=11 May 2012 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528235417/http://www.vlada.si/si/o_sloveniji/slovenscina/jezikovni_polozaj/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=slv|title=Similar languages to Slovenian|publisher=EZ Glot|access-date=14 September 2022|archive-date=2 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302192659/https://www.ezglot.com/most-similar-languages.php?l=slv|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== History ==

===Early history===
[[File:Brižinski spomeniki 3.png|thumb|left|The ''[[Freising manuscripts]]'', dating from the late 10th or the early 11th century, are considered the oldest documents in Slovene.]]

Like all [[Slavic languages]], Slovene traces its roots to the same proto-Slavic group of languages that produced [[Old Church Slavonic]]. The earliest known examples of a distinct, written dialect connected to Slovene are from the ''[[Freising manuscripts]]'', known in Slovene as {{lang|sl|Brižinski spomeniki}}. The consensus estimate of their date of origin is between 972 and 1039 CE (most likely before 1000). These religious writings are among the oldest surviving manuscripts in any Slavic language.

The ''Freising manuscripts'' are a record of a proto-Slovene that was spoken in a more scattered territory than modern Slovene, which included most of the present-day Austrian states of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] and [[Styria]], as well as [[East Tyrol]], the [[Val Pusteria]] in [[South Tyrol]], and some areas of [[Upper Austria|Upper]] and [[Lower Austria]].<ref>Bogo Grafenauer, ''Karantanija: izbrane razprave in članki'' (Ljubljana: Slovenska matica, 2000)</ref>

Between the 9th and 12th century, proto-Slovene spread into northern [[Istria]] and in the areas around [[Trieste]]. By the 15th century, most of the northern areas were gradually [[Germanization|Germanized]]: The northern border of the Slovene-speaking territory stabilized on the line going from north of [[Klagenfurt]] to south of [[Villach]] and east of [[Hermagor-Pressegger See|Hermagor]] in Carinthia, while in Styria it was more or less identical with the current Austrian-Slovenian border.  This linguistic border remained almost unchanged until the late 19th century, when a second process of Germanization took place, mostly in Carinthia. 

During most of the Middle Ages, Slovene was a vernacular language of the peasantry, although it was also spoken in most of the towns on Slovenian territory, together with German or Italian. Although during this time German emerged as the spoken language of the nobility, Slovene had some role in the courtly life of the Carinthian, Carniolan, and Styrian nobility as well. This is proved by the survival of certain ritual formulas in Slovene (such as the ritual installation of the Dukes of Carinthia). The words {{lang|sl|Buge waz primi, gralva Venus!}} ('God be With You, Queen Venus!'), with which [[Bernhard von Spanheim]] greeted the poet [[Ulrich von Liechtenstein]], who was travelling around Europe in guise of Venus, upon his arrival in Carinthia in 1227 (or 1238),<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.ff.uni-lj.si/publikacije/jis/lat1/038/55c01.htm |title=Od koroskega gralva 1238 do rezijanskega krajaua 1986 |language=sl |first=Milko |last=Matičetov |year=1993 |issue=5 |journal=Jezik in slovstvo [Language and Literature] |publisher=Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107072740/http://www.ff.uni-lj.si/publikacije/jis/lat1/038/55c01.htm |archive-date=7 November 2006 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> is another example of some level of Slovene knowledge among high nobility in the region.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.vlada.si/fileadmin/dokumenti/Slovenija_doc/O_slovenskem_jeziku_novo.pdf |chapter=Sounds and letters |title=On Slovene Language |author=Kalin Golob, Monika |author2=Komac, Nataša |author3=Logar, Nataša |editor=Žnidarko, Mito |publisher=European Parliament Information Office for Slovenia, Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Slovenia, Government Office for European Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia |year=2007 |isbn=978-92-823-2350-2 |page=33 |access-date=2 May 2015 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011115406/http://www.vlada.si/fileadmin/dokumenti/Slovenija_doc/O_slovenskem_jeziku_novo.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The first printed Slovene words, {{lang|sl|stara pravda}} (meaning 'old justice' or 'old laws'), appeared in 1515 in [[Vienna]] in a poem of the German mercenaries who suppressed the [[Slovene peasant revolt of 1515|Slovene peasant revolt]]: the term was presented as the peasants' motto and battle cry.<ref name="Cvirn2000">{{cite book |title=Ilustrirana zgodovina Slovencev |language=sl |trans-title=The Illustrated History of the Slovenes |chapter=Slovenski kmečki upor |trans-chapter=The Slovene Peasant Revolt |year=2000 |first=Peter |last=Štih |editor-first=Marko |editor-last=Vidic |publisher=Mladinska knjiga |isbn=86-11-15664-1 |page=142}}</ref> Standard Slovene emerged in the second half of the 16th century, thanks to the works of Slovene Lutheran authors, who were active during the [[Protestant Reformation]]. The most prominent authors from this period are [[Primož Trubar]], who wrote the first books in Slovene; [[Adam Bohorič]], the author of the first Slovene grammar; and [[Jurij Dalmatin]], who translated the entire [[Bible]] into Slovene.

From the high Middle Ages up to the dissolution of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] in 1918, in the territory of present-day Slovenia, [[German language|German]] was the language of the elite, and Slovene was the language of the common people. During this period, German had a strong influence on Slovene; many [[Germanization|Germanisms]] are preserved in contemporary colloquial Slovene. Many Slovene [[scientist]]s before the 1920s also wrote in foreign languages, mostly German, which was the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of science throughout [[Central Europe]] at the time.

===Recent history===
During the rise of [[Romantic nationalism]] in the 19th century, the cultural movements of [[Illyrism]] and [[Pan-Slavism]] brought words from [[Serbo-Croatian]], specifically Croatian dialects, and [[Czech language|Czech]] into standard Slovene, mostly to replace words previously borrowed from [[German language|German]]. Most of these innovations have remained, although some were dropped in later development. In the second half of the 19th century, many nationalist authors made an abundant use of Serbo-Croatian vocabulary but adapted it to Slovene orthography: among them were [[Fran Levstik]] and [[Josip Jurčič]], who wrote the first novel in Slovene in 1866. This tendency was reversed in the [[Fin de siècle]] period by the first generation of modernist Slovene authors (most notably the writer [[Ivan Cankar]]), who resorted to a more purist and locally derived language without excessive Serbo-Croatian borrowings.

During the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] in the 1920s and 1930s, the influence of Serbo-Croatian increased again. This was opposed by the younger generations of Slovene authors and intellectuals; among the fiercest opponents of an excessive Serbo-Croatian influence on Slovene were the intellectuals associated with the leftist journal ''[[Sodobnost]]'', as well as some younger [[Catholicism|Catholic]] activists and authors. After 1945, numerous Serbo-Croatian words that had been used in the previous decades were dropped. The result was that a Slovene text from the 1910s is frequently closer to modern Slovene than a text from the 1920s and 1930s.

Between 1920 and 1941, the official language of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was defined as "Serbo-Croato-Slovene", which was in practice merely Serbo-Croatian. In Slovenia, however, Slovene remained in use in education and administration. Many state institutions used only Serbo-Croatian, and a Slovene–Serbo-Croatian bilingualism was applied in many spheres of public life in Slovenia. For example, at post offices, on railways, and in administrative offices, Serbo-Croatian was used alongside Slovene. However, state employees were expected to be able to speak Slovene in Slovenia.

During the same time, western Slovenia (the [[Slovenian Littoral]] and the western districts of [[Inner Carniola]]) was under Italian administration and subjected to a violent policy of [[Fascist Italianization]]; the same policy was applied to Slovene speakers in [[Venetian Slovenia]], [[Gorizia]], and [[Trieste]]. Between 1923 and 1943, all public use of Slovene in these territories was strictly prohibited, and Slovene-language activists were persecuted by the state.

After the [[Carinthian Plebiscite]] of 1920, a less severe policy of [[Germanization]] took place in the Slovene-speaking areas of southern [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] which remained under Austrian administration. After the [[Anschluss]] of 1938, the use of Slovene was strictly forbidden in Carinthia as well. This accelerated a process of [[language shift]] in Carinthia, which continued throughout the second half of the 20th century: according to the Austro-Hungarian census of 1910, around 21% of inhabitants of Carinthia spoke Slovene in their daily communication; by 1951, this figure had dropped to less than 10%, and by 2001 to a mere 2.8%.

During [[World War II]], Slovenia was divided among the [[Axis powers]] of [[Kingdom of Italy#Fascist regime (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], [[Nazi Germany]], and [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]]. Each of the occupying powers tried to either discourage or entirely suppress Slovene.

Following World War II, Slovenia became part of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Federal Yugoslavia]]. While there was no official language at federal level, Serbo-Croatian dominated as prestige dialect in all aspects whereas Slovene remained confined to now [[Socialist Republic of Slovenia|federal Slovenia]] where it was made an official language recognized once again. In the territory of Slovenia, it was commonly used in almost all areas of public life. One important exception was the [[Yugoslav People's Army|Yugoslav army]], where Serbo-Croatian was used exclusively, even in Slovenia.

National independence has further fortified the language: since 1991, when Slovenia gained independence, Slovene has been used as an official language in all areas of public life. In 2004, it became one of the official languages of the European Union upon the admission of Slovenia.

Nonetheless, the post-breakup influence of Serbo-Croatian on Slovene continued to a lesser extent, most prominently in [[slang]] in [[colloquial language]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6YuBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA199 |last=Törnquist-Plewa |first=Barbara |title=The Balkans in Focus: Cultural Boundaries in Europe |date=2002 |page=199 |editor-last=Resic |editor-first=Sanimir |publisher=Nordic Academic Press |location=Lund, Sweden |isbn=978-91-87121-70-8 |oclc=802047788}}</ref>

[[Joža Mahnič]], a literary historian and president of the publishing house {{lang|sl|[[Slovenska matica]]}}, said in February 2008 that Slovene is a language rich enough to express everything, including the most sophisticated and specialised texts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.druzina.si/icd/spletnastran.nsf/all/E86349C24C8298B2C12573F500469D46?OpenDocument |title=Družina: Slovenščina se siromaši "v ustih domišljavih bedakov" |language=sl |trans-title=Slovene Is Impoverished "In the Mouths of Conceited Fools" |date=24 August 2008 |publisher=Družina}}</ref> In February 2010, [[Janez Dular]], a prominent Slovene linguist, commented that, although Slovene is not an endangered language, its scope has been shrinking, especially in science and higher education.<ref name="Dular">{{cite news |url=http://www.sta.si/en/vest.php?s=a&id=1482640 |title=Linguist Says Slovenian Language Not Endangered |date=21 February 2010 |publisher=Slovenian Press Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rtvslo.si/kultura/drugo/bo-slovenscina-nekoc-le-orodje-preprostega-sporazumevanja/224106 |title=Bo slovenščina nekoč le orodje preprostega sporazumevanja? |language=sl |trans-title=Will Slovene Some Day Be Only The Language of Simple Communication |publisher=MMC RTV Slovenia |date=21 February 2010}}</ref>

== Geographic distribution ==
The language is spoken by about 2.5 million people,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/en/News/Index/5004|title = International mother language day}}</ref> mainly in Slovenia, but also by [[Slovenes|Slovene]] national minorities in [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]], [[Italy]] (around 90,000 in [[Venetian Slovenia]], [[Resia Valley]], [[Canale Valley]], [[Province of Trieste]], and in those municipalities of the [[Province of Gorizia]] bordering Slovenia), in southern [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]], some parts of [[Styria]] in [[Austria]]<ref name="Fajon">{{cite news |title=Tanja Fajon: We seek intensive cooperation with Styria and support for the Slovenian minority |url=https://www.gov.si/en/news/2024-01-10-tanja-fajon-we-seek-intensive-cooperation-with-styria-and-support-for-the-slovenian-minority/ |access-date=August 9, 2024 |work=GOV.SI |date=10 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Statement by the Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs on the 69th anniversary of the signing of the Austrian State Treaty |url=https://www.gov.si/en/news/2024-05-15-statement-by-the-ministry-of-foreign-and-european-affairs-on-the-69th-anniversary-of-the-signing-of-the-austrian-state-treaty/ |access-date=9 August 2024 |work=GOV.SI |date=15 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Machreich |first1=Wolfgang |title=Steirische Slowenen: immer brav und ruhig |url=https://www.furche.at/feuilleton/steirische-slowenen-immer-brav-und-ruhig-1274102 |access-date=9 August 2024 |work=Die Furche |date=19 May 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Narodoslawsky |first1=Benedikt |title=Die vergessenen Steirer |url=https://www.derstandard.at/story/1303291401850/ortstafeln-die-vergessenen-steirer |access-date=10 August 2024 |work=Der Standard |date=29 April 2011}}</ref> (25,000), and in the western part of Croatian [[Istria]] bordering Slovenia. It is also spoken in [[Rijeka]] and [[Zagreb]] (11,800-13,100), in southwestern [[Hungary]] (3–5,000), in [[Serbia]] (5,000), and by the Slovene diaspora throughout [[Europe]] and the rest of the world (around 300,000), particularly in the [[United States]] (most notably [[Ohio]], home to an estimated 3,400 speakers),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usefoundation.org/view/29 |title=Many Languages, One America |publisher=Usefoundation.org |access-date=2014-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525112805/http://www.usefoundation.org/view/29 |archive-date=25 May 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Canada]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], and [[South Africa]].<ref name="Greenberg"/>

==Dialects==
[[File:Dialects.svg|left|thumb|A schematic map of Slovene dialects, based on the map by [[Tine Logar]], [[Jakob Rigler]], and other sources]]
{{Main|Slovene dialects}}

Slovene is sometimes characterized as the most diverse Slavic language in terms of [[Slovene dialects|its dialects]],<ref name="MLD 2009">{{cite news |url=http://www.stat.si/eng/novica_prikazi.aspx?id=2177 |title=International Mother Language Day |publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia |date=19 February 2009 |access-date=3 February 2011 |archive-date=13 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113170344/http://www.stat.si/eng/novica_prikazi.aspx?id=2177 |url-status=dead }}</ref> with different degrees of mutual intelligibility.<ref name="Vila2012">{{cite book|author=F. Xavier Vila|title=Survival and Development of Language Communities: Prospects and Challenges|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wndScgIWxEUC&pg=PT56|date=13 November 2012|publisher=Multilingual Matters|isbn=978-1-84769-837-7|page=56}}</ref><ref name="Ruhlen1991">{{cite book|author=Merritt Ruhlen|author-link=Merritt Ruhlen|title=A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYwmDE3f6wUC&pg=PA60|year=1991|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-1894-3|page=60}}</ref> Accounts of the number of dialects range from as few as seven<ref>McDonald, Gordon C. 1979. ''Yugoslavia: A Country Study''. Washington, DC: American University, p. 93</ref><ref>Greenberg, Marc L. 2009. "Slovene." In Keith Brown & Sarah Ogilvie (eds.), ''Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World'', pp. 981–984. Oxford: Elsevier, p. 981.</ref><ref>Brown, E. K. & Anne Anderson. 2006. ''Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics: Sca-Spe''. Oxford: Elsevier, p. 424</ref> dialects, often considered dialect groups or dialect bases that are further subdivided into as many as 50 dialects.<ref>Sussex, Roland, & Paul V. Cubberley. 2006. ''The Slavic languages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 502.</ref> Other sources characterize the number of dialects as nine<ref>Sławski, Franciszek. 1962. Zarys dialektologii południowosłowiańskiej. Warsaw: PAN.</ref> or eight.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Priestly | first1 = Tom M. S. | year = 1993 | title = On 'Drift' in Indo-European Gender Systems.' | journal = Journal of Indo-European Studies | volume = 11 | pages = 339–363 }}</ref> The Slovene proverb "Every village has its own voice" ({{lang|sl|Vsaka vas ima svoj glas}}) depicts the differences in dialects.

The [[Prekmurje Slovene|Prekmurje]] dialect used to have a written norm of its own at one point.<ref name="Jan2000">{{cite book|author=Zoltan Jan|title=Slovensko jezikoslovje danes in jutri|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mbPlAAAAMAAJ|page=175|year=2000|publisher=Zavod Republike Slovenije za Šolstvo|isbn=978-961-234-246-3}}</ref> The [[Resian dialect|Resian]] dialects have an independent written norm that is used by their regional state institutions.<ref>
{{cite web|last=Dapit|first=Roberto|title=IDENTITÀ RESIANA FRA "MITO" E IDEOLOGIA: GLI EFFETTI SULLA LINGUA|url=http://www.openstarts.units.it/dspace/bitstream/10077/2393/1/13.pdf
|language=it, sl|page=19}}</ref> Speakers of those two dialects have considerable difficulties with being understood by speakers of other varieties of Slovene, needing to [[Code-switching|code-switch]] to Standard Slovene. Other dialects are mutually intelligible when speakers avoid the excessive usage of regionalisms.

Regionalisms are mostly limited to culinary and agricultural expressions, although there are many exceptions.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} Some [[loanwords]] have become so deeply rooted in the local language that people have considerable difficulties in finding a standard expression for the dialect term (for instance, {{lang|sl|kremšnita}} meaning [[Cremeschnitte|a type of custard cake]] is {{lang|sl|kremna rezina}} in Standard Slovene, but the latter term is very rarely used in speech, being considered inappropriate for non-literary registers{{where|date=August 2023}}). Southwestern dialects incorporate many [[calque]]s and [[loanword]]s from [[Italian language|Italian]], whereas eastern and northwestern dialects are replete with lexemes of German origin. Usage of such words hinders intelligibility between dialects and is greatly discouraged in formal situations.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

==Phonology==
{{Main|Slovene phonology}}
Slovene has a [[phoneme]] set consisting of 21 [[consonant]]s and 8 [[vowel]]s.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Herrity|2000|p=6ff.}}</ref>

=== Consonants ===
Slovene has 21 distinctive consonant phonemes.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Slovene consonant phonemes<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Herrity|2000|pp=15–16}}</ref>
|-
!colspan=2|
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
!colspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
!{{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t̪|t}}
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|-
!{{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|{{IPA link|b}}
|{{IPA link|d̪|d}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!{{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
|
|{{IPA link|t̪͡s̪|t͡s}}
|{{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}
|
|-
!{{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
|
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
!{{small|[[voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
|{{IPA link|f}}
|{{IPA link|s̪|s}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}}
|{{IPA link|x}}
|-
!{{small|[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|
|{{IPA link|z̪|z}}
|{{IPA link|ʒ}}
|
|-
!colspan=2|[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|{{IPA link|ʋ}}
|{{IPA link|l}}
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|-
!colspan=2|[[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|}

All voiced [[obstruent]]s are devoiced at the end of words unless immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel or a [[voiced consonant]]. In consonant clusters, the [[Voice (phonetics)|voicing]] distinction is neutralized and all consonants assimilate the voicing of the rightmost segment, i.e., the final consonant in the cluster. In this context, {{IPA|[v]}}, {{IPA|[ɣ]}}, and {{IPA|[d͡z]}} may occur as voiced allophones of {{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/x/}}, and {{IPA|/t͡s/}}, respectively (e.g., {{lang|sl|vŕh drevésa}} {{IPA|[ʋrɣ dreˈʋesa]}}).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Herrity|2000|p=16}}</ref>

{{IPA|/ʋ/}} has several [[allophone]]s depending on context.
* Before a vowel, pronunciation is labiodental, {{IPAblink|ʋ}}<ref name="skp136">{{Harvcoltxt|Šuštaršič|Komar|Petek|1999|p=136}}</ref> (also described as {{IPAblink|v}}).<ref name="gr18">{{Harvcoltxt|Greenberg|2006|p=18}}</ref>
* After a vowel, pronunciation is bilabial {{IPAblink|w}} and forms a diphthong.<ref name="skp136"/><ref name="gr18"/>
* At the beginning of a syllable, before a consonant (e.g., in {{lang|sl|vsi}} "all"), the pronunciation varies more widely by speaker and area. Many speakers convert {{IPA|/ʋ/}} into a full vowel {{IPA|[u]}} in this position.<ref name="skp136"/><ref name="gr18"/> For those speakers who retain a consonantal pronunciation, it is pronounced {{IPAblink|w}} before a voiced consonant and {{IPAblink|ʍ}} before a voiceless consonant.<ref name="skp136"/><ref name="gr18"/> Thus, {{lang|sl|vsi}} may be pronounced as disyllabic {{IPA|[uˈsi]}} or monosyllabic {{IPA|[ʍsi]}}.

The sequences {{IPA|/lj/}}, {{IPA|/nj/}}, and {{IPA|/rj/}} occur only before a vowel. Before a consonant or word-finally, they are reduced to {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, and {{IPA|/r/}}, respectively. This is reflected in the spelling in the case of {{IPA|/rj/}}, but not for {{IPA|/lj/}} and {{IPA|/nj/}}.

Under certain (somewhat unpredictable) circumstances, {{IPA|/l/}} at the end of a syllable may become {{IPA|[w]}}, merging with the allophone of {{IPA|/ʋ/}} in that position.

=== Vowels ===
[[File:Slovenian vowel chart.svg|thumb|Vowels of Slovene, from {{Harvcoltxt|Šuštaršič|Komar|Petek|1999|p=137}}. {{IPA|/ɐ/|cat=no}} is not shown.]]

Slovene has an eight-vowel<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Šuštaršič|Komar|Petek|1999|pp=136–137}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Toporišič|2001|p=69}}</ref> (or, according to Peter Jurgec, nine-vowel)<ref name="jurgec200712">{{Harvcoltxt|Jurgec|2007|pp=1–2}}. He transcribes it as {{IPA|/ʌ/}}, but the vowel chart on page 2 shows that the phonetically correct symbol is {{IPA|/ɐ/}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Jurgec|2005|pp=9 and 12}}</ref> system, in comparison to the five-vowel system of Serbo-Croatian.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ Slovene vowels
|-
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
| {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|ə}}
| {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| {{IPA link|ɔ}}
|-
! [[Near-open vowel|Near-open]]
|
| ({{IPA link|ɐ}})
|
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|a}}
|
|}

== Grammar ==
{{Main|Slovene grammar}}

===Nouns===
{{Main|Slovene declension}}
Slovene nouns retain six of the seven Slavic [[Grammatical case|noun cases]]: [[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], [[locative]], and [[instrumental case|instrumental]]. There is no distinct [[vocative case|vocative]]; the nominative is used in that role. Nouns, adjectives, and pronouns have three numbers: singular, dual, and plural.

Nouns in Slovene are either masculine, feminine, or neuter gender. In addition, there is a distinction between animate and inanimate nouns. This is only relevant for masculine nouns and only in the singular, at odds with some other Slavic languages, e.g., [[Russian language|Russian]], for which it is also relevant in the plural for all genders. Animate nouns have an accusative singular form that is identical to the genitive, while for inanimate nouns the accusative singular is the same as the nominative. Animacy is based mostly on semantics and is less rigid than gender. Generally speaking, a noun is animate if it refers to something that is generally thought to have free will or the ability to move of its own accord. This includes all nouns for people and animals. All other nouns are inanimate, including plants and other non-moving life forms, and also groups of people or animals. However, there are some nouns for inanimate objects that are generally animate, which mostly include inanimate objects that are named after people or animals. This includes:<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Herrity|2000|pp=34–35}}</ref>
* Dead people or animals
* Makes of cars
* Certain diseases (named after animals)
* Certain devices (named after animals or people)
* Works of art (named after their creator)
* Chess pieces and playing cards (named for the people they represent)
* Wines and mushrooms (named as [[demonym]]s)

===Definiteness===
There are no [[definite article|definite]] or [[indefinite article]]s as in English (''the'', ''a'', ''an'') or [[German language|German]] ({{lang|sl|der, die, das, ein, eine}}). A noun is described without articles; the [[grammatical gender]] is shown by the ending of the word. It is enough to say {{lang|sl|barka}} ('a' or 'the barge'), {{lang|sl|Noetova barka}} ('Noah's ark'). The gender is known in this case to be feminine. In [[declension]]s, endings are normally changed; see below. If one would like to somehow distinguish between the definiteness or indefiniteness of a noun, one would say {{lang|sl|(prav/natanko/ravno) tista barka}} ('that/precise/exact barge') for 'the barge' and {{lang|sl|neka/ena barka}} ('some/a barge') for 'a barge'.

The definiteness of a noun phrase can also be discerned through the ending of the accompanying adjective. One should say {{lang|sl|rdeči šotor}} ('[exactly that] red tent') or {{lang|sl|rdeč šotor}} ('[a] red tent'). This difference is observable only for masculine nouns in nominative or accusative case. Because of the lack of article in Slovene and audibly insignificant difference between the masculine adjective forms, most dialects do not distinguish between definite and indefinite variants of the adjective, leading to [[hypercorrection]] when speakers try to use Standard Slovene.<ref name="suss">{{cite news |url=http://www2.arnes.si/~lmarus/suss/arhiv/suss-arhiv-000346.html |title=Kako uporabljati določne pridevnike |publisher=ŠUSS |date=2 June 2005 |access-date=30 January 2011}}</ref>

===T–V distinction===
[[File:Jozef Nahtigal tombstone in Dobrova Slovenia.jpg|thumb|Tombstone of [[Jožef Nahtigal]] in [[Dobrova, Dobrova–Polhov Gradec|Dobrova]] with archaic Slovene {{lang|sl|onikanje}} in indirect reference. Literal translation "Here lie [{{lang|sl|počivajo}}] the honorable Jožef Nahtigal ... they were born [{{lang|sl|rojeni}}] ... they died [{{lang|sl|umerli}}] ... God grant them [{{lang|sl|jim}}] eternal peace and rest."]]

Slovene, like most other European languages, has a [[T–V distinction]], or two forms of 'you' for formal and informal situations. Although informal address using the 2nd person singular {{lang|sl|ti}} form (known as {{lang|sl|tikanje}}) is officially limited to friends and family, talk among children, and addressing animals, it is increasingly used among the middle generation to signal a relaxed attitude or lifestyle instead of its polite or formal counterpart using the 2nd person plural {{lang|sl|vi}} form (known as {{lang|sl|vikanje}}).

An additional nonstandard but widespread use of a singular participle combined with a plural auxiliary verb (known as {{lang|sl|polvikanje}}) signals a somewhat more friendly and less formal attitude while maintaining politeness:

* {{lang|sl|Vi ga niste videli.}} ('You did not see him': both the auxiliary verb {{lang|sl|niste}} and the participle {{lang|sl|videli}} are plural masculine. Standard usage.)
* {{lang|sl|Vi ga niste videl/videla.}} ('You did not see him': the auxiliary verb {{lang|sl|niste}} is plural but the participle {{lang|sl|videl/videla}} is singular masculine/feminine. Nonstandard usage.)

The use of nonstandard forms ({{lang|sl|polvikanje}}) might be frowned upon by many people and would not likely be used in a formal setting.

The use of the 3rd person plural {{lang|sl|oni}} ('they') form (known as {{lang|sl|onikanje}} in both direct address and indirect reference; this is similar to using {{lang|sl|Sie}} in German) as an ultra-polite form is now archaic or dialectal. It is associated with servant-master relationships in older literature, the child-parent relationship in certain conservative rural communities, and parishioner-priest relationships.

== Vocabulary ==

===Numbers===
{{Main|Slovene numerals}}

===Foreign words===
Foreign words used in Slovene are of various types depending on the assimilation they have undergone. The types are:
* {{lang|sl|sposojenka}} (loanword){{spaced ndash}}fully assimilated; e.g., {{lang|sl|pica}} ('pizza').
* {{lang|sl|tujka}} (foreign word){{spaced ndash}}partly assimilated, either in writing and syntax or in pronunciation; e.g., ''jazz'', ''wiki''.
* {{lang|sl|polcitatna beseda ali besedna zveza}} (half-quoted word or phrase) – partly assimilated, either in writing and syntax or in pronunciation; e.g., ''Shakespeare'', but {{lang|sl|Shakespearja}} in genitive case.
* {{lang|sl|citatna beseda ali besedna zveza}} (quoted word or phrase){{spaced ndash}}kept as in original, although pronunciation may be altered to fit into speech flow; e.g., ''first lady'' in all cases.
The loanwords are mostly from [[German language|German]] and [[Italian language|Italian]], while the more recently borrowed and less assimilated words are typically from [[English language|English]].{{citation needed|date=September 2014}} Among the earliest borrowings in Slovene vocabulary are Romanisms, which began to enter the Slovene language with the settlement of Slovenia by the [[Slavs]] and continued during the Middle Ages. These are primarily toponyms: Latin ''Capris / Caprae'' → [[Koper]], Latin ''Sontius'' → [[Soča]]. In addition, there are words such as ''jambor'' 'mast' < Latin ''arbor'' 'tree', ''golida'' 'milking pail' < [[Vulgar Latin]] ''galeda'', ''hlače'' 'trousers' < [[Medieval Latin]] ''calcae'', ''fant'' 'boy, lad' < Italian ''fante''.

Slovene vocabulary also contains a large number of [[Germanism (linguistics)|Germanisms]], borrowed from the 8th to the 19th centuries: ''flinta'' 'rifle' < German ''Flinte'', ''gmajna'' 'community, common land' < [[Middle High German]] ''gemeine'', ''krompir'' 'potato' < German ''Grundbirne''. Through German mediation, vocabulary of Latin and Greek origin also entered Slovene: ''klošter'' 'monastery', ''škrinja'' 'chest', ''špital'' 'hospital'.

== Writing system ==
{{Main|Slovene alphabet|Slovene braille}}
{{See also|Bohorič alphabet|Metelko alphabet|Dajnko alphabet}}

This alphabet ({{lang|sl|abeceda}}) was derived in the mid-1840s from [[Gaj's Latin Alphabet|the system]] created by the [[Croats|Croatian]] linguist [[Ljudevit Gaj]]. Intended for the [[Serbo-Croatian]] language (in all its varieties), it was patterned on the [[Czech language|Czech]] alphabet of the 1830s. Before that {{IPA|/s/}} was, for example, written as {{angbr|[[ʃ]]}}, {{angbr|ʃʃ}}, or [[Long s|{{angbr|ſ}}]]; {{IPA|/tʃ/}} as {{angbr|tʃch}}, {{angbr|cz}}, {{angbr|tʃcz}}, or {{angbr|tcz}}; {{IPA|/i/}} sometimes as {{angbr|y}}; {{IPA|/j/}} as {{angbr|y}}; {{IPA|/l/}} as {{angbr|ll}}; {{IPA|/ʋ/}} as {{angbr|w}}; {{IPA|/ʒ/}} as {{angbr|ʃ}}, {{angbr|ʃʃ}}, or {{angbr|ʃz}}.

The standard Slovene orthography, employed in almost all situations, uses only the letters of the [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]] plus {{angbr|č}}, {{angbr|š}}, and {{angbr|ž}}. The letters {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|w}}, {{angbr|x}}, and {{angbr|y}} are not included:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! letter !! phoneme !! example word !! word pronunciation
|-
| '''A a''' || {{IPA|/aː/}}<br />{{IPA|/a/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|dan}} "day"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|abeceda}} "alphabet" || {{IPA|/ˈdáːn/}}, dȃn<br />{{IPA|/abɛˈtséːda/}}, abecẹ̑da
|-
| '''B b''' || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|beseda}} "word" || {{IPA|/bɛˈséːda/}}, besẹ̑da
|-
| '''C c''' || {{IPA|/t͡s/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|cvet}} "bloom" || {{IPA|/ˈtsʋéːt/}}, cvẹ̑t
|-
| '''Č č''' || {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}|| {{wikt-lang|sl|časopis}} "newspaper" || {{IPA|/tʃasɔˈpíːs/}}, časopı̑s
|-
| '''D d''' || {{IPA|/d/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|danes}} "today" || {{IPA|/ˈdàːnəs/}}, dánəs
|-
| '''E e''' || {{IPA|/eː/}}<br />{{IPA|/ɛː/}}<br />{{IPA|/ɛ/}}<br />{{IPA|/ə/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|sedem}} "seven"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|reči}} "to say"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|medved}} "bear"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|sem}} "I am" || {{IPA|/ˈsèːdəm/}}, sẹ́dəm<br />{{IPA|/ˈrɛ̀ːtʃi/}}, réči<br />{{IPA|/ˈmɛ̀ːdʋɛt/}}, médved<br />{{IPA|/ˈsə́m/}}, sə̏m
|-
| '''F f''' || {{IPA|/f/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|fant}} "boy" || {{IPA|/ˈfánt/}}, fȁnt
|-
| '''G g''' || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|grad}} "castle" || {{IPA|/ˈɡráːt/}}, grȃd
|-
| '''H h''' || {{IPA|/x/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|hiša}} "house" || {{IPA|/ˈxìːʃa/}}, híša
|-
| '''I i''' || {{IPA|/iː/}}<br />{{IPA|/i/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|biti}} "to be"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|imeti}} "to have" || {{IPA|/ˈbìːti/}}, bíti<br />{{IPA|/iˈmèːti/}}, imẹ́ti
|-
| '''J j''' || {{IPA|/j/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|jabolko}} "apple" || {{IPA|/ˈjàːbɔwkɔ/}}, jábołko
|-
| '''K k''' || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|kmet}} "peasant" || {{IPA|/ˈkmɛ́t/}}, kmȅt
|-
| '''L l''' || {{IPA|/l/}}
{{IPA|/uʷ/}}
| {{wikt-lang|sl|letalo}} "airplane"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|zrel}} "mature" || {{IPA|/lɛˈtàːlɔ/}}, letálo<br />{{IPA|/ˈzrɛ́uʷ/}}, zrȅł
|-
| '''M m''' || {{IPA|/m/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|misliti}} "to think" || {{IPA|/ˈmìːsliti/}}, mísliti
|-
| '''N n''' || {{IPA|/n/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|novice}} "news" || {{IPA|/nɔˈʋìːtsɛ/}}, novíce
|-
| '''O o''' || {{IPA|/oː/}}<br />{{IPA|/ɔː/}}<br />{{IPA|/ɔ/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|opica}} "monkey"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|okno}} "window"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|gospa}} "lady" || {{IPA|/ˈóːpitsa/}}, ọ̑pica<br />{{IPA|/ˈɔ̀ːknɔ/}}, ókno<br />{{IPA|/ɡɔˈspàː/}}, gospá
|-
| '''P p''' || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|pomoč}} "help" || {{IPA|/pɔˈmóːtʃ/}}, pomọ̑č
|-
| '''R r''' || {{IPA|/r/}}<br />{{IPA|/ər/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|riž}} "rice"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|trg}} "square" || {{IPA|/ˈríːʃ/}}, rȋž<br />{{IPA|/ˈtə́rk/}}, tȓg
|-
| '''S s''' || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|svet}} "world" || {{IPA|/ˈsʋéːt/}}, svẹ̑t
|-
| '''Š š''' || {{IPA|/ʃ/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|šola}} "school" || {{IPA|/ˈʃóːla/}}, šọ̑la
|-
| '''T t''' || {{IPA|/t/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|tip}} "type" || {{IPA|/ˈtíːp/}}, tȋp
|-
| '''U u''' || {{IPA|/uː/}}<br />{{IPA|/u/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|ulica}} "street"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|mamut}} "mammoth" || {{IPA|/ˈùːlitsa/}}, úlica<br />{{IPA|/ˈmáːmut/}}, mȃmut
|-
| '''V v''' || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}<br />{{IPA|/ʍ/}}<br />{{IPA|/w/}}<br />{{IPA|/uʷ/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|voda}} "water"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|vsebina}} "content"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|vzeti}} "take"<br />{{wikt-lang|sl|lev}} "lion" || {{IPA|/ˈʋɔ̀ːda/}}, vóda<br />{{IPA|/ʍsɛˈbiːna/}}<br />{{IPA|/ˈwzéːti/}}<br />{{IPA|/ˈlɛ́uʷ/}}, lȅv
|-
| '''Z z''' || {{IPA|/z/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|zima}} "winter" || {{IPA|/ˈzìːma/}}, zíma
|-
| '''Ž ž''' || {{IPA|/ʒ/}} || {{wikt-lang|sl|življenje}} "life" || {{IPA|/ʒiwˈljɛ̀ːnjɛ/}}, življénje
|}

The orthography thus underdifferentiates several phonemic distinctions:

* Stress, vowel length and tone are not distinguished, except with optional diacritics when it is necessary to distinguish between similar words with a different meaning.
* The two distinct mid-vowels are also not distinguished, both written as simply {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|o}}.
* The schwa {{IPA|/ə/}} is also written as {{angle bracket|e}}. However, the combination {{IPA|/ər/}} is written as simply {{angbr|r}} between consonants and is thus distinguishable.
* Vocalized ''l'' {{IPA|/uʷ/}} is written also as {{angle bracket|l}}, but cannot be predictably distinguished from {{IPA|/l/}} in that position.

In the tonemic varieties of Slovene, the ambiguity is even greater: {{angbr|e}} in a final syllable can stand for any of {{IPA|/éː/ /èː/ /ɛ́ː/ /ɛ̀ː/ /ɛ/ /ə/}} (although {{IPA|/ɛ̀ː/}} is rare; and Slovene, except in some dialects, does not distinguish tonemic accentuation).

The reader is expected to gather the interpretation of the word from the context, as in these examples:

* {{lang|sl|gol}}:
** {{IPA|/ˈɡɔ́w/}} gȍł "naked"
** {{IPA|/ˈɡóːl/}} gọ̑l "goal"
* {{lang|sl|jesen}}:
** {{IPA|/ˈjɛ̀ːsɛn/}} jésen "ash tree"
** {{IPA|/jɛˈséːn/}} jesẹ̑n "autumn"
* {{lang|sl|kot}}
** {{IPA|/ˈkòːt/}} kọ́t "angle"
** {{IPA|/kɔt/}} kot "as"
* {{lang|sl|med}}
** {{IPA|/mɛt/}} med "between"
** {{IPA|/ˈméːt/}} mẹ̑d "honey"
* {{lang|sl|pol}}
** {{IPA|/ˈpóːl/}} pọ̑l "pole"
** {{IPA|/ˈpóːw/}} pọ̑ł "half"
* {{lang|sl|precej}}
** {{IPA|/ˈprɛ́tsɛj/}} prȅcej "at once" (archaic)
** {{IPA|/prɛˈtséːj/}} precẹ̑j or {{IPA|/prɛˈtsɛ́j/}} precȅj "a great deal (of)"

===Diacritics===

To compensate for the shortcomings of the standard orthography, Slovene also uses standardized [[diacritic]]s or accent marks to denote [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], [[vowel length]], and [[Pitch-accent language|pitch accent]], much like the closely related [[Serbo-Croatian]]. However, as in Serbo-Croatian, use of such accent marks is restricted to dictionaries, language textbooks, and linguistic publications. In normal writing, the diacritics are almost never used, except in a few minimal pairs where real ambiguity could arise.

Two different and mutually-incompatible systems of diacritics are used. The first is the simpler non-tonemic system, which can be applied to all Slovene dialects. It is more widely used and is the standard representation in dictionaries such as SSKJ. The tonemic system also includes tone as part of the representation. However, neither system reliably distinguishes schwa {{IPA|/ə/}} from the front mid-vowels, nor vocalised l {{IPA|/w/}} from regular l {{IPA|/l/}}. Some sources, such as [[Maks Pleteršnik]]'s 1894/95 dictionary, write these as ''ə'' and ''ł'', respectively, but this is not as common.

====Non-tonemic diacritics====
In the non-tonemic system, the distinction between the two mid-vowels is indicated, as well as the placement of stress and the length of vowels:

* Long stressed vowels are notated with an acute diacritic: {{angbr|á é í ó ú ŕ}} (IPA: {{IPA|/aː eː iː oː uː ər/}}).
* However, the rarer long stressed low-mid vowels {{IPA|/ɛː/}} and {{IPA|/ɔː/}} are notated with a circumflex: {{angbr|ê ô}}.
* Short stressed vowels are notated with a grave: {{angbr|à è ì ò ù}} (IPA: {{IPA|/a ɛ i ɔ u/}}). Some systems may also include {{angbr|ə̀}} for {{IPA|/ə/}}.

====Tonemic diacritics====
The tonemic system uses the diacritics somewhat differently from the non-tonemic system. The high-mid vowels {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} are written {{angbr|ẹ ọ}} with a subscript dot, while the low-mid vowels {{IPA|/ɛː/}} and {{IPA|/ɔː/}} are written as plain {{angbr|e o}}.

Pitch accent and vowel length is indicated by four diacritical marks:

* The [[acute accent|acute]] (&nbsp;´&nbsp;) indicates '''long and low''' pitch: {{angbr|{{wrap|á é ẹ́ í ó ọ́ ú ŕ}}}} (IPA: {{IPA|/àː ɛ̀ː èː ìː ɔ̀ː òː ùː ə̀r/}}).
* The [[inverted breve]] (&nbsp; ̑&nbsp;) indicates '''long and high''' pitch: {{angbr|{{wrap|ȃ ȇ ẹ̑ ȋ ȏ ọ̑ ȗ ȓ}}}} (IPA: {{IPA|/áː ɛ́ː éː íː ɔ́ː óː úː ə́r/}}).
* The [[grave accent|grave]] (&nbsp;`&nbsp;) indicates '''short and low''' pitch. This occurs only on {{angbr|è}} (IPA: {{IPA|/ə̀/}}), optionally written as {{angbr|ə̀}}.
* The [[double grave]] (&nbsp; ̏&nbsp;) indicates '''short and high''' pitch: {{angbr|ȁ ȅ ȉ ȍ ȕ}} (IPA: {{IPA|á ɛ́ í ɔ́ ú}}). {{angbr|ȅ}} is also used for {{IPA|/ə́/}}, optionally written as {{angbr|ə̏}}.

The schwa vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} is written ambiguously as {{angbr|e}}, but its accentuation will sometimes distinguish it: a long vowel mark can never appear on a schwa, while a grave accent can appear only on a schwa. Thus, only {{angbr|ȅ}} and unstressed {{angbr|e}} are truly ambiguous.

==Regulation==
Standard Slovene spelling and grammar are defined by the Orthographic Committee and the Fran Ramovš Institute of the Slovene Language, which are both part of the [[Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts]] ({{lang|sl|Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti}}, SAZU). The newest reference book of standard Slovene spelling (and to some extent also grammar) is the {{lang|sl|Slovenski pravopis}} (''SP2001''; Slovene Normative Guide). The latest printed edition was published in 2001 (reprinted in 2003 with some corrections) and contains more than 130,000 dictionary entries. In 2003, an electronic version was published.

The official dictionary of modern Slovene, which was also prepared by SAZU, is {{lang|sl|Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika}} (''SSKJ''; Standard Slovene Dictionary). It was published in five volumes by Državna Založba Slovenije between 1970 and 1991 and contains more than 100,000 entries and subentries with accentuation, part-of-speech labels, common collocations, and various qualifiers. In the 1990s, an electronic version of the dictionary was published and is available online.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/sskj_en.html |title=Searching the Dictionary of Standard Slovenian |access-date=7 January 2018 |publisher=Fran Ramovš Institute of Slovenian Language, ZRC SAZU |date=10 March 2008}}</ref><ref name=Portal>{{cite web |url=http://www.dictionaryportal.eu/en/ctlg/?objLang=sl |title=European Dictionary Portal: Slovene |publisher=European Network of e-Lexicography |access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref>

The SAZU considers SP2001 to be the normative source on Slovene. When dictionary entries in SP2001 and SSKJ differ, the SP2001 entry takes precedence. SP2001 is called a Spelling Dictionary by the European Network of e-Lexicography.<ref name=Portal />

== Sample text ==
Article 1 of the ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'' in Slovene.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Official Slovene Translation (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia – International Treaties, No. 3/18)|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/slv.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315024754/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/slv.pdf|access-date=16 July 2020|website=Office of the High Commissioner, United Nations|archive-date=15 March 2016}}</ref>
:{{lang|sl|Vsi ljudje se rodijo svobodni ter imajo enako dostojanstvo in pravice. Dana sta jim razum in vest, in bi morali drug z drugim ravnati v duhu bratstva.}}

Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|website=un.org}}</ref>
:''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
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|url=http://www.seelrc.org:8080/grammar/mainframe.jsp?nLanguageID=8
}}
*{{citation
|last=Herrity
|first=Peter
|title=Slovene: A Comprehensive Grammar
|location=London
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|year=2000
|isbn=0-415-23148-5
}}
*{{citation
|last=Jurgec
|first=Peter
|title=Formant frequencies of standard Slovene vowels
|journal=Govor
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|year=2005
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|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/256498
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* {{citation
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}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|auto=1|iw=sl|s=sl:Main Page}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070217232608/http://www.centerslo.net/index.asp?LANG=eng Centre for Slovene as a Second/Foreign Language]
* [http://www.x-sandra.com/valencic/SlovenianPhonology.pdf Slovenian Phonology]

===Grammars===
* [http://learn101.org/slovene.php Slovene Grammar]

===Corpora===
* [[Slovenian National Corpus]] 600 M words corpus of Slovenian FidaPLUS
* [http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/a_beseda.html 200 M words corpus of Slovenian Nova beseda]

===Dictionaries===
* {{in lang|sl}} [http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/sskj.html Standard Slovene Dictionary (SSKJ)]
* {{in lang|sl}} [http://evroterm.gov.si/slovar/ Comprehensive list of the Slovene dictionaries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209132842/http://evroterm.gov.si/slovar/ |date=9 February 2018 }}
* {{in lang|sl}} [http://www.4ezi.com/ezisoftware/projects/slovar/ Spletni Slovar (Multilingual Dictionary)]

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