View source for Sorbian languages

{{Short description|West Slavic language group}}
{{distinguish|Serbian language}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2011}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Sorbian
| altname       = {{native name|hsb|serbšćina, serbsce}}<br>{{native name|dsb|serbšćina, serbski}}
| ethnicity     = [[Sorbs]]
| region        = [[Lusatia]]
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| fam2          = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
| fam3          = [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
| fam4          = [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]
| child1        = [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]
| child2        = [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]
| map           = Лужицкие сербы на карте Германии.svg
| mapcaption    = {{legend|#0B4D0B|The Sorbian-speaking area in [[Germany]]}}
| iso2          = wen
| iso5          = wen
| glotto        = sorb1249
| glottorefname = Sorbian
| speakers      = {{circa}} 20,000
| map2              = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
| mapcaption2       = {{center|{{small|Sorbian  is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]'' (2010)}}}}
}}

The '''Sorbian languages'''<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sorbian languages |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |location=[[Edinburgh]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sorbian-languages |access-date=5 December 2022 |date=21 November 2013 |orig-year=20 July 1998 |quote='''Sorbian languages''', also called '''Lusatian''', or '''Wendish''', closely related [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] languages or dialects; their small number of speakers in eastern Germany are the survivors of a more extensive [[Middle Ages|medieval]] language group. The centre of the [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]] speech area is [[Bautzen]], near the border with the [[Czech Republic]], while [[Cottbus]], near [[Poland]], is the centre for [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]. The oldest written record of Sorbian dates from the 15th century, although the languages, differing mostly in their sound systems, are known to have begun to diverge around the 13th century. Upper Sorbian enjoyed a considerable amount of prestige in [[Saxony]], while the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] attempted to suppress Lower Sorbian. Although all Sorbs today also speak [[German language|German]], both Upper and Lower Sorbian have been taught in the schools of the Sorbian areas since 1948.}}</ref> ({{langx|hsb|serbska rěč}}, {{langx|dsb|serbska rěc}}) are the [[Upper Sorbian language]] and [[Lower Sorbian language]], two closely related and partially [[mutually intelligible]] languages spoken by the [[Sorbs]], a [[West Slavs|West Slavic]] ethno-cultural minority in the [[Lusatia]] region of Eastern [[Germany]].<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="Belgeo 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Yèche |first1=Hélène |date=2013 |title=Les Sorabes: Une minorité invisible? |journal=Belgeo: Revue Belge de Géographie |location=[[Bruxelles]] |publisher=[[National Fund for Scientific Research]] and the [[University Foundation|Fondation Universitaire/Universitaire Stichting]] |volume=3 |issue=Les minorités nationales et ethniques: Entre renouvellement et permanence |language=fr |doi=10.4000/belgeo.11570 |doi-access=free |issn=2294-9135}}</ref><ref name="Sanguin 1996">{{cite journal |author-last=Sanguin |author-first=André-Louis |date=1996 |title=Les Sorabes de l'ex-R.D.A. après la fin du communisme: La recomposition territoriale du plus petit des Peuples Slaves |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/slave_0080-2557_1996_num_68_1_6307 |journal=Revue des Études Slaves |location=[[Paris]] |publisher=Institut d'Études Slaves |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=55–68 |doi=10.3406/slave.1996.6307 |language=fr |issn=2117-718X |jstor=43270317}}</ref> They are classified under the [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages]] and are therefore closely related to the other two West Slavic subgroups: [[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]] and [[Czech–Slovak languages|Czech–Slovak]].<ref name=Faska>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120212191519/http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~sorb/seiten/eng/03/language.html About Sorbian Language], by Helmut Faska, [[University of Leipzig]]</ref> Historically, the languages have also been known as '''Wendish''' (named after the [[Wends]], the earliest Slavic people in modern Poland and Germany) or '''Lusatian'''.<ref name="Britannica"/> Their collective [[ISO 639]]-2 code is {{code|wen}}.

The two Sorbian languages, each having its own [[Literary language|literary standard]], are [[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]] ({{lang|hsb|hornjoserbsce}}), spoken by about 20,000–25,000<ref>"Seltenes Studienfach: Entschuldigung, sprechen Sie Sorbisch?" - https://www.zeit.de/zett/2016-01/leipziger-institut-wehrt-sich-gegen-das-aussterben-von-sprachen</ref> people in [[Saxony]], and [[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]] ({{lang|dsb|dolnoserbski}}), spoken by about 7,000 people in [[Brandenburg]]. The area where the two languages are spoken is known as [[Lusatia]] ({{lang|hsb|Łužica}} in Upper Sorbian, {{lang|dsb|Łužyca}} in Lower Sorbian, or {{lang|de|Lausitz}} in [[German language|German]]).<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="Belgeo 2013"/><ref name="Sanguin 1996"/>

==History==
[[File:Germanische und slavische Volksstaemme zwischen Elbe und Weichsel.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''[[Sorbian March|Limes sorabicus]]'': the [[Sorbian settlement area]] bordering [[East Francia]] on a map of [[medieval Germany]] (''Germanische und slavische Volksstämme zwischen Elbe und Weichsel'', 1869)]]
After the settlement of the formerly [[Germanic peoples|Germanic territories]] (the part largely corresponding to the former [[East Germany]])<ref name="Sanguin 1996"/> by the [[Sorbs (tribe)|Slavic ancestors]] of the [[Sorbs]] in the 5th and 6th centuries CE,<ref name="Belgeo 2013"/> the Sorbian language (or its predecessors) had been in use in much of what was the southern half of Eastern Germany for several centuries. The language still had its stronghold in (Upper and Lower) Lusatia,<ref name="Belgeo 2013"/> where it enjoys national protection and fostering to the present day. For people living in the medieval Northern [[Holy Roman Empire]] and its precursors, especially for the [[Saxons]], the [[Wends]] (''Wende'') were heterogeneous groups and tribes of Slavic peoples living near Germanic settlement areas, in the area west of the River [[Oder]], an area later entitled ''[[Germania Slavica]]'', settled by the [[Polabian Slavs|Polabian Slav tribes]] in the north and by others, such as the Sorbs and the [[Milceni]], further south (see [[Sorbian March]]).

The exact origin of the Sorbian language is uncertain. While some [[Linguistics|linguists]] consider it to be a transitory language between [[Lechitic languages|Lechitic]] and other non-Lechitic languages of [[West Slavic languages]], others like [[Heinz Schuster-Šewc]] consider it a separate dialectical group of [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]] which is a mixture of Proto-Lechitic and [[South Slavic languages]].<ref name="Schuster2013">{{cite journal |last1=Schuster-Šewc |first1=Heinz |date=2013 |title=Das Sorbische – Genese und sprachlicher Status |trans-title=The Sorbian Language – its Origins and Linguistic Status |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=31630 |language=de |journal=Lětopis |issue=2 |pages=86–94 |access-date=27 November 2024}}</ref> According to him, "Sorbian spoken today in Upper and Lower Lusatia is what remains of an earlier extensive Old Sorbian dialect area between the [[Elbe]]/[[Saale]] rivers in the west and the [[Bóbr|Bober]]/[[Kwisa|Queis]] rivers in the east".<ref name="Schuster2013"/>

Furthermore, while some consider it a single language which later diverged to two major dialects, others consider these dialects two separate languages. There exist significant differences in [[phonology]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and [[lexicon]] between them. Several characteristics in [[Upper Sorbian language]] indicate a close proximity to [[Czech language]] which again are absent in [[Lower Sorbian language]].<ref name="Sedov"/> The Upper Sorbian is considered as representative of the old "Sorbian proper", while the Lower Sorbian would be a transitional hybrid language more akin to the [[Lechitic languages]].<ref name="Schuster2013"/> According to some researchers the archaeological data cannot confirm the thesis about a single linguistic group yet supports the claim about two separated ethno-cultural groups with different ancestry whose respective territories correspond to Tornow-type ceramics (Lower Sorbian language) and [[Leipzig group|Leipzig-type ceramics]] (Upper Sorbian language),<ref name="Sedov">{{cite book |author-last=Sedov |author-first=Valentin Vasilyevich |year=2013 |orig-year=1995 |title=Славяне в раннем Средневековье |trans-title=Sloveni u ranom srednjem veku (Slavs in Early Middle Ages) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HD4oAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Akademska knjiga |location=Novi Sad |isbn=978-86-6263-026-1 |pages=191–205}}</ref> both derivations of [[Prague culture]].<ref>Paul M. Barford (2001). ''The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe''. Cornell University Press. pp. 64–65, 77–78, 104–105. {{ISBN|9780801439773}}</ref>

Outside Lusatia, the Sorbian language has been superseded by [[German language|German]]. From the 13th century on, the language suffered official discrimination.<ref name=Faska /> [[Bible translations into Sorbian]] provided the foundations for its writing system.

Today, around 60,000 Sorbs live in Germany, about 40,000 in [[Saxony]] and 20,000 in [[Brandenburg]]. Since national affiliation is not officially recorded in Germany, and identification with the Sorbian nationality is voluntary, the exact number is only an estimate. The number of active Sorbian speakers is likely lower. Unlike Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian is considered critically endangered. According to projections, around 7,000 people actively speak Lower Sorbian, which could become extinct within 20 to 30 years, while around 13,000 speak Upper Sorbian. According to language experts,{{who|date=October 2025}} Upper Sorbian is expected to survive into the 21st century.{{citation needed|reason=This claim is plausible, but lacks a source. See "Statement about language survival" on the talk page.|date=October 2025}}

Currently, Sorbian is taught at 25 primary schools and several secondary schools. At the [[Lower Sorbian Gymnasium Cottbus|Lower Sorbian Gymnasium in Cottbus]] and the [[Upper Sorbian Gymnasium Bautzen|Upper Sorbian Gymnasium in Bautzen]], it is compulsory. In many primary and Sorbian schools, lessons are held in the Sorbian language. The daily newspaper ''Serbske Nowiny'' is published in Upper Sorbian, and the weekly ''Nowy Casnik'' in Lower Sorbian. In addition, the religious weekly journals ''Katolski Posoł'' and ''Pomhaj Bóh'' are published. The cultural magazine ''Rozhlad'' appears monthly, along with one children's magazine each in Upper and Lower Sorbian (''[[Płomjo]]'' and ''Płomje'', respectively), as well as the educational magazine ''Serbska šula''.

[[Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk]] (MDR) and [[Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg]] (RBB) also broadcast monthly half-hour TV magazines in Sorbian, as well as several hours of daily radio programming—the [[Sorbischer Rundfunk|Sorbian radio]]. [[Sorbian Wikipedia|Wikipedia]] editions exist in both written forms of the Sorbian language.<gallery>
File:Njebjelčicy kěrchow – serbsko-němska tafla.jpg|Upper Sorbian-German information sign in [[Nebelschütz]]
File:Bilinguale Straßenbeschilderung Cottbus b.jpg|Bilingual street signs in [[Cottbus]] (''Chóśebuz'') in German and Lower Sorbian
File:Budyšin – měšćanska tafla (2021).jpg|Bilingual town sign in [[Bautzen]] (''Budyšin'') with Upper Sorbian
File:Sorbisch-deutsches Straßenschild in Bautzen.JPG|Bilingual street sign in Bautzen with Upper Sorbian
File:UTafel A13 Niederlausitz straightened.jpg|Bilingual information board on the A13
</gallery>

==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Sorbische Dialekte.png|thumb|300px|right|Distribution and main speaking-centers of ''Obersorbische'' (Upper Sorbian) and ''Niedersorbishe'' (Lower Sorbian).]]
[[File:Pančicy Lěkarnja.jpg|thumb|Signage in Sorbian in [[Panschwitz-Kuckau]].]]
In Germany, Upper and Lower Sorbian are officially recognized and protected as minority languages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list|title=Full list|website=Treaty Office|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref> In the officially defined [[Sorbian settlement area]], both languages are recognized as second official languages next to German.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sparrow|first=Thomas|title=Sorbs: The ethnic minority inside Germany|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20210615-sorbs-the-ethnic-minority-inside-germany|access-date=2022-01-14|website=www.bbc.com|date=16 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

The city of [[Bautzen]] in [[Upper Lusatia]] is the centre of Upper Sorbian culture. Bilingual signs can be seen around the city, including the name of the city, "Bautzen/{{lang|hsb|Budyšin}}".
To the north, the city of [[Cottbus|Cottbus/Chóśebuz]] is considered the cultural centre of Lower Sorbian; there, too, bilingual signs are found.

Sorbian was also spoken in the small Sorbian ("Wendish") settlement of [[Serbin, Texas|Serbin]] in [[Lee County, Texas]], however no speakers remain there. Until 1949, newspapers were published in Sorbian. The local dialect was heavily influenced by surrounding speakers of German and [[English language|English]].

The German terms "Wends" (''Wenden'') and "Wendish" (''wendisch/Wendisch'') once denoted "Slav(ic)" generally;{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} they are today mostly replaced by "Sorbs" (''Sorben'') and "Sorbian" (''sorbisch/Sorbisch'') with reference to Sorbian communities in Germany.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}}

===Endangered status===
The use of Sorbian languages has been contracting for a number of years. The loss of Sorbian language use in emigrant communities, such as in [[Serbin, Texas]], has not been surprising. But within the Sorbian homelands, there has also been a decrease in Sorbian identity and language use. In 2008, Sorbs protested three kinds of pressures against Sorbs: "(1.) the destruction of Sorbian and German-Sorbian villages as a result of lignite mining; (2.) the cuts in the network of Sorbian schools in Saxony; (3.) the reduction of financial resources for the Sorbian institutions by central government."<ref>p. 154. Mieczkowska, Małgorzata. "Protestdemonstrationen der Sorben–eine Form der politischen Kommunikation." ''LĚTOPIS. Zeitschrift für sorbische Sprache, Geschichte und Kultur. Časopis za rěč, stawizny a kulturu Łužiskich'' 2 (2009): 16-28.</ref>

A study of Upper Sorbian found a number of trends that go against language vitality. There are policies that have led to "unstable [[diglossia]]". There has been a loss of [[language domain]]s in which speakers have the option to use either language, and there is a disruption of the patterns by which the Sorbian language has traditionally been transmitted to the next generation. Also, there is no strong written tradition and there is not a broadly accepted formal standardized form of the language(s). There is a perception of the loss of language rights, and there are negative attitudes towards the languages and their speakers.<ref>De Meulder, Maartje, Eduard Werner, and Danny De Weerdt. "Comparing Minority Languages-a Case Study of Flemish Sign Language and Upper Sorbian." ''Europäisches Journal für Minderheitenfragen'' 10, no. 3-4 (2017): 285-321.</ref>

==Linguistic features==
Both Upper and Lower Sorbian have the [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]] for [[noun]]s, [[pronoun]]s, [[adjective]]s, and [[verb]]s; very few living Indo-European languages retain this as a productive feature of the grammar. For example, the word {{lang|dsb|ruka}} is used for one hand, {{lang|dsb|ruce}} for two hands, and {{lang|dsb|ruki}} for more than two hands. As with most [[Slavic languages]], Sorbian uses no [[article (grammar)|articles]].

===Grammar===
The Sorbian languages are [[Declension|declined]] in six or seven cases:
#[[Nominative case|Nominative]]
#[[Accusative case|Accusative]]
#[[Genitive case|Genitive]]
#[[Dative case|Dative]]
#[[Locative case|Locative]]
#[[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
#[[Vocative case|Vocative]] (Upper Sorbian only)

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case
! colspan="2" | ''nan''<br />father
! ''štom''<br />tree
! ''bom''<br />tree
! colspan="2" | ''wokno''<br />window
|-
| &nbsp;
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
|-
| Nom.
| nan
| nan
| rowspan="2" | štom
| rowspan="2" | bom
| rowspan="2" | wokno
| rowspan="2" | wokno
|-
| Acc.
| rowspan="2" | nana
| rowspan="2" | nana
|-
| Gen.
| štoma
| boma
| wokna
| wokna
|-
| Dat.
| nan'''ej'''
| nan'''oju'''
| štom'''ej'''
| bom'''oju'''
| woknu
| wokn'''oju''', woknu
|-
| Loc.
| wo nanje
| wó nanje
| na štomje
| na bomje
| na woknje
| na woknje
|-
| Instr.
| z nanom
| z nanom
| ze štomom
| z bomom
| z woknom
| z woknom
|-
| Voc.
| nano
| —
| štomo
| —
| —
| —
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case
! ''ramjo''<br />shoulder
! ''ramje''<br />shoulder, armpit
! ''žona''<br />woman
! ''žeńska''{{ref|ai|1}}<br />woman, wife
! colspan="2" | ''ruka''<br />hand
|-
| &nbsp;
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
| Upper Sorb.
| Lower Sorb.
|-
| Nom.
| rowspan="2" | ramjo
| rowspan="2" | ramje
| žona
| žeńska
| colspan="2" | ruka
|-
| Acc.
| žonu
| žeńsku
| colspan="2" | ruku
|-
| Gen.
| ramjenja
| ramjenja
| žony
| žeńskeje
| colspan="2" | ruki
|-
| Dat.
| ramjenju
| ramjenj'''eju''', ramjenju
| žonje
| žeńskej
| colspan="2" | ruce
|-
| Loc.
| wo ramjenju
| wó ramjenju
| wo žonje
| wó žeńskej
| colspan="2" | w ruce
|-
| Instr.
| z ramjen'''jom'''
| z ramjen'''im'''
| ze žonu
| ze žeńskeju
| colspan="2" | z ruku
|-
| colspan="11" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Note'''
{{smalldiv|1=
:{{note|re|1}}The form ''žona'' is literary in Lower Sorbian. The Lower Sorbian declension is adjectival due to the -''ska'' ending.}}
|}

In Lower Sorbian, the vocative is preserved only in a few fossilized forms.

Notably, in addition to the singular and plural, the dual number (used for two items), inherited from Old Slavic, has also been preserved.

* Singular: ''ruka'' ("hand")
* Dual: ''ruce'' ("two hands")
* Plural: ''ruki'' ("more than two hands")

In contrast to other West Slavic languages ([[Czech language|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]), Upper Sorbian literary language and some dialects have preserved the synthetic past tense (aorist, imperfect) to this day. This form was also common in Lower Sorbian literary language, but over the course of the 20th century, it has become increasingly rare and is hardly used today.

Lower Sorbian, however, has retained the [[supine]] (a variant of the infinitive used after verbs of motion), e.g.: ''njok spaś'' ("I don't want to sleep") versus ''źi spat'' ("go to sleep")

Less demanding written texts in Sorbian can generally be understood by speakers of West Slavic languages.

===Vocabulary comparison===
The following is selected vocabulary from the two Sorbian languages compared with other Slavic languages.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English
! Lower Sorbian
! Upper Sorbian
! [[Serbo-Croatian]]
! [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
! [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
! [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
! [[Czech language|Czech]]
! [[Polish language|Polish]]
! [[Polabian language|Polabian]]
! [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]
! [[Silesian language|Silesian]]
! [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
! [[Russian language|Russian]]
! [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
! [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
|-
| person
| clowek/luź
| čłowjek
| човек / човјек<br />(čovek / čovjek)
| човек (čovek)
|човек<br>(čovek)
| človek
| člověk
| człowiek
| clawak
| człowiek
| czowiek
| človek
| человек<br />(čelovek)
| чоловік (čolovik)
| чалавек (čalavjek)
|-
| evening
| wjacor
| wječor
| вече / вечер<br />(veče / večer)
| вечер (večer)
|вечер<br>(večer)
| večer
| večer
| wieczór
| vicer
| wieczór
| wieczōr
| večer
| вечер<br />(večer)
| вечір<br />(večir)
| вечар<br />(vječar)
|-
| brother
| bratš
| bratr
| брат<br />(brat)
| брат (brat)
|брат<br>(brat)
| brat
| bratr
| brat
| brot
| brat
| brat
| brat
| брат<br />(brat)
| брат<br />(brat)
| брат<br />(brat)
|-
| day
| źeń
| dźeń
| дан<br />(dan)
| ден (den)
|ден<br>(den)
| dan
| den
| dzień
| dôn
| dzéń
| dziyń
| deň
| день<br />(den')
| dziyń | день<br />(den')
| дзень<br />(dzjen')
|-
| hand
| ruka
| ruka
| рука<br />(ruka)
| рака (raka)
|ръка<br>(rəka)
| roka
| ruka
| ręka
| ręka
| rãka
| rynka
| ruka
| рука<br />(ruka)
| рука<br />(ruka)
| рука<br />(ruka)
|-
| snow
| sněg
| sněh
| снег / снијег<br />(sneg / snijeg)
| снег (sneg)
|сняг<br>(snjag)
| sneg
| sníh
| śnieg
| sneg
| sniég
| śniyg
| sneh
| снег<br />(sneg)
| сніг<br />(snih)
| снег<br />(snjeh)
|-
| summer
| lěśe
| lěćo
| лето / љето<br />(leto / ljeto)
| лето (leto)
|лято / лето<br>(ljato / ljeto)
| poletje
| léto
| lato
| ljutü
| lato
| lato
| leto
| лето<br />(leto)
| літо<br />(lito)
| лета<br />(ljeta)
|-
| sister
| sotša
| sotra
| сестра<br />(sestra)
| сестра (sestra)
|сестра<br>(sestra)
| sestra
| sestra
| siostra
| sestra
| sostra
| szwestra
| sestra
| сестра<br />(sestra)
| сестра<br />(sestra)
| сястра<br />(sjastra)
|-
| fish
| ryba
| ryba
| риба<br />(riba)
| риба (riba)
|риба<br>(riba)
| riba
| ryba
| ryba
| raibo
| rëba
| ryba
| ryba
| рыба<br />(ryba)
| риба<br />(ryba)
| рыба<br />(ryba)
|-
| fire
| wogeń
| woheń
| огањ<br />(oganj)
| оган (ogan)
|огън<br>(ogən)
| ogenj
| oheň
| ogień
| widin
| òdżin
| ôgyń
| oheň
| огонь<br />(ogon')
| вогонь<br />(vohon')
| агонь<br />(ahon')
|-
| water
| wóda
| woda
| вода<br />(voda)
| вода (voda)
|вода<br>(voda)
| voda
| voda
| woda
| wôda
| wòda
| woda
| voda
| вода<br />(voda)
| вода<br />(voda)
| вада<br />(vada)
|-
| wind
| wětš
| wětr
| ветар / вјетар<br />(vetar / vjetar)
| ветер (veter)
|вятър / ветер<br>(vjatər / veter)
| veter
| vítr
| wiatr
| wjôter
| wiater
| wiater
| vietor
| ветер<br />(veter)
| вітер<br />(viter)
| вецер<br />(vjecjer)
|-
| winter
| zyma
| zyma
| зима<br />(zima)
| зима (zima)
|зима<br>(zima)
| zima
| zima
| zima
| zaima
| zëma
| zima
| zima
| зима<br />(zima)
| зима<br />(zyma)
| зіма<br />(zima)
|}

=== Differences between the two written languages ===
There are several differences between the two written languages, Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian, particularly in the alphabet.

==== Phonetic differences ====

==== In the consonants ====
The two written languages differ significantly in terms of consonants. For example, the letter ć has been alphabetically placed after ''č'' in Upper Sorbian since 2005.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="29" |Upper Sorbian
|-
|b
|c
|č
|ć
|d
|'''dź'''
|f
|g
|h
|ch
|j
|k
|ł
|l
|m
|n
|ń
|p
|(q)
|r
|'''ř'''
|s
|š
|t
|(v)
|w
|(x)
|z
|ž
|}
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="30" |Lower Sorbian
|-
|b
|c
|č
|ć
|d
|f
|g
|h
|ch
|j
|k
|ł
|l
|m
|n
|ń
|p
|(q)
|r
|'''ŕ'''
|s
|š
|'''ś'''
|t
|(v)
|w
|(x)
|z
|ž
|'''ź'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!Upper Sorbian
!Lower Sorbian
!Examples
!Meaning
!Notes
|-
| rowspan="6" |h
| rowspan="6" |g
|''hora – góra''
|mountain
| rowspan="6" |g > h also occurs in Czech, Slovak, Ukrainian, Belarusian, and in western Slovene dialects
|-
|''hołb – gołub''
|dove
|-
|''hordy – gjardy''
|proud
|-
|''hród – grod''
|castle
|-
|''kniha – knigły''
|book
|-
|''hody – gódy''
|Christmas
|-
| rowspan="6" |č
| rowspan="6" |c
|''čas – cas''
|time
| rowspan="6" |č > c as in Polish and Lithuanian dialects, as well as in Polabian
|-
|''čorny – carny''
|black
|-
|''čert – cart''
|devil
|-
|''česć – cesć''
|honor
|-
|''ličba – licba''
|number
|-
|''pčołka – pcołka''
|bee
|-
| rowspan="4" |š
| rowspan="4" |s
|''štyri – styri''
|four
| rowspan="4" |š > s in Lower Sorbian
|-
|''štwórć – stwjerś''
|Quarter
|-
|''štwórtka – stwórtka''
|four (noun)
|-
|''štwórtk – stwórtk''
|Thursday
|-
| rowspan="10" |ć
| rowspan="10" |ś
|''ćeńki – śańki''
|thin, delicate
| rowspan="10" |ć > ś in Lower Sorbian, except after sibilants
|-
|''bić – biś''
|to hit
|-
|''hić – hyś''
|to go
|-
|''puć – puś''
|way
|-
|''ćah – śěg''
|train
|-
|''ćahnyć – śěgnuś''
| rowspan="2" |to pull
|-
|''ćahać – śěgaś''
|-
|''ćim – śim''
|the (used in comparison)
|-
|''ćichi – śichy''
|quiet, calm
|-
|but: ''hósć – gósć''
|guest
|-
| rowspan="9" |dź
| rowspan="9" |ź
|''dźeń – źeń''
|day
| rowspan="9" |dź > ź in Lower Sorbian, except after sibilants
|-
|''dźesać – źaseś''
|ten
|-
|''hdźe – źo''
|where
|-
|''hdźež<sup>ⓘ/?</sup> – źož''
|where (rel.)
|-
|''dźowka – źowka''
|daughter
|-
|''dźiwy – źiwy''
|wild
|-
|''dźěło – źěło''
|work
|-
|''dźak – źěk''
|thanks 
|-
|''hózdź – gózdź''
|nail
|-
| rowspan="10" |kr, pr, tr
| rowspan="10" |kš, pš, tš
|''krasny – kšasny''
|magnificent
| rowspan="10" |r > š after voiceless consonants before a, o, u in Lower Sorbian
|-
|''prawy – pšawy''
|right, correct
|-
|''próstwa – pšosba''
|please
|-
|''preč – pšec''
|away
|-
|''bratr – bratš''
|brother
|-
|''sotra – sotša''
|sister
|-
|''wutroba – wutšoba''
|heart
|-
|''trawa – tšawa''
|grass
|-
|''jutry – jatšy''
|Easter
|-
|''wótry – wótšy''
|sharp
|-
| rowspan="8" |ń
| rowspan="8" |j, '
|''dóńć – dojś''
|to go
| rowspan="8" |ń in Upper Sorbian, similar to Kashubian, instead of j in Lower Sorbian
|-
|''nadeńć – nadejś''
|to meet, to find
|-
|''přeńć – pśejś''
|to go over
|-
|''přińć – pśiś''
|to come
|-
|''rozeńć – rozejś''
|to separate
|-
|''woteńć – wótejś''
|to go away
|-
|''wuńć – wujś''
|to go out
|-
|''njeńdu – njejdu''
|they do not go
|}

=== Vowels ===
Both Lower Sorbian and Upper Sorbian have eight vowels.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Monophthongs of Upper Sorbian
! rowspan="2" | 
!Front
! rowspan="2" |Central
!Back
|-
|oral
|oral
|-
! rowspan="2" align="left" |Close
| rowspan="2" |i [⁠i⁠]
| rowspan="2" |y [⁠ɨ⁠]
|u [⁠u⁠]
|-
|ó [⁠ʊ⁠]
|-
! align="left" |Mid
|e [⁠ɛ⁠]
| 
|o [⁠ɔ⁠]
|-
! align="left" |Open
| 
|a [⁠a⁠]
| 
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Monophthongs of Lower Sorbian
! rowspan="2" | 
!Front
! rowspan="2" |Central
!Back
|-
|oral
|oral
|-
! align="left" |Close
|i [⁠i⁠]
|y [⁠ɨ⁠]
|u [⁠u⁠]
|-
! align="left" |Mid
|e [⁠ɛ⁠]
|ó [ɨ, ɛ, ʊ]{{ref|au|1}}
|o [⁠ɔ⁠]
|-
! align="left" |Open
|
|a [⁠a⁠]
|
|-
| colspan="9" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Note'''
{{smalldiv|1=
:{{note|ai|1}}The first two variants are used in the written language. In dialect, [ɔ] as well as the third variant also occur}}
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!Diphthong of both languages
|-
| align="center" |ě [ iə ]
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!Upper Sorbian
!Lower Sorbian
!Examples
!Meaning
!Notes
|-
| rowspan="8" |'a
| rowspan="8" |ě, e
|''mjaso – měso''
|meat
| rowspan="8" |from Proto-Slavic ''ę''
|-
|''dźak – źěk''
|thanks
|-
|''časty – cesty''
|frequent(ly)
|-
|''hladać – glědaś''
|to see, to look, to glance
|-
|''dźes'''a'''ć – źas'''e'''ś''
|ten
|-
|''rjad – rěd''
|row
|-
|''rjany – rědny''
|nice
|-
|''swjatki – swětki''
|Pentecost
|-
| rowspan="9" |'e
| rowspan="9" |'a
|''mjeza – mjaza''
|Rain
| rowspan="9" |‘e > ‘a also occurs in Polish, Belarusian, and Bulgarian, but with different rules
|-
|''čert – cart''
|devil
|-
|''jedyn – jaden''
|one
|-
|''dź'''e'''sać – ź'''a'''seś''
|ten
|-
|''njesć – njasć''
|to carry
|-
|''pjec – pjac''
|to bake; to roast
|-
|''wjeselo – wjasele''
|joy
|-
|''wjes – wjas''
|village
|-
|''wječor – wjacor''
|evening
|-
| rowspan="4" |e
| rowspan="4" |o
|''hdźe – źo''
|wo
| rowspan="4" |e > o in Lower Sorbian
|-
| ''-će – -śo, -ćo''
|(ending of the third person plural)
|-
|''ćeta – śota''
|aunt
|-
|''wčera – cora''
|yesterday
|-
| rowspan="7" |i
| rowspan="7" |y
|''hić – hyś''
|to go
| rowspan="7" |Lower Sorbian centralization of ''i'' to ''y'' after ž, š, h, and c (from č), analogous in Polish; this phonetic tendency also appears in the East Slavic languages
|-
|''wužiwar – wužywaŕ''
|user
|-
|''wužiwać – wužywaś''
|to use, to apply
|-
|''žiwy – žywy''
|alive
|-
|''činić – cyniś''
|to make, to do
|-
|''šija – šyja''
|neck
|-
|''šiška – šyška''
|cone (botanical)
|-
|o
|'a
|''pos – pjas''
|dog
|From original ь (cf. Polish ''ie'' in ''pies'')
|-
| rowspan="3" |o
| rowspan="3" |e
|''susod – sused''
|neighbour
| rowspan="3" |e > o in Upper Sorbian
|-
|''so – se''
|oneself
|-
|''won – wen''
|out
|-
| rowspan="9" |y
| rowspan="9" |e, ě
|''cyły – ceły''
|whole, total, completely
| rowspan="9" |e/ě becomes y in Upper Sorbian after c, s, d
|-
|''cyłosć – cełosć''
|entirety, totality
|-
|''dyrbjeć – derbiś, derbjeś''
|must, should
|-
|''cypy – cepy''
|flail
|-
|''cyn – cen''
|tin
|-
|''cyrkej – cerkwja''
|church
|-
|''dyrić – deriś''
|to strike/to deliver a blow or push
|-
|''syć – seś''
|net
|-
|''symjo – semje''
|seed
|-
| rowspan="4" |oł
| rowspan="4" |łu
|''tołsty – tłusty''
|thick, strong
| rowspan="4" |from ьl or ъl after a hard dental consonant
|-
|''dołhi – dłujki''
|lang
|-
|''dołh – dług''
|debt
|-
|''stołp – słup''
|column; pillar
|-
| rowspan="5" |or
| rowspan="5" |ar (jar nach g/k)
|''hordy – gjardy''
|proud
| rowspan="5" |from original ьr
|-
|''horbaty – gjarbaty''
|hunched
|-
|''horb – gjarba''
|hump
|-
|''hordło – gjardło''
|goitre; throat
|-
|''hornc – gjarnc''
|pot
|-
|or
|ar
|''čorny – carny''
|black
|from original ьr before hard consonants, otherwise uniformly ''er'' (as in: ''smjerć'' – ''smjerś'' ‘death’)
|}

=== Different number of syllables ===
In some words, the number of syllables differs because Upper Sorbian has shortened them here, similarly to Czech.
{| class="wikitable"
!Upper Sorbian
!Lower Sorbian
!Meaning
|-
|''stać''
|''stojaś''
|to stand
|-
|''přećel''
|''pśijaśel''
|friend
|-
|''horcy''
|''górucy''
|hot
|-
|''kobła''
|''kobyła''
|[[mare]]
|-
|''kelko''
|''keliko, kelko'' (arch.){{ref|ai|1}}
|how much
|-
|''korto''
|''kóryto''
|trough
|-
|''kotry''
|''kótary''
|which
|-
| colspan="11" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Notes'''
{{smalldiv|1=
:{{note|re|1}} The usual form is '''(kak) wjele'''.}}
|}
'''Differences in declension'''

Upper Sorbian have seven cases and Lower Sorbian have six cases.

Differences in case government (i.e., which case follows which preposition or verb)
{| class="wikitable"
!Upper Sorbian
!Lower Sorbian
!Meaning
|-
|''mam dweju bratrow, dwaj konjej''
|''mam dweju bratšowu, kónjowu''
|I have two brothers, horses
|-
|''mam třoch bratrow, tři konje''
|''mam tśoch bratšow, tśich kónjow/kóni''
|I have three brothers, horses
|-
|''mam bratrow, konje''
|''mam bratšy/bratšow, kónje''
|I have brothers, horses
|}

==== Differences in gender ====
{| class="wikitable"
!Upper Sorbian
!Lower Sorbian
!Meaning
!Note
|-
|''huso'' (n)
|''gus'' (f)
|goose
| rowspan="5" |
* f = feminine
* m = masculine
* n = neutral
|-
|''swinjo'' (n)
|''swinja'' (f)
|pig
|-
|''jězor'' (m)
|''jazoro'' (n), ''jazor'' (m)
|lake
|-
|''karp'' (m)
|''karpa'' (f)
|carp
|}

==== Differences in conjugation ====
{| class="wikitable"
!Upper Sorbian
!Lower Sorbian
!Notes
|-
|Retention of '''aorist''' and '''imperfect'''
|In the written language
|
|-
|a-, i-, e- conjugation
|o-, a-, i-, j- conjugation{{Ref|Perfective verbs from the a- and i-conjugation generally form their present tense using the o-conjugation today.}}
|
|-
|Verbs like ''pisać'' follow the a-conjugation (first and second person singular present indicative active: ''pisam'', ''pisaš'')
|Verbs like ''pisaś'' follow the o-conjugation (first and second person singular present indicative active: ''pišom'', ''pišoš'')
|The Lower Sorbian o-conjugation corresponds to the e-conjugation of Upper Sorbian, except that some verbs (like ''pisać'') have shifted.
|}

==== Differences in vocabulary ====
{| class="wikitable"
!Upper Sorbian
!Lower Sorbian
!Meaning
!Notes
|-
|''swoboda''
|''lichota''
|freedom
|
|-
|''swobodny''
|''lichy''
|free
|
|-
|''chěža''
|''wjaža''
|house
|
|-
|''prajić''
|''groniś''
|to say, to speak
|''groniś'' resembles [[Polabian language|Polabian]] ''gornt''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Die Sprache der slawischen Bewohner des Ostseeraums |url=https://www.wizlaw.de/html/polabisch.html |access-date=8 August 2025 |website=wizlaw.de}}</ref>
|-
|''patoržica''
|''gwězdka''
|Christmas Eve
|
|-
|''zo''
|''až''
|that (subordinating conj.)
|
|-
|''sewjer''
|''pódpołnoc''
|north
|Upper Sorbian = Czech ''sever''; 
Lower Sorbian cf. Polish ''północ''
|-
|''juh''
|''pódpołdnjo''
|south
|Upper Sorbian = Czech ''jih''; 
Lower Sorbian cf. Polish ''południe''
|-
|''wuchod''
|''pódzajtšo''
|east
|
|-
|''zapad''
|''pódwjacor''
|west
|Lower Sorbian cf. Polish ''wieczór'' ("evening")
|-
|''wopica''
|''nałpa''
|monkey
|Upper Sorbian = Czech ''opice''; 
Lower Sorbian = Polish ''małpa''
|-
|''běrna''
|''kulka''{{ref|a|1}}
|potato
|
|-
|''dyrbjeć''
|''musaś{{ref|a|2}}, dejaś''
|must, to have to, should
|Lower Sorbian = Czech ''muset'', Polish ''musieć''
|-
|''hač''{{ref|a|3}}
|''ako''{{ref|a|4}}
|than (in comparisons)
|
|-
|''jara''
|''wjelgin''
|very
|
|-
|''całta''
|''guska''
|bread roll
|Upper Sorbian = Old Czech;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vydra |first=František |title=Lužičtí Srbové |url=http://www.luzicke-hory.cz/historie/index.php?pg=clsrboc |access-date=8 August 2025 |website=luzicke-hory.cz}}</ref> 
Lower Sorbian = Czech ''houska''
|-
|''haj''{{ref|a|5}}
|''jo''
|yes
|Upper Sorbian = Slovak ''hej''; 
Lower Sorbian = Czech ''jo'' (alongside ''ano'')
|-
|''holca''
|''źowćo''
|girl
|Lower Sorbian = Polish ''dziewczę'', ''dziewczyna''; 
Czech ''děvče'', ''holka''
|-
|''štom''
|''bom''{{ref|a|6}}
|tree
|Lower Sorbian from German ''Baum''; 
Upper Sorbian from German ''Stamm''
|-
|''porst''
|''palc''
|finger
|Upper Sorbian = Czech ''prst''; 
Lower Sorbian = Polish ''palec''
|-
| colspan="11" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Notes'''
{{smalldiv|1=
:{{note|a|1}} also means: ball; dumpling
:{{note|a|2}} only means must
:{{note|a|3}} also means until (especially before ''do''); whether
:{{note|a|4}} also means than (with attributes); who, which (relative pronoun), how
:{{note|a|5}} from this difference stems the once widespread Lower Sorbian nickname ''Hajak'' for bourgeois-urban Sorbs of Upper Lusatia.
:{{note|a|6}} according to Starosta, ''štom'' means "tree" only in dialect; otherwise, it means "tree trunk".}}
:{{note|a|7}} = here means "corresponds to" or "is equivalent to"
|}

== Similarities ==

=== Phonetic Similarities ===

==== Consonantal Parallels ====
{| class="wikitable"
!Proto-Slavic
!Sorbian
!Examples
!Meaning
!Comparability
!Notes
|-
| rowspan="7" |str
| rowspan="7" |tr/tř –
tš/tś
|''sotra –''
''sotša''
|sister
|Polish: ''siostra'',
Czech: ''sestra''
| rowspan="7" |Loss of ''s''; many exceptions
|-
|''tradać –''
''tšadaś''
|to suffer, languish
|Czech: ''strádat''
|-
|''truhać –''
''tšugaś''
|to plane, to rasp
|Polish: ''strugać'';
Czech: ''struhadlo'' ("plane, rasp")
|-
|''truk –''
''tšuk''
|pod (seed pod)
|Polish: ''strąk''
|-
|''třěcha –''
''tśěcha''
(''stśěcha'')
|roof
|Czech: ''střecha'';
Polish: ''strzecha'' ("thatched roof")
|-
|''truna –''
''tšuna''
|string (musical)
|Czech, Polish: ''struna''
|-
|''trup –''
''tšup''
|scab, crust
|Czech, Polish: ''strup''
|}

==== Vocalic Parallels ====
{| class="wikitable"
!Change
!Upper Sorbian
!Lower Sorbian
!Meaning
!Notes
|-
| rowspan="7" |e > o
|''wječor''
|''wjacor''
|evening
|cf. Russian ''вечер'', Czech ''večer'', Serbian ''veče'', Polish ''wieczór''
|-
|''čłon''
|''cłonk''
|limb, member
|cf. Russian/Ukrainian ''член'', Serbian/Croatian ''član''
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" |''daloko''
|far, distant
|cf. Polish ''daleko'', Russian/Ukrainian ''далеко'', Czech/Serbian/Croatian ''daleko''
|-
|''wjesoły''
|''wjasoły''
|happy, cheerful
|cf. Russian ''весёлый'', Ukrainian ''веселий'', Serbian/Croatian ''veseo, vesela''
|-
|''pjećory''
|''pěśory''
|fivefold
|cf. Russian ''пятеро'', Ukrainian ''п'ятеро'', Serbian/Croatian ''petero''
|-
|''pčoła''
|''pcoła''
|bee
|cf. Russian ''пчела'', Ukrainian ''бджола'', Serbian/Croatian ''pčela''
|-
|''sotra''
|''sotša''
|sister
|cf. Russian/Ukrainian ''сестра'', Croatian/Serbian/Czech ''sestra'', Polish ''siostra''
|-
| rowspan="3" |i > y{{ref|a|1}}
|''zyma''
|''zyma''
|winter
|cf. Polish/Czech ''zima'', Ukrainian ''зима''
|-
|''nazyma''
|''nazyma''
|autumn
|cf. Czech ''podzim''
|-
|''kazyć''
|''kazyś''
|to spoil
|cf. Polish ''kazić'', Czech ''kazit'', Slovak ''kaziť'', Croatian/Serbian ''unakazit''
|-
| rowspan="7" |ǫ > u{{ref|a|2}}
| colspan="2" align="center" |''ruka''
|arm, hand
|cf. Polish ''ręka'', Kashubian ''rãka'', Ukrainian ''рука'', Croatian/Serbian/Czech ''ruka''
|-
|''wutroba''
|''wutšoba''
|liver
|cf. Polish ''wątroba'' “liver” 
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" |''mudry''
|clever
|cf. Polish ''mądry'', Ukrainian ''мудрий'', Croatian/Serbian ''mudri''
|-
|''huso''
|''gus''
|goose
|cf. Czech ''husa'', Polish ''gęś'', Russian ''гусь'', Ukrainian ''гусак'', Serbian ''guska''
|-
|''pucher''
|''puchoŕ''
|bladder
|cf. Polish ''pęcherz''
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" |''pupk''
|navel
|cf. Polish ''pępek'', Ukrainian ''пупок'', Czech ''pupek'', Serbian ''pupak''
|-
|''huba''
|''guba''
|mouth
|cf. Czech ''huba'', Polish ''gęba'', Ukrainian ''губа''
|-
| rowspan="2" |el > ło{{ref|a|3}}
| colspan="2" align="center" |''žłob''
|channel, trough
|cf. Slovak ''žleb'' ''(žl’ab)'', Serbian/Slovenian ''žleb'', Croatian ''žlijeb'', Russian ''желоб''
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" |''mloko''
|milk
|cf. Polish/Serbian/Czech ''mleko'', Croatian ''mlijeko'', Russian/Ukrainian ''молоко''
|-
|er > re/rě/rje{{ref|a|4}}
| colspan="2" align="center" |''drjewo''
|wood
|cf. Croatian/Serbian ''drvo'', Polish ''drzewo'', Czech ''dřevo'', Slovak ''drevo'', Ukrainian ''дерево'', Russian ''дрова''
|-
| rowspan="5" |ol > ło{{ref|a|5}}
| colspan="2" align="center" |''złoto''
|gold
|cf. Polish ''złoto'', Czech/Slovak/Serbian ''zlato'', Bulgarian ''злато'', Russian/Ukrainian ''золото''
|-
|''słód''
|''słod''
|taste; sweetness; malt
|cf. Polish ''słód'', Croatian/Czech/Serbian/Slovak ''slad'', Russian/Ukrainian ''солод'' “malt”
|-
|''hłowa''
|''głowa''
|head
|cf. Polish ''głowa'', Czech/Slovak ''hlava'', Croatian/Serbian ''glava'', Russian/Ukrainian ''голова'' 
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" |''słoma''
|straw
| cf. Polish ''słoma'', Czech ''sláma'', Croatian/Serbian ''slama'', Russian/Ukrainian ''солома''
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" |''młody''
|young
|cf. Polish ''młody'', Czech ''mladý'', Croatian/Serbian ''mlad'', Ukrainian ''молодий''
|-
| rowspan="2" |or > ro{{ref|a|6}}
|''hród''
|''grod''
|castle; fortress
|cf. Polish ''gród'', Czech ''hrad'', Croatian/Slovenian/Serbian ''grad'', Russian ''город'' “city”
|-
|''mróz''
|''mroz''
|frost
|cf. Polish ''mróz'', Czech/Slovak ''mráz'', Croatian/Serbian ''mraz'', Russian/Ukrainian ''мороз''
|-
| colspan="11" style="background:#F8F8F8;font-size:small;text-align:left" | '''Notes'''
{{smalldiv|1=
*{{note|a|1}} In Lower Sorbian, this change also occurred after h, ž, š, c (from č)
*{{note|a|2}} The same change occurred in East Slavic, Czech, Slovak, Croatian, Bosnian, and Serbian. Slovene changed the nasal vowel to o.
*{{note|a|3}} Between consonants. In Polish this also led to ło, sometimes łó; Czech, Slovak, and Slovene have le; Croatian and Serbian have le and lije; Bulgarian has ле [le] or ля [lja]; East Slavic languages have оло [olo].
*{{note|a|4}} In Lower Sorbian, this sound evolved further into r(j)a, e.g. ''brjaza'' “birch.”
*{{note|a|5}} The same development occurred in Polish. Russian retained the original ol cluster and represents it with оло [olo] due to the Law of Full Vowelization (Polnoglasie).
*{{note|a|6}} The development is similar in Polish, while Russian, lacking the West Slavic metathesis trend and influenced by Polnoglasie, developed оро [oro] here.}}
|}

=== Grammatical Similarities ===

* Preservation of the dual (grammatical number for two items)
* Merger of the locative dual with the dative/instrumental dual
* Stress on the first syllable
* Broad generalization of the genitive plural ending -ow for nouns

== Phonological development of Sorbian ==

=== Common developments and developments only in Lower Sorbian ===
As in Polish and Czech, the two Proto-Slavic reduced vowels ь and ъ in Sorbian developed early into ''e'' in stressed position. Full vowels, which stood in syllables before a reduced vowel in unstressed position, were lengthened after the fall of the reduced vowels. Over time, the opposition of short and long vowels was lost, and words were generally stressed on the first syllable; in [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]] the stress had been free. This development occurred under the influence of German and has a parallel in Czech.

The nasal vowels in Sorbian disappeared according to Jerzy Nalepa in the second half of the 12th century under Czech influence.

The affricate ''ʒ'' was, as in most other Slavic languages, simplified to ''z'', cf. ''mjeza'' (Polish: ''miedza'') (“border”).

As in Polish and originally also in Kashubian, the soft dentals ''ť'' and ''ď'' in Sorbian changed into the affricates ''ć'' and ''dź''. This transition already occurred in the 13th century. In Lower Sorbian, these affricates later also lost their plosive component: ''ć'' > ''ś'', ''dź'' > ''ź'', except after dental spirants: ''rjeśaz'' “chain”, ''daś'' “to give”, ''kosć'' “bone”, ''źiwy'' “wild”, ''měź'' “copper”, ''pozdźej'' “later” (compared to Upper Sorbian ''rjećaz'', ''dać'', ''kosć'', ''diźwi'', ''mjedź'', ''pozdźe''). This change occurred in the mid-16th century in the western dialects and 100 years later in the eastern dialects, whereby the central transitional dialects as well as the dialects of [[Bad Muskau|Muskau]] and [[Schleifer dialect|Schleife]] were not affected.

Soft ''c'<nowiki/>'', ''z'<nowiki/>'', ''s'<nowiki/>'' were hardened in Sorbian. When the sound ''i'' followed them, it changed to ''y'': ''ducy'' “to go”, ''syła'' “strength”, ''zyma'' “winter” (compared to Czech ''jdoucí'', ''síla'', ''zima''). This change probably took place in the early 15th century. A similar change (only in Lower Sorbian) occurred at the beginning of the 16th century with the soft ''č'<nowiki/>'', ''ž'<nowiki/>'', ''š''': ''cysty'' “clean”, ''šyja'' “neck”, ''žywy'' “alive” (cf. Upper Sorbian ''čisty'', ''šija'', ''žiwy'').

In the mid-16th century, ''č'' became ''c'': ''cas'' “time”, ''pcoła'' “bee” (from ''čas'', ''pčoła''). This change did not occur only in the ending ''-učki'' and after spirants. In addition, ''č'' appears in loanwords and onomatopoeic words.

After ''p'', ''t'', and ''k'', the sounds ''r'' and ''r'<nowiki/>'' in Sorbian became ''ř'' and ''ř'<nowiki/>''. In Lower Sorbian, ''ř'' developed further to ''š'' and ''ř''' to ''ć'' (later ''ś''): ''pšawy'' “right”, ''tśi'' “three”.

As in Polish, the voiceless ''ł'' in Lower Sorbian became bilabial ''w'', with the first written records dating from the 17th century, and the soft ''ľ'' adopted the “European” alveolar articulation (as in German) except before front vowels.

The sound ''w'' in Sorbian disappeared in initial clusters ''gw-'' and ''xw-'' (Proto-Slavic ''gvozdj'' > ''gozd'' “dry forest”, Proto-Slavic ''xvoščj'' > ''chošć'' “horsetail”), at the beginning of a word before a consonant, and after a consonant before ''u''. This process probably began before the 13th century and ended in the 16th century. The soft “w” in the middle of words in intervocalic position and before consonants as well as at the end of words changed to “j”: ''rukajca'' “glove” (Polish: ''rękawica''), ''mužoju / mužeju'' “man” (Polish: ''mężowi''), ''kšej'' “blood” (Polish: ''krew'').

The sound ''e'' changed into ''a'' in the position after soft consonants and before hard consonants: ''brjaza'' “birch”, ''kolaso'' “wheel”, ''pjac'' “oven”, ''lažaś'' “lie”, ''pjas'' “dog” (cf. ''brěza'', ''koleso'', ''pjec'', ''ležeć''', ''pos''). This change was completed in the mid-17th century and again did not affect the dialects of Muskau and Schleife.

'''Phonological''' '''developments Only in Upper Sorbian'''

In some positions, metathesis of ''or'', ''ol'', ''er'', and ''el'' occurred in Upper Sorbian: in positions between consonants, these became ''ro'', ''lo'', ''re'', and ''le'', while at the beginning of a word, ''or'', ''ol'' became either ''ra-'', ''la-'' or ''ro-'', ''lo-'' depending on the stress.

As in Polish and Czech, the two Proto-Slavic reduced vowels in stressed position changed to ''e'' in Sorbian as well. Unstressed full vowels in the syllable before the reduced vowel were lengthened with the disappearance of the reduced vowels. Long ''ē'' and ''ō'' in stressed position became mid vowels in Upper Sorbian, which are written in the modern Upper Sorbian literary language as ''ě'' and ''ó''. Proto-Slavic ''ē'' merged with ''ě''. Later, in the 19th century, ''ó'' became ''o'' before reflexive pronouns and labials: ''mloko'' – ''w mlóce'' (“milk” – “in milk”). Over time, the contrast between long and short vowels was lost.

Syllabic ''ṛ'' became ''or'' in Upper Sorbian: *kъrmiti > ''kṛmiti > kormić'' (“to feed”), and similarly, ''ṛʼ'' before voiceless dentals also became ''or'': *pьrstъ > ''pṛʼstъ > porst'' (“finger”), while in other positions it softened to ''je'': *prštěp > ''pṛʼštěp > pjeršćeń'' (“ring”). Syllabic ''ḷ'' became ''oł'': *dъlgъ > ''dḷgъ > dołh'' (“debt”), or before voiceless dentals became ''ḷʼ'': *rlnj > ''pḷʼpъ > połny'' (“full”), and in other positions became ''el'': *vjlk > ''vḷʼkъ > wjelk'' (“wolf”).

The nasal vowels in Sorbian disappeared, according to J. Nalepa, in the second half of the 12th century under Czech influence, while in Polish they remain to this day. The vowel ''a'' between two soft consonants became ''e'' in Upper Sorbian: ''jeje'' (“egg”), ''žel'' (“compassion”). Written evidence suggests this occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries, and in some Upper Sorbian dialects, it has not occurred at all.

Just as in Czech, Slovak, and Ukrainian, the plosive ''g'' turned into the fricative ''h'' in Upper Sorbian. The ''g'' sound only appears in relatively recent loanwords or expressive words in Upper Sorbian. J. Nalepa dates the beginning of the shift ''g > h'' to the late 13th century, while J. Stone places it in the 12th century, stating that the change spread from south to north. Gunter Schaarschmidt, based on texts and toponyms, assumes that the transition occurred via the intermediate sound ''γ'' (as in Belarusian) and that this sound ''γ'' already existed in Upper Sorbian in the 12th to 14th centuries. Later, ''h'' was mostly lost in Upper Sorbian, except before vowels and after consonants. In most dialects and in Upper Sorbian colloquial language, ''h'' also disappeared in intervocalic position. The first written evidence of this dates back to the beginning of the 17th century.

As mentioned, in the 13th century the soft dentals ''ť'' and ''ď'' in Sorbian became the affricates ''ć'' and ''dź'': ''tělo > ćěło'' (“body”), ''devęt > dźewjeć'' (“nine”). In Upper Sorbian, ''ć'' later merged with ''č'', and ''dź'' with the allophone ''č – dž'', which led to their phonologization. The Proto-Slavic combinations ''šč'' and ''ždž'' were first simplified to ''šť'' and ''žď'' respectively, and then by affrication of ''ť'' and ''ď'' to ''šć'' and ''ždź''. Soft ''cʼ'', ''zʼ'', and ''sʼ'' were hardened, and the following ''i'' and ''ě'' changed to ''y'': Proto-Slavic ''cělъ > cyły'', Proto-Slavic ''sila > syła'', Proto-Slavic ''zima > zyma''. After ''p'', ''t'', ''k'', the sounds ''r'' and ''rʼ'' in Sorbian changed to ''ř'' and ''řʼ''; in Upper Sorbian, this sound later became ''š''. Still later, the combination ''tš'' was simplified to ''cʼ''.

The spirant ''x'' in Upper Sorbian changed to aspirated ''k'' (''kʰ'') at the beginning of a word before a vowel, and elsewhere to unaspirated ''k''. This change is already evident in texts from the 16th century, though it is not reflected in modern Upper Sorbian orthography. Similar to Polish, hard ''ł'' was replaced with ''w'' in Upper Sorbian (first evidence from the 17th century), except in the northeastern dialects, while soft ''lʼ'' assumed a “European” (alveolar) articulation (like in German), except when followed by a front vowel.

The sound ''w'' dropped in Sorbian in the initial clusters ''gw-'' and ''xw-'', e.g. Proto-Slavic ''gvozdj > hózdź'' (“nail”) and Proto-Slavic ''hvogsttъ > chróst'' (“horsetail”), specifically at the beginning of a word before a consonant, and after consonants before ''u''. This process likely began before the 13th century and ended in the 16th century. The soft ''wʼ'' in the middle of a word in intervocalic position and before a consonant, as well as at the end of a word, became ''j'': ''prajić'' (“to speak”) (Polish: ''prawić''), ''mužej'' (“man”) (Polish: ''mężowi''), ''krej'' (“blood”) (Polish: ''krew'').

Before soft consonants at the end of a word or elsewhere before other consonants (and before originally soft dental affricates and spirants also in other positions), an epenthetic ''j'' appeared in Upper Sorbian. When ''j'' follows ''e'' or ''ě'', the preceding consonant becomes voiceless. The consonant ''ń'' is also hardened before other consonants. This change is not reflected in the spelling: ''dźeń'' [ˈd͡ʒejn] (“day”), ''ležeć'' [ˈlejʒet͡ʃ] (“to lie”), ''tež'' [tejʃ] (“also”), ''chěža'' [ˈkʰejʒa] (“house”). This epenthetic ''j'' likely already appeared in Upper Sorbian at the end of the 16th century.

The replacement of the dental ''r'' by the uvular ''r'' in several Upper Sorbian dialects is attributed to German influence.

== See also ==
* [[Sorbian alphabet]]
* [[List of Sorbian-language writers]]
* [[Low Lusatian German]]
* [[White Serbia]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* Werner, Eduard. Evaluating linguistic variation in light of sparse data in the case of Sorbian. Matt Coler and Andrew Nevins, eds., ''Contemporary research in minoritized and diaspora languages of Europe'' (2022): 281–302. Online open access.

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal |last1=Howson |first1=Phil J. |date=2018 |title=Rhotics and Palatalization: An Acoustic Examination of Upper and Lower Sorbian |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323138289 |doi=10.1159/000481783 |journal=Phonetica |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=132–150 |pmid=29433119 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lewaszkiewicz |first1=Tadeusz |date=2015 |title=Polnisch-sorbische Sprachkontakte vom 10./11. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart |trans-title=Polish-Sorbian Linguistic Contacts from the 10th/11th Century to the Present |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=144095 |language=de |journal=Lětopis |issue=1 |pages=56–71}}

==External links==
* [https://sprachkurs.sorbischlernen.de/#/welcome Online course for Upper and Lower Sorbian] (English, Sorbian, German)
* [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/sorab/an/i1/i1.html Euromosaic information page]
* [http://enricu.wordpress.com/webova-kavarna/kurs-serbskeje-rece-kurz-luzicke-srbstiny/kurs-serskeje-rece-blun/ Kurs serskeje rěce / Bluń], introductory texts of the lessons included in the Sorbian language textbook ''Curs practic de limba sorabă'' {{in lang|ro}}
* [https://www.serbski-institut.de/en/publications/letopis/ website for ''Lětopis'', journal devoted to Sorbian topics]

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