View source for Sneakers

{{Short description|Sport and casual shoes}}
{{Other uses|Sneaker (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2020}}

[[File:Air_Jordan_1_Banned.jpg|thumb|A pair of [[Nike Air Jordan]] 1 sneakers]]

'''Sneakers''' ([[American English|US]]) or '''trainers''' ([[British English|UK]]), also known by a [[#Names|wide variety of other names]], are [[shoe]]s primarily designed for [[sport]]s or other forms of [[physical exercise]], but are also widely used for everyday [[casual wear]].

They were popularized by companies such as [[Converse (shoe company)|Converse]], [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] and [[Spalding (company)|Spalding]] in the mid 20th century. Like other parts of the global clothing industry, shoe manufacturing is heavily concentrated in Asia with nine in ten shoes produced there.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Footwear|first=World|title=Global Footwear Industry: Positive Dynamics in 2018|url=https://www.worldfootwear.com/news.asp?id=4048|access-date=2020-07-30|website=World Footwear|language=en-US}}</ref>

{{anchor|Names and etymology|Name|Etymology}}

==Names==
[[File:Adidas_Superstar_shoes_pair.jpg|thumb|left|175px|The [[Adidas Superstar]] was originally designed as a basketball shoe.]]

Sneakers have gone by a variety of names, depending on geography and changing over the decades. The broader category inclusive of sneakers is '''athletic shoes'''. The term 'athletic shoes' is typically used for shoes utilized for [[jogging]] or road running and indoor sports such as [[basketball]], but tends to exclude shoes for sports played on grass such as [[association football]] and [[rugby football]], which are generally known in North America as "[[Cleat (shoe)|cleats]]" and in British English as "boots" or "studs".

[[File:New_Balance_Women's_990_Running_Shoes.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[New Balance 99X Series]]]]
[[File:Stride rite sneakers 10101.jpeg|thumb|right|175px|A pair of children's sneakers]]

The word "sneaker" is often attributed to American Henry Nelson McKinney, who was an advertising agent for [[N. W. Ayer & Son]]. In 1917, he used the term because the rubber sole made the shoe's wearer stealthy. The word was already in use at least as early as 1887, when the [[The Boston Journal|''Boston Journal'']] made reference to "sneakers" as "the name boys give to tennis shoes." The name "sneakers" originally referred to how quiet the rubber soles were on the ground, in contrast to noisy standard hard leather sole [[dress shoes]]. Someone wearing sneakers could "sneak up", while someone wearing standards could not.<ref>[[Mental Floss|''Mental Floss magazine'']], Sept-Oct 2008</ref> Earlier, the name "sneaks" had been used by prison inmates to refer to warders (guards) because of the rubber-soled shoes they wore.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/femalelifeinpri00robigoog|title=Female life in prison, by a prison matron|last=Robinson|first=Frederick William|publisher=Hurst and Blackett|year=1863|isbn=978-1-341-24502-2}}</ref> The term "sneakers" is most commonly used in [[Northeastern United States]], [[Central Florida|Central]] and [[South Florida]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Katz|first1=Josh|title=Speaking American: How Y'all, Youse, and You Guys Talk: A Visual Guide|date=25 October 2016|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-544-70339-1|pages=4–5|url=https://smile.amazon.com/Speaking-American-Youse-Illustrated-Guide/dp/0544703391?sa-no-redirect=1|access-date=13 July 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/22-maps-that-show-the-deepest-linguistic-conflicts-in-america-2013-6?op=1|title=22 Maps That Show How Americans Speak English Totally Differently From One Another|last=Hickey|first=Walter|date=5 June 2013|work=[[Business Insider]]|access-date=2017-03-09|language=en}}</ref> Australia,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.studiesinaustralia.com/Blog/about-australia/the-modern-guide-to-aussie-slang | title=The modern guide to Aussie slang &#124; Study in Australia }}</ref> New Zealand, and parts of Canada. However, in [[Australian English|Australian]], [[Canadian English|Canadian]], and [[Scottish English]], '''running shoes''' and '''runners''' are synonymous terms used to refer to sneakers, with the latter term also used in [[Hiberno-English]]. '''Tennis shoes''' and '''kicks''' are other terms used in Australian and [[North American English]].

The [[British English]] equivalent of ''sneaker'' in its modern form is divided into two separate types:{{dubious|1=only the first of these are sneakers; plimsolls are boat shoes or sth else but not actual sneakers apart from possibly 100-year-old Converses|date=July 2023}} predominantly outdoor and fashionable trainers, '''training shoes''' or quality 'basketball shoes' and in contrast cheap rubber-soled, low cut and canvas-topped [[plimsoll shoes|'''plimsolls''', '''daps''', or '''flats''']]. In [[Geordie English]], sneakers may also be called '''sandshoes''', '''gym boots''', or '''joggers'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.englandsnortheast.co.uk/GeordieDictionary.html|title=Geordie Dictionary|website=www.englandsnortheast.co.uk|access-date=2017-03-09}}</ref>

Several terms for sneakers exist in South Africa, including '''gym shoes''', '''sports shoes''' and '''takkies'''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0TYZswEACAAJ|title=Africanderisms: A Glossary of South African Colloquial Words and Phrases and of Place and Other Names|last=Pettman|first=Charles|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform|year=1913|isbn=1-5150-5122-6|page=491}}</ref> Other names for sneakers includes '''rubber shoes''' in [[Philippine English]], '''track shoes''' in [[Singapore English]], '''canvas shoes''' in [[Nigerian English]],{{dubious|1=those are plimsolls, not sneakers|date=July 2023}} '''camboo''' ("camp boot") in Ghana English, and '''sportex''' in Greece.{{what?|date=July 2023}}

In Latvia, any sneakers are still called '''botas''' after the Czech footwear company [[Botas_(company)|Botas]], whose produce was one of the few foreign brands of sneakers available during the [[Soviet_occupation_of_Latvia_in_1940|Soviet occupation]].

==History==
{{Cleanup rewrite|2=section|date=July 2023}}
[[File:Dorothea_Lange_atop_automobile_in_California_(restored)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Photographer [[Dorothea Lange]] wearing sneakers, 1936]]
<!--plimsolls are an entirely different article; a subset or distinct from sneakers; and don't need to be rehandled in their entirety here-->
These shoes acquired the nickname '[[Plimsoll (shoe)|plimsoll]]' in the 1870s,<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Sneakers |url=http://theidleman.com/history-of-sneakers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092405/http://theidleman.com/history-of-sneakers |archive-date=2016-08-20 |access-date=2023-10-06}}</ref> derived according to Nicholette Jones' book ''The Plimsoll Sensation'', from the colored horizontal band joining the upper to the sole, which resembled the [[Plimsoll line]] on a ship's hull. Alternatively, just like the Plimsoll line on a ship, if water got above the line of the rubber sole, the wearer would get wet.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWKp52--eoYC|title=How to Talk Like a Local: From Cockney to Geordie|publisher=Random House|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4090-6195-3|page=99|author=Susie Dent}}</ref>

Plimsolls were widely worn by vacationers and also began to be worn by sportsmen on the [[tennis]] and [[croquet]] courts for their comfort. Special soles with engraved patterns to increase the surface grip of the shoe were developed, and these were ordered in bulk for the use of the [[British Army]]. Athletic shoes were increasingly used for leisure and outdoor activities at the turn of the 20th century - plimsolls were even found with the ill-fated [[Terra Nova Expedition|Scott Antarctic expedition]] of 1911. Plimsolls were commonly worn by pupils in schools' [[physical education]] lessons in the UK from the 1950s until the early 1970s.{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}}

British company [[J.W. Foster and Sons]] designed and produced the first shoes designed for running in 1895; the shoes were spiked to allow for greater traction and speed. The company sold its high-quality handmade running shoes to athletes around the world, eventually receiving a contract for the manufacture of running shoes for [[Great Britain at the 1924 Summer Olympics|the British team]] in the 1924 Summer Olympics. [[Harold Abrahams]] and [[Eric Liddell]] won the [[100 metres|100&nbsp;m]] and [[400 metres|400&nbsp;m]] events, kitted out with Foster's running gear.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Foster|first1=Rachael|title=Foster's Famous Shoes|url=http://www.boltonrevisited.org.uk/p-fosters-shoes.html|website=Bolton Revisited|access-date=15 October 2015}}</ref>

[[File: Black Converse sneakers.JPG|alt=A pair of black Converse canvas sneakers|thumb|left|A pair of traditional low-cut Converse [[Chuck Taylor All Star]] sneakers.  Its design has remained largely unchanged.]]
This style of footwear also became prominent in America at the turn of the 20th century, where they were called 'sneakers'. In 1892, the [[U.S. Rubber]] Company introduced the first rubber-soled shoes in the country, sparking a surge in demand and production. The first basketball shoes were designed by [[Spalding (sports equipment)|Spalding]] as early as 1907.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} The market for sneakers grew after [[World War I]], when sports and athletics increasingly became a way to demonstrate moral fiber and [[patriotism]]. The U.S. market for sneakers grew steadily as young boys lined up to buy [[Chuck Taylor All-Stars|Converse All Stars]] sneakers endorsed by [[basketball player]] [[Chuck Taylor (salesman)|Chuck Taylor]].

During the [[interwar period]], athletic shoes began to be marketed for different sports, and differentiated designs were made available for men. Athletic shoes were used by competing athletes at the [[Olympics]], helping to popularise them among the general public. In 1936, a French brand, Spring Court,{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} marketed the first canvas tennis shoe featuring signature eight ventilation channels on a vulcanised natural rubber sole.

[[Adolf Dassler|Adolf "Adi" Dassler]] began producing his own sports shoes in his mother's wash kitchen in [[Herzogenaurach]], [[Bavaria]], after his return from [[World War I]], and went on to establish one of the leading athletic shoe manufacturers, [[Adidas]].<ref name="Sneaker Wars">{{Cite book|last=Smit|first=Barbara|title=Sneaker Wars|publisher=Harper Perennial|year=2009|location=New York|isbn=978-0-06-124658-6}}</ref> He also successfully marketed his shoes to athletes at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]], which helped cement his good reputation. Business boomed and the Dasslers were selling 200,000 pairs of shoes each year before World War II.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sportsdomainlab.com/history-of-basketball-shoes/|title=Exploring the History of Basketball Shoes|website=Sports Domain Lab|date=18 March 2019}}</ref><ref name=rediff>{{cite web|url=http://in.rediff.com/sports/2005/nov/08adi.htm |title=How Adidas and PUMA were born |publisher=in.rediff.com |date=8 November 2005 |access-date=26 September 2010}}</ref>

[[File:Adidas Stan Smith 80s.jpg|thumb|170px|[[Adidas Stan Smith]] of the 1980s]]

During the 1950s, leisure opportunities greatly expanded, and children and adolescents began to wear sneakers as [[school dress codes]] relaxed. Sneaker sales rose so high, they began to adversely affect the sales of conventional [[leather]] shoes, leading to a fierce advertising war for market share in the late '50s. In the 1970s, [[jogging]] for exercise became increasingly popular, and trainers designed specifically for comfort while jogging sold well. Companies also started to target some of their products at the casual fashion market. Soon, shoes were available for football, jogging, basketball, [[running]], etc. Many sports had their relevant shoe, made possible by podiatrist development of athletic shoe technology.

During the 1990s, shoe companies perfected their fashion and marketing skills. Sports endorsements with famous athletes grew larger, and marketing budgets went through the roof. Sneakers became a fashion statement and were marketed as a definition of identity and personality rather than simply athletic aids.<ref>Pribut, Stephen M. [http://www.drpribut.com/sports/sneaker_odyssey.html "A Sneaker Odyssey"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728131745/https://www.drpribut.com/sports/sneaker_odyssey.html |date=2020-07-28 }}. Dr. Stephen M. Pribut's Sport Pages. 2002. Web. 23 June 2010.</ref>

Also during the 1990s, various vendors began producing "walking shoes" for adults using the construction technology of sneakers but visually resembling traditional leather shoes. The combination of a traditional look with increased comfort rapidly achieved wide popularity and by 2010 was displacing sales of leather shoes for adults in a parallel with the post-1950 success of sneakers among children. The shift was especially noticeable in combination with [[Business casual|business-casual]] clothing.

From 1970 (five models), to 1998 (285 models), to 2012 (3,371), the number of sport shoe models in the U.S. has grown exponentially.<ref name="Aichner, T 2013">Aichner, T. and Coletti, P. 2013. "Customers' online shopping preferences in mass customization". ''Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice'', 15(1): 20-35.</ref>

==Use in sports==
[[File:EVD-tenis-050.jpg|right|175 px|thumb|A pair of modern [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] all-purpose athletic shoes]]

Sneakers intended for sports have a flexible sole, appropriate tread for the function, and ability to absorb impact.  As the industry and designs have expanded, the term "athletic shoes" is based more on the design of the bottom of the shoe than the aesthetics of the top of the shoe. Today's designs include sandals, [[Mary Jane (shoe)|Mary Janes]], and even elevated styles suitable for running, dancing, and jumping.

[[File:Nike_dunk.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Nike Dunk]] basketball shoes]]

The shoes themselves are made of flexible compounds, typically featuring a sole made of dense rubber. While the original design was basic, manufacturers have since tailored athletic shoes for their specific purposes. An example of this is the [[Track spikes|spiked shoe]] developed for track running. Some of these shoes are made up to unusually large sizes for athletes with large feet.

Sneakers intended for running come in a range of shapes suited to different purposes. Generally, they are divided by running style: the majority are for heel-toe joggers/runners which are further subdivided into '[[Pronation of the foot#Neutral pronation|neutral]]', '[[Pronation of the foot#Overpronation|overpronation]]' and '[[Pronation of the foot#Supination|underpronation]]'.<ref>{{cite web|title=Understand pronation to get the correct running shoes|url=http://comforthacks.com/understand-pronation-to-get-the-correct-running-shoes/|website=Comfort Hacks|date=11 September 2015|access-date=14 October 2015}}</ref> However, most evidence-based comparisons show no reduction in lower-limb running injuries from prescribing different types of shoe for different foot types.<ref name=Cochrane>{{cite journal |last1=Relph |first1=Nicola |display-authors=etal |title=Running shoes for preventing lower limb running injuries in adults |journal=[[Cochrane Library|Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]] |issue=8 |date=22 August 2022 |volume=2022 |article-number=CD013368 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD013368.pub2 |pmid=35993829 |pmc=9394464 }}.</ref> The shoes are constructed with a complex structure of "rubber" with plastic/metal stiffeners to restrict foot movement. More advanced runners tend to wear [[racing flats|flatter and flexible shoes]], which allow them to run more quickly with greater comfort.

According to the [[NPD Group]], one in four pairs of running shoes that were sold in the United States in 2016 were bought from an [[online retailer]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Chesto |first=Jon |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2017/07/19/new-city-sports-owners-plot-revival-boston-brand/TNSOVoB0UBv7WN0pvZaTHO/story.html |title=New City Sports owners plot revival of Boston brand |work=[[The Boston Globe]] |date=2017-07-19 |access-date=2017-07-20 |archive-date=2017-07-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170721130752/http://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2017/07/19/new-city-sports-owners-plot-revival-boston-brand/TNSOVoB0UBv7WN0pvZaTHO/story.html }}</ref>

==Notable brands==
{{as of|2020}}, brands with global popularity include:{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}
[[File:Pop up athletic shoe retailer.jpg|thumb|A pop-up athletic shoe retailer in [[Florida]], United States]]
{{columns-list|colwidth=10em|
* [[361 Degrees]]
* [[Adidas]]
* [[Allbirds]]
* [[Anta Sports|Anta]]
* [[Asics]]
* [[Babolat]]
* [[Brooks Sports|Brooks]]
* [[Converse (shoe company)|Converse]]
* [[DC Shoes|DC]]
* [[Diadora]]
* [[Dunlop Sport|Dunlop]]
* [[Autonomie project|Ethletic]]
* [[Feiyue]]
* [[Fila (company)|Fila]]
* [[Hoka One One]]
* [[Hummel International|Hummel]]
* [[Hurley International]]
* [[Kappa (company)|Kappa]]
* [[Karhu (sports brand)|Karhu]]
* [[K-Swiss]]
* [[Keds]]
* [[Li-Ning]]
* [[Lotto Sport Italia|Lotto]]
* [[Merrell (company)|Merrell]]
* [[Mizuno Corporation|Mizuno]]
* [[New Balance]]
* [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]]
* [[On (company)|On]]
* [[Onitsuka Tiger]]
* [[PF Flyers]]
* [[Pony International|Pony]]
* [[Pro-Keds]]
* [[Puma SE|Puma]]
* [[Reebok]]
* [[Salomon Group|Salomon]]
* [[Saucony]]
* [[Skechers]]
* [[Stride Rite]]
* [[Supra (footwear brand)|Supra]]
* [[Tisza Cipő]]
* [[Umbro]]
* [[Under Armour]]
* [[Vans]]
* [[World Balance]]
* [[Xtep]]
}}

== Culture ==
[[File:DIG E 2015. Brooklyn Museum.The Rise of Sneaker Culture.jpg|thumb|right|Exhibition ''The Rise of Sneaker Culture'' at the [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]

Sneakers have been an important part of [[hip hop]] (primarily Pumas, Nike, and Adidas) and [[rock and roll|rock 'n roll]] (Converse, Vans) cultures since the 1970s. Hip hop artists sign million dollar deals with major brands such as Nike, Adidas, or Puma to promote their shoes.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Sneaker Wars: Kanye West Signs Deal with Adidas, Drake with Jordan Brand|url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/jasonbelzer/2013/12/05/sneaker-wars-kanye-west-signs-deal-with-adidas-drake-with-jordan-brand/#1029f86c7250|website = Forbes|access-date = 2016-01-28|first = Jason|last = Belzer}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}<!-- examples --> Sneaker collectors, called "[[Sneaker collecting|sneakerhead]]s", regard sneakers as fashionable items. Sneaker companies encourage this trend by producing rare sneakers in limited numbers, often at very high retail prices. Artistically-modified sneakers can sell for upwards of $1000 at exclusive establishments like Saks Fifth Avenue.<ref>2014 Saks Fifth Avenue catalog</ref> In 2005, a documentary, ''[[Just for Kicks (2005 film)|Just for Kicks]]'', about the sneaker phenomenon and history was released.

==Technology==
A future-prediction report issued by [[Accenture]] in 2015 anticipated that future running shoes and other sport wear could report when they need to be replaced based on a wearer's exercise schedule.<ref>Gregory, J., [https://www.conexxus.org/sites/default/files/book_files/Accenture-The-Internet-Of-Things.pdf The Internet of Things: Revolutionizing the Retail Industry], ''Accenture'', p. 5, accessed on 21 June 2025</ref>

==Sustainability==
Contemporary sneakers are largely made from synthetic materials, and the materials and manufacturing process produce, on average, about {{cvt|14|kg}} of [[CO2 emissions|CO<sub>2</sub> emissions]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cheah|first1=Lynette|last2=Ciceri|first2=Natalia Duque|last3=Olivetti|first3=Elsa|last4=Matsumura|first4=Seiko|last5=Forterre|first5=Dai|last6=Roth|first6=Richard|last7=Kirchain|first7=Randolph|date=2013-04-01|title=Manufacturing-focused emissions reductions in footwear production|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652612006300|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=44|pages=18–29|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.11.037|bibcode=2013JCPro..44...18C |issn=0959-6526|hdl=1721.1/102070|hdl-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="British Vogue">{{Cite web|title=Are Eco-Runners The Next 'It' Trainer?|url=https://www.vogue.co.uk/fashion/article/sustainable-trainers|access-date=2021-02-19|website=British Vogue|date=21 October 2019|language=en-GB}}</ref> Some companies are trying to substitute more sustainable materials in their manufacture.<ref name="British Vogue"/> About 90% of shoes end up in [[landfill site]]s at end of life.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hoskins|first=Tansy E.|date=2020-03-21|title='Some soles last 1,000 years in landfill': the truth about the sneaker mountain|url=http://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2020/mar/21/some-soles-last-1000-years-in-landfill-the-truth-about-the-sneaker-mountain|access-date=2021-02-19|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Biodegradable athletic footwear]]
* [[Comparison of orthotics]]
* [[List of shoe styles]]
* [[Shoe tossing]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/shoeinsport0000unse_r2y3/ |title=The Shoe in Sport|date=1989 |isbn=978-0-8151-7814-9 |last1=Segesser |first1=B. |last2=Pförringer |first2=Wolfgang |last3=Pförringer |first3=W. |publisher=Year Book Medical Publishers }}
* {{Commons category-inline|Sneakers (footwear)}}

{{Running shoe brands}}
{{Footwear}}
{{Clothing}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:20th-century fashion]]
[[Category:21st-century fashion]]
[[Category:Athletic shoes]]
[[Category:Footwear]]
[[Category:History of Western fashion]]
[[Category:Shoes]]

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