View source for Smiling Buddha

{{Short description|India's first successful nuclear weapons test (1974)}}
{{for|the religious figure known as the Laughing Buddha|Budai}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2015}}
{{use Indian English|date=May 2014}}
{{Infobox nuclear weapons test
|name                = Smiling Buddha<br><small>Pokhran-I</small>
|country             = India
|image               =
|test_site           = [[Pokhran|Pokhran Test Range]]
|coordinates         = {{coord|27.0788|71.7224|format=dms|type:event_region:IN|display=inline,title}}
|period              = 18 May 1974, 8:05 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]]
|number_of_tests     = 1
|test_type           = [[Underground nuclear weapons testing|Underground shaft]]
|device_type         = [[Nuclear weapon#Fission weapons|Fission]]
|max_yield           = {{convert|8-10|ktonTNT|lk=in}}
|next_test           = [[Pokhran-II]]
}}
'''Smiling Buddha''' ([[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|MEA]] designation: '''Pokhran-I''') was the code name of India's first successful [[Nuclear weapons testing|nuclear weapon test]] on 18 May 1974. The [[nuclear fission]] bomb was detonated in the [[Pokhran#Pokhran Test Range|Pokhran Test Range]] of the [[Indian Army]] in [[Rajasthan]]. As per the [[Military Intelligence Corps (United States Army)|United States military intelligence]], the operation was named as ''Happy Krishna''. The Indian [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Ministry of External Affairs]] (MEA) described the test as a [[peaceful nuclear explosion]]. 

The bomb was built by scientists at the [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]] (BARC) headed by [[Raja Ramanna]], in assistance with the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]] (DRDO) headed by [[Basanti Dulal Nagchaudhuri|B. D. Nag Chaudhuri]] under the supervision of the [[Atomic Energy Commission of India|Atomic Energy Commission]] headed by [[Homi Sethna]]. A [[CIRUS reactor|CIRUS]] [[nuclear reactor]] given by Canada and [[heavy water]] (used as a [[neutron moderator]]) supplied by the United States were used in the production of [[Weapons-grade nuclear material|nuclear material]] for the bomb. The preparations for the test and the detonation was conducted in extreme secrecy. It was tightly controlled by [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] [[Indira Gandhi]] with very few people outside the team of scientists being aware of the test. 

The device was of the [[Nuclear weapon design#Implosion-type weapon|implosion-type]] design with a [[Plutonium-239|plutonium]] core. It had a hexagonal cross section, {{cvt|1.25|m}} in diameter, and weighed {{cvt|1400|kg}}. It was assembled, mounted on a hexagonal metal tripod, and was transported to the test site on rails. The test was conducted at 8.05 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]] on 18 May 1974. The data on the exact [[Nuclear weapon yield|nuclear yield]] of the test has been varied and scarce, and sources indicate that the bomb might have yielded between six and ten [[kiloton]]s.

It was the first confirmed nuclear weapons test by a nation outside the [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|five permanent members]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]]. The test led to the formation of the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] (NSG) to control nuclear proliferation. After the test, India carried out a series of nuclear tests named [[Pokhran-II]] in 1998.

== Background ==
The origins of [[Indian nuclear programme|India's nuclear programme]] can be traced back to 1945 when [[Homi Jehangir Bhabha|Homi Bhabha]] established the [[Tata Institute of Fundamental Research]] with the aid of [[Tata Group]]. After [[Indian Independence Act 1947|Indian independence]], the Atomic Energy Act was passed on 15 April 1948, that established the [[Indian Atomic Energy Commission]] (IAEC).<ref name="History">{{cite web|last=Sublette|first=Carey|title=Origins of Indian nuclear program|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html|publisher=Nuclear weapon Archive|access-date=13 November 2011}}</ref> India was involved in the development of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]], but ultimately did not sign it.<ref>{{cite book|last=Perkovich|first=George|title=India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation|year=2002|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23210-5}}</ref> In 1954, [[Department of Atomic Energy (India)|Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)]] was established which was responsible for the atomic energy development programme and was allocated a significant amount of the defence budget in the subsequent years. In 1956, the first [[nuclear reactor]] named ''APSARA'' became operational at [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|Trombay]], becoming the first operating reactor in Asia.<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1545653|title=Apsara – U Reactor Becomes Operational at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay|date=11 September 2018|access-date=1 December 2023|publisher=[[Government of India]]}}</ref> A [[CIRUS reactor]] was given to India as a part of an understanding with Canada and the [[United States]] under the [[Atoms for Peace]] programme. India set up an indigenous programme to manufacture [[uranium]] [[nuclear fuel]] for the reactor, as opposed to importing from other countries.<ref name="History"/> In July 1958, then [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] authorized "Project Phoenix" to build a reprocessing plant with a capacity to produce 20 tons of [[plutonium]] fuel a year using the [[PUREX]] process, designed by the [[Vitro Corporation|Vitro Corporation of America]]. The construction of the plutonium plant began in 1961, and it was commissioned in mid-1964.<ref name="History"/> 

The civilian nuclear program to produce electricity from nuclear energy was also established during this period with plans to construct new [[nuclear power plant]]s for the purpose. Nehru's discussions with Bhabha and [[Kenneth Nichols]], a [[United States Army|US Army]] engineer, showed his approach and intention to create nuclear weapons as a means of [[Deterrence theory|deterrence]].<ref name="Kumar">{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=P.|title=Homi J. Bhabha: A Complete Biography: Homi J. Bhabha: A Complete Biography: Architect of India's Nuclear Program|publisher=Prabhakar Prakashan Private Limited|year=2024|isbn=978-93-5562-943-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VdXsEAAAQBAJ|page=1960|access-date=6 April 2024|archive-date=20 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240520143446/https://books.google.com/books?id=VdXsEAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1962, India was engaged in a [[Sino-Indian War|war with China]] and with China pursuing its own atomic development programme, it accelerated India's need to develop [[nuclear weapons]].<ref name="History"/> During this period, India signed an agreement with [[Soviet Union]] to help build nuclear reactors in India.{{sfn|Perkovich|1999|p=37}}

== Development ==
With two reactors operational in early 1960s, Bhabha was involved in learning and development of know-how to manufacture nuclear weapons. The atomic energy act was amended in 1962 to give far more control to the [[Government of India|central government]]. Bhabha was also aggressively lobbying for nuclear weapons and made several public speeches on the matter. He also estimated that a nuclear device with a 10 [[kiloton|kt]] yield would cost US$350,000. The reactors were not producing fuel at the expected rate and with Nehru's death in 1964, the programme slowed down.<ref name="Program">{{cite web|title=On to Weapons Development, 1960–67|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaWDevelop.html|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive|access-date=14 January 2013|date=30 March 2001}}</ref> The incoming prime minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] gave approval for the Subterranean Nuclear Explosion Project in 1964 under Bhabha's insistence. However, Shastri did not want to commit to a weapons test yet, and later appointed physicist [[Vikram Sarabhai]] as the head of the nuclear programme. Because of Sarabhai's non-violent [[Gandhian]] beliefs, he directed the programme towards peaceful purposes rather than military development.<ref name="Kanavi">{{cite web|last=Kanavi|first=Shivanand|title=How Indian PMs reacted to nuclear bombs|url=https://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-an-interview-with-k-subrahmanyam/20110210.htm|work=[[Rediff.com]]|access-date=2 April 2024|archive-date=15 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115120835/https://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-an-interview-with-k-subrahmanyam/20110210.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Meanwhile, the design work on the bomb proceeded under physicist [[Raja Ramanna]], who continued the nuclear weapons technology research after Bhabha's death in 1966.<ref name="Program"/>

[[File:Trombay.jpg|thumb|APSARA reactor and plutonium reprocessing facility at [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre|BARC]] as photographed by a US satellite on 19 February 1966]]

After Shastri's death in 1966, [[Indira Gandhi]] became the prime minister and work on the nuclear weapons programme resumed. [[Homi Sethna]], a chemical engineer, was put in charge of plutonium development. The project for the design and manufacturing of the nuclear device employed just 75 scientists because of the secret nature of the project.<ref name="Kanavi"/> Ramanna led the project with [[P. K. Iyengar]] serving as his deputy and the leadership team also included Sethna and Sarabhai.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nti.org/facilities/861/|title=Purnima I-II-III|date=1 September 2003|access-date=8 September 2014|work=[[Nuclear Threat Initiative]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140909004708/http://www.nti.org/facilities/861/|archive-date=9 September 2014}}</ref> The weapons programme was directed towards the production of plutonium rather than uranium and then in 1969, enough plutonium had been accumulated for the production of a single nuclear bomb.<ref name="Program"/> In 1968–69, Iyengar led a team to the Soviet Union and toured the nuclear research facilities at [[Dubna]]. Upon his return to India, Iyengar set about developing a plutonium fueled [[fast breeder reactor]] named ''Purnima'' under Mahadeva Srinivasan. In 1969, [[Rajagopala Chidambaram|R. Chidambaram]] was engaged for researching the use of plutonium.<ref name="Bomb">{{cite web|title=India's First Bomb: 1967-1974|url=https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaFirstBomb.html|date=30 March 2001|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive|access-date=2 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Richelson|first=Jefferey T|author-link=Jeffrey T. Richelson|title=Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea|date=March 1999|publisher=WW Norton|page=[https://archive.org/details/spyingonbombamer00rich/page/233 233]|isbn=978-0-393-05383-8|url=https://archive.org/details/spyingonbombamer00rich/page/233}}</ref> 

Simultaneous work on the fabrication of the bomb core and [[implosion-type nuclear weapon|implosion]] design was conducted by teams led by physicist [[V. S. Ramamurthy]]. The detonation system development began in April 1970 with [[Pranab R. Dastidar]] collaborating with [[Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan|W. D. Patwardhan]] at the [[High Energy Materials Research Laboratory]] (ERDL) of the [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]] (DRDO). In July, physicist [[Basanti Dulal Nagchaudhuri|B. D. Nagchaudhuri]] was appointed as the scientific adviser to the [[Minister of Defence (India)|Defense Minister]] and as Director of the DRDO.<ref name="Bomb"/> Nagchaudhuri and Ramanna worked together to recruit the team and set up the requirements necessary for a nuclear weapon test. [[Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory]] (TBRL) of the DRDO developed the explosive lenses for the implosion system. Srinivasan and K. Subba Rao were tasked with developing fission models and prediction of the test's efficiency. In April 1971, Nagchaudhuri appointed N. S. Venkatesan as the new Director of TBRL to help develop the implosion system. [[Dr. V. K. Iya|V.K. Iya]] was in charge of developing the [[neutron]] initiator system. In the same year, Sethna succeeded Sarabhai as the chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission.<ref name="Bomb"/> 

In December 1971, during the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|Indo-Pakistani War]], the U.S. government sent a [[carrier battle group]] led by the {{ship|USS|Enterprise|CVN-65}} into the [[Bay of Bengal]] in an attempt to intimidate India. The Soviet Union responded by sending its own naval force to deter the U.S. from involving militarily. This event is indicated as a reason for India's pursuance of the nuclear programme.{{sfn|Perkovich|1999|p=165}} After India gained military and political initiative over Pakistan in the [[Indo-Pakistani war of 1971]], the work on building a nuclear device continued. The hardware began to be built in early 1972 and the Prime Minister authorised the development of a nuclear test device in September 1972.{{sfn|Perkovich|1999|p=172}}

== Nuclear test ==
[[File:DRDO Successfully Flight-Tested Guided Bomb From SU-30 MKI (2).png|thumb|The test was conducted at the [[Pokhran#Pokhran Test Range|Pokhran Test Range]] (pictured during a test in 2019)]]
The [[Indian Army]] was involved in the test preparations at the [[Pokhran#Pokhran Test Range|Pokhran Test Range]] in [[Rajasthan]]. The project was code named ''Operation Smiling Buddha'' ([[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|MEA]] designation: ''Pokhran-I'') while as per the [[Military Intelligence Corps (United States Army)|United States military intelligence]], the operation was named as ''Happy Krishna''.<ref name="Shankar">{{cite book|title=Nixon, Indira and India: Politics and Beyond|author=Kalyani Shankar|year=2010|isbn=978-0-230-32868-6|publisher=Macmillan Publishers India|page=357}}</ref> The preparations were carried by civilian scientists assisted by the Indian Army.<ref name="Smiling Buddha">{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaSmiling.html|work=India's Nuclear Weapons Program|title=Smiling Buddha, 1974|publisher=Nuclear Weapon Archive}}</ref> Indira Gandhi maintained tight control of all aspects of the preparations of the test, which was conducted in extreme secrecy. Besides Gandhi, only her advisers [[Parmeshwar Narayan Haksar|Parmeshwar Haksar]] and [[Durga Prasad Dhar|D. P. Dhar]] were kept informed. Dhar had protested the test, fearing that the sanctions that would follow, would affect the Indian economy.<ref name="Smiling Buddha"/><ref name="Shankar"/> The Indian Defence Minister [[Jagjivan Ram]] was informed only a few days prior and [[Swaran Singh]], the [[Ministry of External Affairs (India)|Minister of External Affairs]], was given only 48 hours notice.{{sfn|Perkovich|1999|p=174}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Chengappa|first=Raj|title=Weapons of peace : the secret story of India's quest to be a nuclear power|year=2000|publisher=Harper Collins Publishers, India|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-7223-330-2}}</ref> [[General (India)|General]] [[Gopal Gurunath Bewoor|G. G. Bewoor]], [[Chief of the Army Staff (India)|Indian army chief]], and [[Lieutenant-General]] [[Tapishwar Narain Raina|T. N. Raina]], the commander of [[Western Command (India)|Indian Western Command]] were the only military commanders who knew about the test.<ref name="Smiling Buddha"/> The test was called a [[Peaceful nuclear explosions|Peaceful Nuclear Explosive]] (PNE). The device was detonated on 18 May 1974 at 8.05 [[Indian Standard Time|IST]] with [[Pranab R. Dastidar|Dastidar]] pushing the firing button.<ref name="Smiling Buddha"/><ref name="Pahuja">{{cite book|first=Om Parkash|last=Pahuja|title=India: A Nuclear Weapon State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GiI_Yt7SOA8C&pg=PT63|access-date=29 June 2012|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|isbn=978-81-87100-69-0|pages=63–|year=2001}}</ref><ref name="Nuclear files archives">{{cite web|url=http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/timeline/timeline_page.php?year=1974|title=1974 Nuclear files|last=FIles|work=Nuclear Age Peace Foundation|publisher=Nuclear files archives|access-date=14 January 2013|archive-date=2 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160702032049/http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/timeline/timeline_page.php?year=1974|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="NSG">{{cite web|title=History of the NSG|url=https://www.nsg-online.org/en/about-nsg|work=Nuclear Suppliers Group|access-date=14 January 2023|archive-date=3 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203133606/https://www.nsg-online.org/en/about-nsg|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Nuclear weapon yield|nuclear yield]] of the test has been difficult to determine with unclear data provided by Indian sources. Although politicians had given multiple numbers ranging from 2&nbsp;[[Kiloton|kt]] to 20&nbsp;kt, the official yield was initially set at 12&nbsp;kt. Independent seismic data from outside and analysis of the crater features indicated a lower figure. Analysts estimate the yield at 4 to 6&nbsp;kt, using conventional seismic magnitude-to-yield conversion formulas. Later, both Sethna and Iyengar conceded the official yield to be an exaggeration. Iyengar has stated that the yield was 8–10&nbsp;kt, that the device was designed to yield 10&nbsp;kt, and that the yield was 8&nbsp;kt "exactly as predicted".<ref name="Smiling Buddha"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaRealYields.html|title=What Are the Real Yields of India's Tests?|publisher=Nuclear Weapons Archive|access-date=1 December 2023}}</ref>

== Weapon design ==
[[File:Implosion Nuclear weapon.svg|thumb|An [[Nuclear weapon design#Implosion-type weapon|implosion-type nuclear weapon]]]]
The device was of the [[Nuclear weapon design#Implosion-type weapon|implosion-type]] design with a plutonium core, similar to ''[[Fat Man]]'', the American nuclear bomb [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki#Bombing of Nagasaki|detonated over Nagasaki in 1945]]. The implosion system was assembled at the TBRL of the DRDO in [[Chandigarh]]. The detonation system was developed at the HEMRL of the DRDO in [[Pune]].<ref name="Smiling Buddha"/> The 6&nbsp;kg of plutonium came from the CIRUS reactor at BARC and the neutron initiator was of the [[polonium]]–[[beryllium]] type, code-named ''Flower''. The entire nuclear bomb was engineered and assembled by Indian engineers at BARC before transportation to the test site. The fully assembled device had a hexagonal cross section, {{cvt|1.25|m}} in diameter, and weighed {{cvt|1400|kg}}. The device was mounted on a hexagonal metal tripod, and was transported to the shaft on rails which the army kept covered with sand.<ref name="Smiling Buddha"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/7823/7/07_chapter%203.pdf|title=Pokhran-I|work=Information and Library Network, [[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]], Govt. of India|access-date=18 September 2020|archive-date=22 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122074340/http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/7823/7/07_chapter%203.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
===Domestic reaction===
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi gained much popularity after the test, which had flagged from its heights after the 1971 war with Pakistan. The overall popularity and image of the [[Indian National Congress|Congress Party]] was enhanced and it was well received in the [[Indian Parliament]]. In 1975, Sethna, Ramanna and Nagchaudhuri were honoured with the ''[[Padma Vibhushan]]'', India's second highest civilian award. Five other project members received the ''[[Padma Shri]]'', India's fourth highest civilian award. India consistently maintained that this was a peaceful nuclear bomb test and that it had no intentions of militarising its nuclear programme, but according to independent monitors, this test was part of an accelerated [[Indian nuclear programme]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Reaction and Long Pause|url=http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaPause.html|publisher=Reaction and Long Pause|access-date=15 January 2013}}</ref> In 1997 [[Raja Ramanna]], speaking to the ''[[Press Trust of India]]'', maintained:

{{Blockquote|The Pokhran test was a bomb, I can tell you now.... An explosion is an explosion, a gun is a gun, whether you shoot at someone or shoot at the ground.... I just want to make clear that the test was not all that peaceful.|Raja Ramanna, <sub>to Press Trust of India in 1997</sub><ref name="Smiling Buddha"/>}}

=== International reaction ===
{{Main|Nuclear Suppliers Group}}
While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many quarters. In reaction to the tests, the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]] (NSG) was established to check international nuclear proliferation.<ref name="NSG"/> The NSG decided in 1992 to require full-scope [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]] safeguards for any new nuclear export deals, which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)|url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/official_docs/inventory/pdfs/nsg.pdf|publisher=Nuclear Threat Initiative|access-date=4 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030503120417/http://nti.org/e_research/official_docs/inventory/pdfs/nsg.pdf|archive-date=3 May 2003|df=dmy-all}}</ref> It was only waived as part of the [[Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nuclear Deal: A chronology of key developments|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/nuclear-deal-a-chronology-of-key-developmen/368607/|access-date=5 September 2011|newspaper=[[The Indian Express]]|date=2 October 2008|archive-date=28 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328215820/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/nuclear-deal-a-chronology-of-key-developmen/368607|url-status=live}}</ref>

The plutonium used in the test had been enriched in the reactor supplied by Canada, using [[heavy water]] (used as [[neutron moderator]]) supplied by the United States. Both the countries reacted negatively, especially in light of then ongoing negotiations on the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] and the economic aid both countries had provided to India.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ripples in the nuclear pond|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=x6ZSAAAAIBAJ&pg=7191%2C5606996|access-date=5 September 2011|newspaper=The Deseret News|date=22 May 1974|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308235856/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=x6ZSAAAAIBAJ&pg=7191%2C5606996|url-status=live}}</ref> Canada concluded that the test violated a 1971 understanding between the two states, and froze nuclear energy assistance for the two heavy water reactors then under construction. However, the United States concluded that the test did not violate any agreement and proceeded with a June 1974 shipment of enriched uranium for the [[Tarapur Atomic Power Station|Tarapur reactor]]. New Zealand's Prime Minister [[Norman Kirk]] commented that, "The announcement of an underground nuclear explosion by India raises more urgently than ever the need for international agreement to end all nuclear testing."<ref name="New Zealand Ministry">{{cite book|title=New Zealand Foreign Affairs Review|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs|volume=24|year=1974|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVIgAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA35|page=35|access-date=2 April 2024|archive-date=2 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402060248/https://books.google.com/books?id=UVIgAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA35|url-status=live}}</ref>

Pakistan did not view the test as a peaceful nuclear explosion, and cancelled scheduled talks with India. In June 1974, [[Prime Minister of Pakistan|Prime Minister]] [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] said that Pakistan considered this as an intimidation and would not accept India's superiority in the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent]].<ref>{{cite news|publisher=Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) and Pakistan Television (PTV)|title=Prime minister Secretariat Press Release|quote=India's so-called Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) is tested and designed to intimidate and establish "Indian hegemony in the subcontinent", most particularly Pakistan...|first=Zulfikar Ali|last=Bhutto|date=18 May 1974|url=http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918040826/http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html|archive-date=18 September 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2011, Pakistani [[Nuclear physics|nuclear physicist]] [[Pervez Hoodbhoy]] stated that he believed the test pressed Pakistan into developing nuclear weapons of its own.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hoodbhoy|first=Pervez Amerali|author-link=Pervaiz Hoodbhoy|title=Pakistan's nuclear bayonet|work=[[The Herald (Pakistan)|The Herald]]|date=23 January 2011|url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html|access-date=9 September 2011|archive-date=18 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218212415/http://www.dawn.com/2011/02/16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Other tests ==
Despite many proposals, India did not carry out further nuclear tests until 1998. Code named as ''Operation Shakti'' (officially known as [[Pokhran-II]]) was carried out at the Pokhran test site, using technology designed and built over the preceding two decades.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reed|first1=Thomas C|title=The nuclear express: a political history of the bomb and its proliferation|year=2009|publisher=Zenith|isbn=978-0-7603-3502-4|first2=Danny B|last2=Stillman}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52814|title=Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests|date=24 September 2009|access-date=1 December 2023|publisher=[[Government of India]]|archive-date=1 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601154027/https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=52814|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[India and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[History of nuclear weapons]]
* [[List of countries with nuclear weapons]]
* [[Pokhran-II]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book|last=Perkovich|first=G.|title=India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation|publisher=University of California Press|series=ACLS Humanities E-Book|year=1999|isbn=978-0-520-23210-5}}

{{Smiling Buddha|Scientists=A. K. Ganguly}}
{{India topics}}

[[Category:Explosions in 1974]]
[[Category:1974 in India]]
[[Category:1974 in military history]]
[[Category:Indian nuclear weapons testing]]
[[Category:Political history of India]]
[[Category:Underground nuclear weapons testing]]
[[Category:Indira Gandhi administration]]
[[Category:Code names]]
[[Category:Pokaran]]
[[Category:Nuclear history of India]]
[[Category:Nuclear proliferation]]
[[Category:Military history of India]]
[[Category:Politics of India]]
[[Category:A. P. J. Abdul Kalam]]
[[Category:May 1974 in Asia]]
[[Category:History of the Indian Army]]