View source for Somalia affair

{{Short description|Controversy about the Canadian military in Somalia}}

The '''Somalia affair''' was a 1993 Canadian military [[scandal]], prompted by the [[Homicide|beating to death]] of Shidane Arone, a Somali teenager, at the hands of two [[Canadian peacekeepers]] participating in humanitarian efforts in [[Somalia]]. The act was documented by photos, and brought to light internal problems in the [[Canadian Airborne Regiment]]. Military leadership were sharply rebuked after a [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] reporter received altered documents, leading to allegations of a [[cover-up]]. The Somalia affair tarnished Canada's international reputation in what was heralded as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military".<ref name="canencsompck">{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-peacekeepers-in-somalia|title=Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia|date=2 August 2019|last=Foot|first=Richard|website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca|publisher=Historica Canada}}</ref><ref name="Cohen 2010 p. 160">{{cite book | last=Cohen | first=S.A. | title=Israel's Armed Forces in Comparative Perspective | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=BESA studies in international security | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-135-16956-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0yiMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 | access-date=2024-02-27 | page=160}}</ref>

Eventually a public inquiry was called. Despite being cut short by the government, resulting in a public backlash, the Somalia Inquiry exposed problems in the Canadian Forces. The affair led to the disbanding of Canada's elite [[Canadian Airborne Regiment]], greatly damaging the morale of the Canadian Forces. It also led to the immediate reduction of Canadian military spending by nearly 25% from the time of the killing to the inquiry.<ref name="geneva"/><ref>{{cite book |author1=Robinson, Bill |author2=Ibbott, Peter |publisher=[[Project Ploughshares]] |url=http://ploughshares.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/WP3.1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217190525/http://ploughshares.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/WP3.1.pdf |archive-date=2013-12-17 |url-status=dead |title=Canadian Military Spending |date=2003 |isbn=1-895722-37-3}}</ref>

==Background==
In 1992, Somalia was in the middle of both famine and [[Somali Civil War|a civil war]].  The country was under domination by warlords, following the collapse of [[Siad Barre]]'s government. Relief supplies were frequently stolen by armed gangs, who would hold the goods hostage for the loyalty of the population.  As a result, the [[United Nations]] requested armed [[Peacekeeping|peacekeepers]] to assist the relief operations.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}

In the summer of 1992, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] committed Canada to [[United Nations Operation in Somalia I]] (UNOSOM I). Canada was being pressured by the [[United Nations]] to make this decision because in the past it had aggressively engaged in Yugoslavia in 1992 and had reached out through humanitarian evacuation programs like Operation Parasol to Balkan refugees later that year.<ref name="Dawson"/> The heightened media coverage on Somalia had also put more pressure on the Canadian government to mobilize a peacekeeping effort. Thanks to the Mulroney government's desire to improve conflict resolution mechanisms and for its natural interest in [[multilateralism]] and peacekeeping, Canada found the [[Somali Civil War]] to fit its foreign policy priorities.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}} Mulroney was himself a "[[Lester B. Pearson|Pearsonian]]" and a [[Multilateral intervention|multilateralist]] who had a great deal of confidence in the United Nations.<ref name="Dawson">Dawson, Grant. ''Here is Hell: Canada's Engagement in Somalia''. (UBC Press, 2007), pp. 7, 11, 40</ref> Canadian diplomat [[Geoffrey Pearson]] argued that "effective multilateral arrangements provide a means to exert influence on major allies and powerful neighbours as well as help maintain peace".<ref name="Dawson"/> Mulroney's notion of [[Internationalism (politics)|new internationalism]] coupled with this notion of multilateralism would see intervention as a moral imperative in cases of intrastate disorder and large-scale human rights abuse.<ref name="Dawson"/> He commented that it would be ideal for the United Nations to become still more effective and more of an actor in international affairs.<ref name="Dawson"/>

Contributing to the US-led coalition and taking part in the UN force to Somalia seemed to align with Canadian foreign policy and fit Mulroney's vision for peacekeeping, as he was the "principal driver behind Canada's decision to commit itself to the Somalia mission".<ref name="Dawson"/>

Canada was one of the nations that agreed to send forces. Canadian forces, under the name [[Operation Deliverance]], were sent to Somalia to participate in the American-led [[Operation Restore Hope]].<ref name="marten">Swanenburg, Marten. "Accountability of Peace Support Operations", p. 265</ref> On 4 May 1993, the operation was to come under UN command and was renamed [[UNOSOM II]].

It was decided that the [[Airborne Regiment (Canada)|Canadian Airborne Regiment]] (CAR) would be the contingent sent overseas. The Airborne had long been seen as the elite of the Canadian Forces, and in 1974 had performed admirably in combat operations in [[Cyprus]] as well as later peacekeeping tours there. However, General Beno informed [[General]] [[Lewis MacKenzie]] that training in the CAR was a "critical" problem due to [[Lieutenant Colonel]] Paul Morneault's leadership.<ref name="desb"/> It was debated whether to substitute another regiment, or cancel the mission entirely, but it was finally decided that to admit that the "elite" Canadian forces were incapable of handling a routine mission would have been a "national disgrace".<ref name="desb"/>

==Canadian Airborne Regiment==
{{Rquote|right|We promised them peacekeepers, and&nbsp;... we sent them thugs.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Noakes |first=Taylor C. |date=2020-07-03 |title=Opinion: We disbanded the Canadian Airborne Regiment 25 years ago. Now, it's the RCMP's turn |work=The Globe and Mail |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-we-disbanded-the-canadian-airborne-regiment-25-years-ago-now-its/ |access-date=2023-10-15}}</ref>|[[Rex Murphy]]}}
Only recently{{When|date=November 2022}} deemed a light infantry battalion, some leaders expressed concern that the Somalia mission did not fit the Regiment's mandate or abilities. The Airborne consisted of multiple sub-units drawn from each of Canada's regular infantry regiments. Later, LCol. Kenward suggested that the line regiments had offloaded some of their "[[bad apples]]" into the CAR. LCol. Morneault, the commanding officer of the CAR, declared the "rogue commando" unit unfit for service abroad and sought to have it remain in Canada. Instead, he was relieved of his command and replaced by Lieutenant Colonel Carol Mathieu.<ref>Fisher, Luke. ''[[Maclean's]]'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20050323100942/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=M1ARTM0010376 "Airborne's Hazing Exposed"], January 30, 1995</ref>

There had been recurring discipline problems, and an ongoing investigation into their base of [[CFB Petawawa]] as a hotbed of [[white supremacy|white supremacist]] activity in 2 Commando.<ref name="whit"/> This included the adoption of the [[confederate flag]] as the commando's barracks-room decoration.<ref name="berc"/> The flag had initially been presented as a gift from American soldiers, and gradually became an unofficial symbol, although successive [[commanding officer]]s had tried to ban its usage.<ref name="desb"/>

Footage depicting racist actions of Cpl. McKay and Pte. Brocklebank was later brought forward by [[Scott Taylor (journalist)|Scott Taylor]], who hoped to expose systematic problems in the military and exonerate his friend Kyle Brown.<ref name="buzz"/> In the video, McKay utters [[racial slur]]s,<ref>In the video, McKay says "we ain't killed enough niggers yet" (Armstrong, 1997).</ref> and pre-deployment photographs showed him wearing a [[Hitler]] shirt in front of a [[Swastika#Use in Nazism|swastika]].<ref>Leyton-Brown, David. ''Canadian Annual Review of Politics and Public Affairs'', 199. p. 120</ref> A video taken by CAR soldiers shows Brocklebank making racist and violent remarks.<ref name="threat"/><ref name="desb">{{cite book |last=Desbarats |first=Peter |title=Somalia Cover-up: A Commissioner's Journal |date=1997 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |isbn=9780771026843 }}</ref><ref name="burke">Burke, Carol. "Camp All-American, Hanoi Jane and the High and Tight", p. 60</ref>

Mike Abel, the only Canadian to die in the Somali operation, was allegedly a member of the [[Ku Klux Klan in Canada|Ku Klux Klan]]; colleagues disputed the evidence that racist literature had been found in his belongings, and asserted that it just floated around the camp and everybody read it.<ref name="ogle">Ogle, James & Darnell Bass. "What Manner of Man", pp. 144, 163</ref><ref>Taylor, Scott R. ''[[Esprit de Corps (magazine)|Esprit de Corps]]'', "Mysterious, suspicious and preventable deaths in the Canadian forces", July 1, 1997</ref>

==Airborne in Somalia==
The CAR was deployed in December 1992 as part of the [[Unified Task Force]]. It was accompanied by a helicopter squadron and a squadron of the [[Royal Canadian Dragoons]]. Although they were planning to deploy to the comparatively quiet port city of [[Bosaso]], four days after arriving in Somalia commander [[Serge Labbé]] informed them that consultation with the Americans meant they would be moving to the southern town of [[Belet Huen]], considered one of the more difficult areas to patrol.<ref name="schmidl">Schmidl, Erwin A. "Peace Operations Between War and Peace". p. 95</ref>

One of the Dragoons' first tasks, under command of Sgt. Donald Hobbs, was rebuilding a bridge that had been destroyed on the Chinese Highway linking Belet Huen and Matabaan.  The loss of the bridge meant the only way around was through a partially cleared [[minefield]].<ref name="bridging">{{Cite web |date=1997 |title=The Somalia Mission: in theatre |url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/somalia/vol1/v1c13ae.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323100350/http://www.forces.gc.ca/somalia/vol1/v1c13ae.htm |archive-date=2011-03-23 |access-date=2025-10-04 |website=www.forces.gc.ca |series=}}</ref>

On January 2, Canadian forces seized an [[AK-47]] from a local Somali who returned the following day with a machete to threaten the troops to give him back his gun; a [[warning shot]] was fired and ricocheted, hitting him in the foot. He left, refusing medical care.<ref name="bridging"/> Also in January 1993, Lt.-Col. Carol Mathieu gave verbal orders allowing Canadian soldiers to shoot at thieves under certain conditions.<ref name="desb"/> On January 29, suspected bandits were found congregating on a roadway and as Canadian forces approached them, they began to flee. [[Warning shot]]s were fired into the air to halt them, leading to a retaliatory shot from a Somali, and returned fire from the Canadian troops.<ref name="bridging"/>

On February 10, they fired on a crowd approaching a [[Red Cross]] distribution centre.<ref name="desb"/>

On February 17, a demonstration of 50–300 Somalis crowded together on the [[Bailey bridge]] over the [[Shebelle River]], and when some began [[Stone throwing|throwing rocks]] at the Canadian Forces, soldiers fired two [[shotgun]] blasts, killing one Somali and injuring two others. A later investigation cleared the shooters of any wrongdoing; noting they were justified in their response.<ref name="desb"/><ref name="threat"/><ref name="bridging"/><ref name="small"/>

By the end of the mission, no Canadian troops had been killed or wounded by enemy forces, the sole casualties arising when a soldier shot himself in the arm while cleaning his [[Sidearm (weapon)|sidearm]] on January 11,<ref name="bridging"/> and when MCpl. Tony Smith negligently discharged his rifle, fatally wounding Cpl. Abel on May 3, 1993.<ref name="inq"/>

==March 4 killing==
On March 4, two unarmed Somalis were shot in the back,<ref name="national">[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] [[CBC News: The National|The National]], [http://archives.cbc.ca/emissions/emission.asp?page=47&IDLan=1&IDEmission=736&IDClip=4322 Somalia debacle a high-level cover-up], July 2, 1997</ref> one fatally, after Canadian troops laid an ambush to try to catch petty thieves stealing from the military base in [[Belet Huen]]. This followed from a decision by Captain [[Michel Rainville]] to re-label petty theft by Somalis as "sabotage", a distinction that meant deadly force could be used to defend the base.<ref name="desb"/> Rainville relied on the argument that a [[Fuel pump (gas station)|fuel pump]]  used to service American [[MedEvac]] helicopters had been stolen deliberately to hinder the military effort, while critics pointed out that any saboteurs likely would have ignited the thousands of gallons of fuel surrounding it.<ref name="desb"/>

After [[Warrant Officer]] Marsh discovered the missing fuel pump, he suggested installing a large [[searchlight]] atop a tower to deter thieves. He was dismissed by Rainville, who suggested that the idea was not to deter thieves, but to catch them in the act using [[night vision]].<ref name="bridging"/> Rainville ordered that food and water be placed in a trailer at the south end of the compound, visible to Somalis walking past on the nearby road. Some soldiers alleged this constituted "bait", but Rainville later defended himself saying it had been to distinguish between thieves and saboteurs to prevent shooting thieves.<ref name="bridging"/>

Rainville enlisted Cpl. Ben Klick of the [[PPCLI]] to lie in a truckbed at night, awaiting potential "saboteurs" with a [[C3A1]] rifle.<ref name="bridging"/> From his position, he watched two Somalis, Ahmed Arush and Abdi Hunde Bei Sabrie, approach the food and water. Fifteen minutes after first noticing the pair, Ahmed and Abdi began to run from the base in fear they had been noticed; Rainville yelled at them to "stop", and called to Sgt. Plante, Cpl. King and Cpl. Favasoli to "get them".<ref name="bridging"/> Plante fired with his shotgun, while King fired with his [[Colt Canada C7 rifle|C7]]; Plante's shot wounded Sabrie, who fell to the ground, while Arush kept running back towards the roadway. Cpl Leclerc and MCpl Countway both shot at him as he ran, while Cpl. Klick refrained, noting that the man presented no risk to Canadian forces. Arush fell to the ground, hit by one of the two men's shots. He struggled to stand up, but both men fired again, killing him.<ref name="bridging"/>

It was noted that Sabrie had been carrying a ceremonial dagger in his clothing.<ref name="bridging"/><ref name="armstrong"/> When the unit was ordered to bring the body of Arush to the same position as Sabrie, the soldiers radioed back that they could not move the body without it falling apart.<ref name="bridging"/> So the body of Arush was loaded into a [[body bag]] and placed inside a [[Bison personnel carrier]].<ref name="desb"/> There, medical technician MCpl Petersen re-opened the bag and took [[Instant film|Polaroid]] photographs for an unknown reason, some suggest to document the shooting, others suggest as a "trophy".<ref name="desb"/>  The photos showed gaping wounds in Arush's neck and the side of his face, with his skull twisted out of shape by the force of the gunblast. His [[intestines]] protruded from his stomach, and his right eye was missing.<ref name="desb"/>

An Air Force flight surgeon, Major Barry Armstrong, examined the body and judged the death "suspicious", suggesting that Arush had been lying prone on the ground when he was killed.<ref name="desb"/> He also noted that the amount of [[Greater omentum|omentum]] which had passed through the first wounds suggested the 29-year-old Arush had been breathing for at least 2 or 3 minutes before the final gunshots to his head were fired.<ref name="armstrong">O'Reilly, Michael. [[CMAJ]], [http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/201/300/cdn_medical_association/cmaj/vol-158/issue-2/0244.htm MD at centre of Somalia controversy finds peace in Northern Ontario], 1998</ref>

After the examination, Arush's body was then used for medical practice for soldiers, demonstrating how to stab a [[tracheotomy]] into a wounded man's throat to allow him to breathe, and then used to demonstrate the proper preparation of a body for transportation. The body was then returned to the body bag, and sent into the local hospital, where Dr. Xelen released it to Arush's family the same evening.<ref name="desb"/><ref name="bridging"/> For the next two weeks, Colonel Allan Wells approached Vice-Admiral [[Larry Murray (admiral)|Larry Murray]] to send [[military police]] to Somalia to investigate the shooting, but was rebuffed.<ref name="desb"/> When the [[Chief of the Defence Staff (Canada)|Chief of Defence Staff]], [[Admiral]] [[John Rogers Anderson]], visited the military base on March 8–9, he visited the wounded Somali recovering in the Canadian hospital.<ref name="desb"/>

The event would not have been reported, except that [[Member of Parliament]] [[John Brewin]] read out an anonymous letter he had received from a soldier about witnessing the "execution" of a Somali civilian on March 4.<ref name="geneva"/>

At the subsequent inquiry, Klick defended Rainville, heavily criticising his commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Carol Mathieu, and testified that [[American Special Forces]] [[Chief Warrant Officer]] Jackson had interrogated the wounded Somali who confessed to being a saboteur, although this contradicted all other evidence, including the statements of the American soldier who never mentioned any interrogation.<ref name="desb"/><ref name="bridging"/> In 1994, the Ministry of Defence engaged in an undercover attempt to discredit Armstrong's findings, phoning Allan Thompson of the ''[[Toronto Star]]'' and offering to leak to him the pathology report by James Ferris conducted two months after the killing, which found the decomposing body showed none of the signs Armstrong had suggested. Thompson took his evidence of a preconceived "leak" from the Ministry to the subsequent inquiry, where they added weight to Armstrong's findings.<ref name="desb"/> While his commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Carol Mathieu described Armstrong as bordering on insanity at the inquiry, the only evidence he produced was that he liked to climb onto the roof of the hospital at night in Somalia and watch the stars.<ref name="desb"/>

==Torture and death of Shidane Arone==
On March 16, 1993, Captain Michael Sox found 16-year-old Shidane Abukar Arone hiding in a [[portable toilet]] in an abandoned American base across from the Canadian base in [[Belet Huen]]. Believing he was attempting to sneak into the Canadian base to steal supplies,<ref name="NYTimes" /> Sox turned him over to another soldier, who led the teenager to a [[bunker]] being used to house [[munitions]].<ref name="whit">{{cite book| author=Whitworth, Sandra |title=Men, Militarism and UN Peacekeeping: A Gendered Analysis |date=2004 |publisher=Lynne Rienner |isbn= 978-1-58826-296-7 |page=92}}</ref><ref name="diplo">Coulon, Jocelyn. "Soldiers of Diplomacy", [[University of Toronto Press]], p. 94</ref> Arone protested, saying he had simply been trying to find a lost child.<ref name="whit"/><ref name="threat"/>

At 21:00, Sgt. [[Mark Adam Boland|Mark Boland]] replaced [[Master Corporal]] Clayton Matchee as guard of the prisoner, and ordered his foot bindings be removed and replaced with [[fetters]], as the ropes were too tight.<ref name="threat"/> Warrant Officer Murphy took the opportunity to kick Arone "savagely", which was later taken to be implicit permission to abuse the prisoner.<ref name="threat"/> At this time, Matchee began his abuse of Arone by removing the captive's clothing and using it to crudely [[waterboarding|waterboard]] the youth until Boland objected, and Matchee left the bunker.<ref name="threat"/>

At 22:00, [[Trooper (rank)|Trooper]] Kyle Brown took over guard duty, and brought Matchee back with him. Brown punched Arone in the jaw, and was told by Boland, "I don't care what you do, just don't kill the guy", to which Brown replied that he wanted to "kill this fucker".<ref name="threat"/> Boland then joined Matchee and Matt McKay for beers in the [[mess hall]], where Matchee spoke about what he wanted to do to Arone, and suggested he might put out cigarette butts on his feet. McKay suggested that Matchee might use a [[MRE|ration pack]] or [[phone book]] to beat the youth, as it would not leave any traces.<ref name="threat"/>

Matchee and Brown, both members of 2 Commando, then proceeded to beat Arone.<ref name="diplo"/> Matchee used a ration pack to beat the youth, as well as a [[broomstick]], and [[rape]]d the teenager with it.<ref name="threat"/><ref name="bleat"/> Brown participated in the abuse, but was primarily an observer and took sixteen "trophy photos" of the beating, including one of Matchee forcing Arone's mouth open with a baton, and one of himself holding Pte. David Brocklebank's loaded pistol to Arone's head.<ref name="threat"/><ref>Sjolander, Claire Turenne. ''Feminist Perspectives on Canadian Foreign Policy'', 2003. p. 81</ref><ref>Dawson, Grant. "Here is Hell", 2006. p. 157</ref><ref>Born, Hans. ''The Double Democratic Deficit'', p. 94</ref> At about 23:20, Master Cpl. Giasson entered the bunker.  Matchee showed him the semi-conscious and bleeding Arone, and boasted that "in Canada we cannot do that, and here they let us do it".<ref name="threat"/>

Estimates have ranged that 15–80 other soldiers could hear or observe the beating, but did not intervene.<ref name="threat"/><ref name="diplo"/> Corporal MacDonald, acting as [[Signaller#Canada|duty signaller]] that night, was asked by Sgt. Major Mills about "a long dragged out howl" heard from the vicinity of the bunker, but MacDonald refused to stop playing with his [[Game Boy]] to investigate. Later, Matchee came by to borrow a cigarette from MacDonald and mentioned that "now the black man would fear the Indian as he did the white man" (Matchee was a Saskatchewan Cree), and MacDonald went outside to check on Arone's status. He saw Matchee hitting him in the face with the baton, and reported that the prisoner was "getting a good shit-kicking" to Sgt. Perry Gresty, before retiring to bed for the night.<ref name="threat"/>

Arone fell unconscious after several hours of beatings, after shouting "Canada! Canada! Canada!" as his last words.<ref name="diplo"/> When Brown mentioned the event to Sergeant J.&nbsp;K. Hillier, the non-commissioned member noted there "would be trouble" if the prisoner died, and went to check on the youth who he found had no pulse, and base medics confirmed that the boy was dead.<ref name="threat">{{Cite journal |last=Fergusson |first=James |last2=Razack |first2=Sherene H. |date=2004 |title=Dark Threats and White Knights: The Somalia Affair, Peacekeeping, and the New Imperialism |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/40203999?origin=crossref |journal=International Journal |language=en |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=971 |doi=10.2307/40203999 |archive-url=https://archive.org/details/darkthreatswhite0000raza |archive-date=2021-10-08 |via=JSTOR|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It was later discovered that Arone had burn marks on his penis.<ref name="bleat">Worthington, Peter. ''Scapegoat: How the Army Betrayed Kyle Brown'', p. 112</ref>

==Response==
Jim Day, a reporter with the ''[[Pembroke Observer]]'' local newspaper from the regiment's hometown, was on the base at the time and was the first to report that Canadian soldiers were being held pending an investigation into the death of a Somali citizen.<ref name="geneva">{{cite conference |last=Winslow |first=Donna |publisher=Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces |title=The Parliamentary Inquiry into the Canadian Peace Mission in Somalia |conference=PCAF Workshop, Brussels, July 12–14, 2002}}</ref>
{{Rquote|right|The Canadian military seems to have blind confidence in [[mefloquine]], even though it carries warnings that those with judgment jobs, like neurosurgeons or airline pilots, shouldn't use it. But it is apparently safe for young men with loaded weapons. Does that make sense?|[[Peter Worthington]]<ref>Worthington, Peter. ''[[Edmonton Sun]]'', "Did we poison our Somalia soldiers?", January 3, 1998</ref>}}
The debate over what led to the events came at a politically sensitive time in Canada, as the Minister of National Defence [[Kim Campbell]] was in the midst of a [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]] leadership campaign to become prime minister.<ref name="buzz">Armstrong, Martha. "[http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk1/tape11/PQDD_0005/MQ43829.pdf A Tale of Two Videos: Media Event, Moral Panic and the Canadian Airborne Regiment]" [Masters' thesis at [[McGill University]]], December 1997</ref> Matters were made worse when Campbell tried to dismiss the allegations of racism in the Canadian military by referring to it as "youthful folly" and suggesting that it was commonplace.<ref name="buzz"/> Criticism also focused on the fact that it took five weeks to order a high-level investigation into the events in Somalia.

Some, including [[Member of Parliament]] [[John Cummins (Canadian politician)|John Cummins]], quickly pointed out that three of the four men facing the most serious charges had been given experimental injections of ''Lariam'', a brand-name of [[mefloquine]], to test its effects on combatting [[malaria]] in a controlled [[study group]]. The drug was known to cause [[paranoia]], lack of judgment, [[neurosis]] and other mental side effects, and some have suggested it bore some responsibility for the soldiers' actions.<ref name="ogle"/> Dr. [[Michele Brill-Edwards]] had actually resigned in protest from [[Health Canada]] over her belief that the drug could produce "dangerous psychiatric reactions" in the soldiers.<ref name="ogle"/>

==Legal proceedings==
{{rquote|right|Once again, history repeats itself; only the lower ranks have been made to account for the marked failures of their leaders|Somalia Inquiry Report, page 1910}}
A death in custody automatically triggered an investigation, and two days later Matchee and Brown were arrested and charged and [[Department of National Defence Headquarters (Canada)|National Defence Headquarters]] was advised.

Matchee later attempted to hang himself in his cell; the attempt failed but caused massive brain damage, making him unfit to stand trial. The following individuals were charged in the inquiry:<ref name="inq">{{Cite web |title=The somalia mission: |url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/somalia/vol1/v1c14e.htm |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20120219232155/http://www.forces.gc.ca/somalia/vol1/v1c14e.htm |archive-date=2012-02-19 |access-date=2025-10-04 |website=www.forces.gc.ca}}</ref>{{Clear}}

{| class="wikitable"
! Name
! Charge
! Result
|-
|MCpl. Clayton Matchee|| {{bulleted list|[[Second-degree murder#First and second degree|2nd-degree murder]]<ref name="inq"/>|Torture<ref name="inq"/>}}|| Unfit to stand trial following [[suicide attempt]].<ref name="inq"/> Matchee tried to hang himself after being arrested and suffered serious [[brain damage]].<ref name="NYTimes"/> Charges against him were eventually dropped in September 2008 as his diminished mental capacity meant that he no longer posed a threat to the public.<ref name="StarPhoenix">Canada.com, [https://web.archive.org/web/20130513215709/http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/story.html?id=5cfb3fa7-5c78-4b06-8c5d-b3660a13e5a6 Torture, murder charges dropped against ex-soldier Matchee]</ref> 
|-
|Pte. Kyle Brown|| {{bulleted list|2nd-degree murder<ref name="inq"/>|Torture<ref name="inq"/>}} || Convicted of manslaughter and torture. Sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment.<ref name="inq"/> Dismissed from the army in disgrace.<ref name="inq"/> Appeals were also dismissed.<ref name="inq"/> Released on parole one year after conviction.<ref name="inq"/>
|-
|Sgt. [[Mark Adam Boland]]|| {{bulleted list|Negligent performance of duties<ref name="inq"/>|Torture<ref name="inq"/>}} || Pleaded guilty to negligent performance of duty for his role in the death of Shidane Arone, and not guilty to torture.<ref name="inq"/> Convicted.  Sentenced to 90 days' detention.<ref name="inq"/> Deemed "willfully blind" to the beating, also demoted to [[Private (rank)|private]].<ref name="NYTimes">{{cite news |title=Torture by Army Peacekeepers in Somalia Shocks Canada (Published 1994) |work=The New York Times |date=27 November 1994 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230615161847/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/27/world/torture-by-army-peacekeepers-in-somalia-shocks-canada.html |archive-date=2023-06-15 |url-status=live |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/27/world/torture-by-army-peacekeepers-in-somalia-shocks-canada.html |last1=Farnsworth |first1=Clyde H. }}</ref> Sentence increased to 1 year's imprisonment after prosecution appealed sentence, with dismissal from the Canadian Forces.<ref name="inq"/>
|-
|Major [[Anthony Seward]]|| {{bulleted list|Unlawfully causing bodily harm<ref name="inq"/>|Negligent performance of duties<ref name="inq"/>}} || Acquitted of unlawfully causing bodily harm.<ref name="inq"/> Found guilty of negligent performance of duty for giving instructions to abuse detainees, and sentenced to a severe reprimand.<ref name="inq"/> Prosecution appealed for a tougher sentence.<ref name="inq"/> Court Martial Appeal Court subsequently imposed a term of 3 months' imprisonment.<ref name="inq"/> Defence's appeal was declined.<ref name="inq"/> Seward was also dismissed from the Canadian Forces.<ref name="inq"/>
|-
|Capt. [[Michael Sox]]|| {{bulleted list|Unlawfully causing bodily harm<ref name="inq"/>|Negligent performance of duties<ref name="inq"/>|Act to the prejudice of good order and discipline<ref name="inq"/>}} || Acquitted of unlawfully causing bodily harm.<ref name="inq"/> Convicted of negligent performance of duty.<ref name="inq"/> A stay of proceedings was entered on the charge of an act to the prejudice of good order and discipline.<ref name="inq"/> Sox was also demoted to lieutenant, and received a severe reprimand.<ref name="inq"/> Appeals by both sides were dismissed.<ref name="inq"/>
|-
|LCol. [[Joseph Carol Mathieu]] || {{bulleted list|Negligent performance of duties<ref name="inq"/>}} || Acquitted.<ref name="inq"/> The prosecution appealed the verdict, and the Appeal Court ordered a new trial.<ref name="inq"/> Mathieu was also acquitted in the second trial.<ref name="inq"/>
|-
|Capt. [[Michel Rainville]] || {{bulleted list|Unlawfully causing bodily harm<ref name="inq"/>|Negligent performance of duties<ref name="inq"/>}} || Acquitted and later released from the CF<ref name="inq"/>
|-
|Sgt. [[Perry Gresty]] || {{bulleted list|Negligent performance of duties<ref name="inq"/>}} || Acquitted.<ref name="inq"/>
|-
|Pte. [[David Brocklebank]]|| {{bulleted list|Torture<ref name="inq"/>|Negligent performance of duties<ref name="inq"/>}} || Acquitted on both charges.<ref name="inq"/> Prosecution's appeal was dismissed.<ref name="inq"/>
|}

==McAuliffe's request for documents==
In September 1995, [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] reporter [[Michael McAuliffe (reporter)|Michael McAuliffe]] requested access to 68 [[Response to Query]] forms to supplement his earlier informal gleanings about the Canadian military operation, but the documents were altered before being released to him to make them agree with the information he had been given earlier.<ref name="desb"/> In addition, invented financial charges were tagged onto his request, stating that it had taken 413 [[man-hour]]s and subsequently would cost McAuliffe $4,080, although the documents were in fact readily available.<ref>Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces to Somalia, Document Book 103, tabs 12 & 13.</ref><ref>Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces to Somalia, Testimony of Lt. Brayman, transcript pp. 12947-12948 & 13079-13080</ref><ref>Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces to Somalia, Testimony of Nancy Fournier, Transcript pp. 12048–12050</ref>

While giving McAuliffe misinformation informally was not illegal, it was a crime under s. 67.1 of the ''Access to Information Act'' for the government to release forged documents in response to an [[Access to Information Act|Access to Information]] request.<ref name="desb"/> The question quickly emerged of whether [[Chief of the Defence Staff (Canada)|Chief of Defence Staff]] [[Jean Boyle]] had known about the altering, and if he bore responsibility for it even if he were ignorant of his underlings' doings.<ref name="desb"/> On September 5, 1995, a clerk at the NDHQ was discovered collecting Somalia-related documents for a [[burn bag]] to be destroyed.<ref name="desb"/> Boyle later concurred that there had been documents proving attempts to cover up details of both the March 4 and March 16 killings.<ref name="berc">[[David Bercuson|Bercuson, David]] ''Significant Incident: Canada's Army, the Airborne, & the Murder in Somalia'' 1997</ref><ref name="coombs">Coombs, Howard. ''The Insubordinate and the Noncompliant''. p. 423</ref>

==Somalia Inquiry==
{{Rquote|right|Also mitigating, to a certain extent, is the fact that these individuals must be viewed as products of a system that placed great store in the "can do" attitude. The reflex to say "yes sir" rather than to question the appropriateness of a command or policy obviously runs against the grain of free and open discussion, but it is ingrained in military discipline and culture. However, leaders properly exercising command responsibility must recognise and assert not only their right, but their duty, to advise against improper actions, for failing to do so means that professionalism is lost.|Commission of Inquiry, 1997<ref name="small">Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces to Somalia, "Dishonoured Legacy: The Lessons of the Somalia Affair", pp. 953 & Vol. I, pp. 296.</ref>}}
The public outcry against Arone's death didn't occur until November 1994, when a [[publication ban]] was lifted against the 16 photographs Brown had taken of the torture session and they were widely published in Canadian media.<ref name="buzz"/>

After the [[1993 Canadian federal election]], the new government of [[Jean Chrétien]]'s [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] initiated a highly visible Somalia Inquiry in 1994 under Federal Court Judge Gilles Létourneau. Officially known as the Somalia Commission of Inquiry, its hearings were broadcast daily in both languages, nationally.

As the inquiry unfolded, home videos of [[initiation]] rites in the CAR's French-speaking commando found their way into the media. The new Minister of National Defence [[David Collenette]] argued that the videos were disgusting, demeaning and racist. With the continued accumulation of such politically damaging visibility, the Minister of National Defence advised [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Roméo LeBlanc]] to disband the Canadian Airborne Regiment in 1995.

The [[Chief of the Defence Staff (Canada)|Chief of the Defence Staff]] General [[John de Chastelain]], who had not supported the minister's disbandment order of the Airborne, resigned under a cloud.{{clarify|date=November 2016}}  His successor, Air Force General [[Jean Boyle]] was forced to resign only a few months after accepting the role when, in a gesture uncharacteristic of military tradition, he blamed his subordinates for previous wrongdoing under his command.

On April 8, 1996, Boyle called a halt to all normal duties and announced the entire Canadian military would begin searching for documents relating to Somalia.<ref name="desb"/>

The inquiry ran until 1997 when it was cut short by the government in the months before the [[1997 Canadian federal election|1997 election]]. The government was critical of the direction of the inquiry, claiming that it was far exceeding its mandate.<ref name="national"/> [[Art Eggleton]], a member of Cabinet who would go on to become minister of national defence after the 1997 election, suggested that the events had happened four years earlier, and it was time to "move on".<ref name="national"/>

Indeed, the conduct of the new government after the Somalia affair and the search for documents now absorbed much of the inquiry's attention, as reflected in its report. The inquiry had run long over its allotted timeframe and budget. The decision to end the inquiry received visible media attention and may have contributed to the defeat of the new Defence Minister [[Doug Young (politician)|Doug Young]] in the 1997 election. The inquiry was never able to examine top level governmental{{clarify|date=November 2016}} decision-making, nor did it actually examine the alleged events in Somalia.

The final report of the inquiry was a striking attack on the procedures, support and leadership of the Canadian Forces and the Ministry of Defence. Many of the top officers in the Canadian Forces were excoriated, including three separate Chiefs of the Defence Staff.  The CAR had been rushed into a war zone with inadequate preparation or legal support. Enquiry observer retired Brigadier-General Dan Loomis noted that the operation had changed, in December 1992, "from a peacekeeping operation, where arms are used only in self-defence, to one where arms could be used proactively to achieve politico-military objectives&nbsp;... In short the Canadian Forces were being put on active service and sent to war (as defined by Chapter 7 of the UN Charter)." Its deployment into "war" had never been debated in parliament and indeed the Canadian public had been led to believe by its government that the CAR was on a "peacekeeping" mission.  After the events the leaders of the Canadian Forces had been far more concerned with self-preservation than in trying to find the truth. The inquiry report singled out Major-General [[Lewis MacKenzie]] as a major exception, as he took full responsibility for any errors he made.

==Aftermath==
The affair had a number of long-lasting effects. While it is difficult to separate the effects of the affair on Canadian Forces morale from those of the concurrent defence spending cut, it did exacerbate feelings of distrust towards the media and politicians among many CF members.

At the same time, public trust in the Canadian Forces suffered and recruitment became more difficult. Public revulsion provided support for the sharp cuts to military spending introduced by the government.{{clarify|date=November 2016}}  Many of the report's comments, along with the sustained media criticism of the military, led to the imposition of policies designed to ensure nothing similar to the Somalia Affair could happen again.  Since the events in Somalia, Canada focused on implementing more educational requirements (including ethics, tactical, and strategic planning), oversight processes, and setting new standards and policies for senior officers.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Bercuson, David J. |title=Up from the Ashes: The Re-Professionalization of the Canadian Forces After the Somalia Affair |journal=Canadian Military Journal |url=http://www.journal.forces.gc.ca/vo9/no3/06-bercuson-eng.asp |volume=9 |number=3}}</ref>  Once playing an important role in the majority of UN efforts, in subsequent years Canada simply provided indirect support. Since 2001 though, spending on the Canadian Forces gradually increased and accelerated as Canada played a major role in Afghanistan. Concurrently public perception of the Canadian Forces improved dramatically as well.

In 1999, judge [[J. Douglas Cunningham]] dismissed an appeal for financial compensation by Arone's parents Abubakar Arone Rage and Dahabo Omar Samow, ruling that their use of a litigation guardian, [[Abdullahi Godah Barre]], was inconsistent with the legal requirement, and they should have traveled to Canada to launch the suit themselves.<ref name="marten"/><ref>Scott, Craig. "Torture as Tort", p. 33</ref>

Brown later co-operated on a book in which it was suggested he had been made the scapegoat for the incident, unlike the officers who had not intervened.<ref name="bleat"/>

Soldiers of other countries also faced charges of misconduct; American soldiers were involved in the deaths of three young boys in separate incidents,<ref name="barb">Bedont, Barbara. "The Lack of Accountability for Peacekeepers' Crimes", part of ''Gender, Conflict and Peacekeeping''. p. 86</ref> Pakistani troops were accused of a number of civilian deaths,<ref name="barb"/> and Belgian soldiers took photographs of themselves allegedly torturing a Somali to death.<ref name="barb"/>

Other long-term effects on the Forces included the adoption of sensitivity training, including SHARP (Standard for Harassment and Racism Prevention) training, which became mandatory for every single member of the Forces, and was accompanied by a declaration of "zero tolerance" on racism and harassment of any kind, including hazing.

Some have suggested that [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP) Commissioner [[Joseph Philip Robert Murray]] was slated to be replaced, until Boyle was removed – making it difficult for the Prime Minister to simultaneously replace the head of the armed forces and the head of the federal police.<ref>Palango, Paul. ''The Last Guardians: The Crisis in the RCMP'', 1998</ref>

==Peacekeeping and humanitarian intervention in the wake of the Somalia affair==
The notion of peacekeeping seems to be deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the likes of the United States. The Somalia commission wrote in 1997 that "Canada's foreign policy with respect to peacekeeping has been consistent since Canadians embraced peacekeeping in the late 1950s".<ref name="Whitworth">Whitworth, Sandra. ''Men, Militarism, and UN Peacekeeping: A Gendered Analysis''. (Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004), p. 91</ref> Since the Suez Crisis, Canadian foreign policy has fit a peacekeeping rubric. Americans, however, were seen to fight wars, but Canadians pictured themselves as working for peace.<ref name="Whitworth"/> Canada never had a reputation for starting wars but instead was seen to come to the aid of war-torn countries.

The Somalia affair came as such as surprise to the Canadian public as no one would have thought Canada's golden reputation for international peacekeeping could be tarnished. The Somalia Affair and the ensuing commission of inquiry has become the subject of intense criticism and has given rise to a great deal of comparative theoretical work on humanitarian intervention and peacekeeping. In her book [[Sherene Razack]] asks if it was just a case of "a few bad apples" in the Canadian forces, or if the Somalia affair speaks to a larger issue on the complex nature of peacekeeping and humanitarian intervention.<ref name="Razack">Razack, Sherene. ''Dark Threats and White Knights: The Somalia Affair, Peacekeeping, and the New Imperialism''. (University of Toronto Press, 2004), 29; 30; 116</ref> Thomas Weiss comments that the failures in Somalia have led to this concept of "Somalia syndrome": "multilateral interventions to thwart starvation, genocide, the forced movement of peoples, and massive violations of fundamental rights are no longer politically or operationally feasible”.<ref name="Weiss">Weiss, Thomas. "Overcoming the Somalia Syndrome – "Operation Rekindle Hope?". (Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1995), 171; 173; 179</ref> Peacekeepers are more likely to be involved in peace enforcement in more warlike conditions as unlike traditional peacekeeping; there is not always consent from all the conflicting parties.<ref name="Razack"/> Such was the case in Somalia as the men were hypervigilant with a sense of fear and frustration as they were trained for combat yet charged with providing humanitarian aid.<ref name="Razack"/> Faced with this strong Somali opposition and resentment and yet being responsible for providing aid meant that Canadian peacekeepers "increasingly could not find meaning in their activities".{{attribution needed|date=April 2019}}<ref name="Razack"/>  A "Somalia syndrome" sentiment lingered in the international community after the failures in the war-torn country. Weiss, however, reminds us not to take Somalia out of context or draw upon the wrong lessons leading to isolationism or eschewing necessary humanitarian intervention. The debacle in Somalia would be so paralyzing that it would lead to an unwillingness from the international community to respond to future problems, like the [[Rwandan genocide]]. The United States under the Clinton administration would need to rethink its foreign policies and the rest of the world just did not want another Somalia affair.<ref name="Weiss"/>

The Somalia affair thus had a direct impact on how the international community made foreign policy with a crippling "Somalia syndrome" that led to the sense of caution in intervening in the Rwanda genocide and in the Balkans.

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada|Somalia}}
* [[Bystander effect]]
* [[Command responsibility]]
* [[List of Canadian military operations]]
* [[List of Canadian peacekeeping missions]]
* [[Operation Deliverance]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|author=Grant Dawson|title="Here is hell": Canada's engagement in Somalia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eHe9h45lyQoC&pg=PP1|year=2007|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1297-9}}
*{{cite book|author=Sherene Razack|title=Dark threats and white knights: the Somalia Affair, peacekeeping, and the new imperialism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kc6K0T58yMsC&pg=PP1|year=2004|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8663-1}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Somali Civil War}}
* Final Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Deployment of Canadian Forces to Somalia: [https://www.publications.gc.ca/site/eng/479844/publication.html Government of Canada Publications (PDF links)], [https://web.archive.org/web/20071002102401/http://www.dnd.ca/somalia/somaliae.htm Text archive]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1993 in Somalia]]
[[Category:War crimes in the Somali Civil War]]
[[Category:Anti-Somali sentiment]]
[[Category:Military prisoner abuse scandals]]
[[Category:Deaths by beating]]
[[Category:United Nations operations in Somalia]]
[[Category:Political scandals in Canada]]
[[Category:1993 crimes in Somalia]]
[[Category:Canada–Somalia relations]]
[[Category:Canadian war crimes]]
[[Category:1993 murders in Africa]]
[[Category:1993 in Canadian politics]]
[[Category:Canadian commissions and inquiries]]
[[Category:1997 in Canadian politics]]
[[Category:1997 in military history]]
[[Category:Canada and the United Nations]]
[[Category:Events that led to courts-martial]]
[[Category:Wartime sexual violence in Africa]]
[[Category:Desecration]]
[[Category:Incidents of violence against boys]]
[[Category:Extrajudicial killings in Africa]]
[[Category:Waterboarding]]
[[Category:Rape with foreign objects]]