View source for Soukous

{{Short description|African music genre}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox music genre
| name              = Soukous
| image             = Le groupe Loketo.jpg
| caption           = Congolese band [[Loketo]] (left to right: Jean Baron, [[Aurlus Mabélé]], Mav Cacharel; standing: [[Diblo Dibala]]) recording a studio album in 1985.
| stylistic_origins = {{hlist|[[Congolese rumba]]}}
| cultural_origins  = 1966 in the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]; the 1980s in [[France]].
| derivatives       = [[Muziki wa dansi]] and [[ndombolo]]
| subgenrelist      = 
| subgenres         = 
| fusiongenres      = 
| regional_scenes   = Congolese sound ([[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], [[Tanzania]]), fast-paced soukous (Paris)
| other_topics      = [[List of soukous musicians|Soukous musicians]]
}}

'''Soukous''' (from [[French language|French]] ''[[wikt:secousse|secousse]]'', "shock, jolt, jerk") is a genre of [[dance music]] originating from the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (formerly [[Zaire]]) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (formerly [[French Congo]]).<ref name="encyc1">{{cite book|last1=Appiah|first1=Anthony|last2=Gates|first2=Henry Louis|title=Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK|pages=407–408|isbn=9780195337709|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC&pg=RA1-PA407}}</ref> It derived from [[Congolese rumba]] in the 1960s, with faster dance rhythms and bright, intricate [[musical improvisation|guitar improvisation]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa |last2=Gates (Jr.) |first2=Henry Louis |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=407–408 |language=en}}</ref> and gained popularity in the 1980s in [[France]].<ref name="encyc2">{{cite book |last1=Peek |first1=Philip M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SmmUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA548 |title=African Folklore: An Encyclopedia |last2=Yankah |first2=Kwesi |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781135948733 |location=New York, NY |page=548}}</ref> Although often used by journalists as a synonym for Congolese rumba, both the music and dance associated with soukous differ from more traditional rumba, especially in its higher tempo, song structures and longer dance sequences.<ref name="encyc2" />

Soukous fuses traditional [[Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese rhythms]] with contemporary instruments. It customarily incorporates [[electric guitar]]s, [[double bass]], [[conga]]s, clips, and [[Brass instrument|brass]]/[[Woodwind instrument|woodwinds]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture [3 volumes] |date=2008-07-29 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=Santa Barbara, California |pages=849 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Domosh |first1=Mona |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DKLq8YzQMH4C |title=The Human Mosaic |last2=Jordan-Bychkov |first2=Terry G. |last3=Neumann |first3=Roderick P. |last4=Price |first4=Patricia L. |publisher=Macmillan |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4292-7200-1 |pages=416 |language=en}}</ref> Soukous lyrics often explore themes of [[love]], [[social commentary]], [[Intimate relationship|amorous narratives]], philosophical musings, and ordinary [[Struggle session|struggles]] and [[success]]es.<ref name=":0" /> Singers occasionally sing and croon in [[Lingala]], [[Kikongo]], [[French language|French]] and [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and bands often consist of a primary vocalist accompanied by several [[Backing vocalist|backing singers]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Olwig |first1=Karen Fog |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXaBAgAAQBAJ |title=Work and Migration: Life and Livelihoods in a Globalizing World |last2=Sorensen |first2=Ninna Nyberg |date=2003-08-27 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-50306-3 |location=Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom |pages=56 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Russell |first=K.F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hK84AQAAIAAJ&q=soukous%20swahili,%20french%20and%20lingala |title=Rhythm Music Magazine: RMM |publisher=K.F. Russell |year=1997 |pages=45 |language=en}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
The music typically utilizes a [[Time signature|{{music|time|12|8}} time signature]] and [[Major chord|major chords]] articulated in [[Arpeggio|arpeggiated]] forms.<ref name=":28" /> Soukous lead guitarists are renowned for their speed, precision, and nimble fingerwork, often navigating the higher [[Register (music)|registers]] of the [[Fingerboard|fretboard]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Eyre |first=Banning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDLXx5vxTn4C |title=Africa: Your Passport to a New World of Music |publisher=Alfred Music Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7390-2474-4 |location=Los Angeles, California, United States |pages=12–17 |language=en}}</ref> The [[bassline]], inspired by [[Hand drum|hand-drum]] percussion patterns, is the genre's rhythmic foundation and is typically characterized by a 16th-note cadence.<ref name=":20">{{Cite book |last1=Boomer |first1=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tI3cBAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+20+musicians&pg=PA7 |title=Bassist's Bible: How to Play Every Bass Style from Afro-Cuban to Zydeco |last2=Berry |first2=Mick |last3=Bufe |first3=Chaz |date=2014-01-01 |publisher=See Sharp Press |isbn=978-1-937276-25-6 |language=en}}</ref> Emerging prominently during [[Mobutu Sese Seko]]'s reign in [[Zaire]], the assertive bass style of soukous emulated regimented motions of military marches (''marche militaire'').<ref name=":5" /> This distinctive bass approach involves toggling between lower and higher registers, achieved through a plucking method that employs both the thumb (''p'') and index finger (''i'').<ref name=":5" /> 

Tonally, soukous is shaped by specific configurations in the [[Bass (sound)|bass]], [[Range (music)|midrange]], and [[Treble (sound)|treble]] frequencies.<ref name=":20" /> The bass is generally accentuated by +3 dB to yield a deep, full-bodied low-end that supports the groove. The midrange, especially around the 700 Hz frequency, is often left flat or enhanced by as much as +6 dB.<ref name=":20" /> Meanwhile, the treble frequencies are either left flat or attenuated slightly by -3 dB.<ref name=":20" /> 

In [[Matonge (Kinshasa)|Matonge]], the rhythmic guitar typically accompanies mid-tempo vocal passages, with the bass and [[Bass drum|bass drums]] accentuating the dominant beats, while guitarists emphasize the [[Offbeat (music)|offbeats]] (one ''and'' two ''and'' three ''and'' four ''and'').<ref name=":5" /> During vocal performances, the lead guitarist lays down a groove that underpins harmonized [[Call and response|call-and-response]] singing,<ref name=":5" /> often intensified by an echo effect, producing an auditory experience sometimes described as a hypnotic auditory experience.<ref name=":28"/> 

The percussion section is characterized by an unyielding, fast-paced beat, most commonly referred to as [[cavacha]], with the drummer taking the lead in [[Audio signal|signaling]] shifts for the guitarists to match the lead player's transitions.<ref name=":28">{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=December 7, 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> Soukous [[Chord progression|chord progressions]] mainly rely on the I, IV, and V chords.<ref name=":5" /> Common progressions include:<ref name=":5" />

# I - I - IV - IV
# I - IV - V
# I -I - V-V
# I - IV/V
# V/IV - I
# I/IV - IV/I
# I - V- I - V
# V/IV - I

==History==
=== Origins ===
{{Main|Congolese rumba}}
The origins of the genre can be traced back to [[Congolese rumba]], which emerged in the early 20th century when urban residents of the [[French Congo]] and the [[Belgian Congo]] embraced the fusion of intertribal [[Kongo people|Kongolese]] ''maringa'' dance music near [[Pool Malebo]], infused with guitar techniques from [[Liberia]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Phyllis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N65pbr2hC4wC |title=Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville |date=2002-08-08 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52446-9 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |pages=131–152 |language=en}}</ref> The outflow of [[Kru people|Kru]] [[merchant]]s and sailors from Liberia to [[Brazzaville]] during the mid-19th century introduced distinctive guitar-playing techniques that ultimately influenced the use of the [[accordion]] to emulate local "''[[Ikembe|likembe]]''" (thumb piano, best known worldwide as a [[mbira]]) rhythms.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kubik |first=Gerhard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqYpBkpvqsEC |title=Theory of African Music, Volume I |date=2010-10-30 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-45691-1 |location=Chicago, Illinois, United States |pages=384–385 |language=en}}</ref> As early as 1902, the accordion's melodies resonated through the streets near Pool Malebo's factories.<ref name=":3" />
[[File:Club de rumba congolaise à Léopoldville.jpg|thumb|182x182px|A [[Duet|duo]] performing at [[Congolese rumba]] nightspot in [[Kinshasa|Léopoldville]]|left]]
The outbreak of [[World War I]] introduced a new wave of music and dance across the [[Kongo Central|Lower Congo]] (present-day [[Kongo Central]]) and the [[Pool Malebo]] region.<ref name=":3" /> Emerging from [[labor camp]] and conceivably associated with the return of [[Matadi–Kinshasa Railway]] construction workers, local dances such as agbaya and maringa gained prominence.<ref name=":3" /> The [[Circle dance|circular]] agbaya dance was soon replaced by [[Partner dance|partnered]] maringa dance music, becoming increasingly ubiquitous in [[Matadi]], [[Boma, Democratic Republic of the Congo|Boma]], [[Brazzaville]], and Léopoldville (now [[Kinshasa]]).<ref name=":3" />
Initially, maringa bands featured the ''likembe'' for [[melody]], a metal rod-struck bottle for rhythm, and a small skin-covered [[frame drum]] called ''patenge'' for [[Counter-melody|counter-rhythms]].<ref name=":3" /> However, by the 1920s, accordions and [[acoustic guitar]]s progressively supplanted the ''likembe'' as melody instruments. The distinctive hip movements of ''maringa'' dancers, shifting their body weight between legs gained popularity.<ref name=":3" /> By 1935, partnered dancing's popularity dispersed expeditiously across the [[Congo Basin|Congo basin]], reaching even remote villages. Dance halls emerged in towns and rural areas, while conventional dancing persisted in palm branch huts.<ref name=":3" /> 
[[File:Bar de rumba congolaise à Léopoldville de 1955 à 1965.jpg|thumb|Congolese rumba bar in Léopoldville]]
In the early 1940s, Pool Malebo transformed from a barrier into a communication channel linking Brazzaville and Kinshasa.<ref name=":3" /> The [[Son cubano|Cuban son]] groups like [[Sexteto Habanero]], [[Trio Matamoros]], and Los Guaracheros de Oriente were broadcast on [[Radio Congo Belge]], gaining popularity in the country.<ref name=":3" /><ref>''The Encyclopedia of Africa v. 1''. 2010 p. 407.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Storm Roberts |first1=John |url=https://archive.org/details/latintingeimpact0000robe |title=The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-976148-7 |edition=2nd |location=New York, NY |pages=[https://archive.org/details/latintingeimpact0000robe/page/217 217]–218 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Due to influence of Cuban son, the maringa dance music—although unrelated to [[Cuban rumba]]—became known as "''[[Congolese rumba|rumba Congolaise]]''" as the imported records of [[Sexteto Habanero]] and [[Trio Matamoros]] were often mislabeled as "rumba".<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Mukuna |first=Kazadi wa |date=2014-12-07 |title=A brief history of popular music in DRC |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/brief-history-popular-music-drc |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=Music In Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Edward-Ekpu |first=Uwagbale |date=2021-12-21 |title=Rumba's Congolese roots are finally being recognized by Unesco |url=https://qz.com/africa/2104795/rumbas-congolese-roots-are-finally-being-recognized-by-unesco |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Quartz |language=en}}</ref> Ethnomusicology Professor Kazadi wa Mukuna of [[Kent State University]] explicates that the term "rumba" persisted in the Congos due to recording industry interests. Recording studio proprietors reinterpreted the term rumba by attributing it new ''maringa'' rhythm while retaining the name.<ref name=":2" /> Consequently, their music became recognized as "Congolese rumba" or "African rumba". [[Wendo Kolosoy|Antoine Wendo Kolosoy]] became the first star of Congolese rumba touring [[Europe]] and [[North America]] with his band Victoria Bakolo Miziki. His 1948 hit "Marie-Louise," co-written with guitarist [[Henri Bowane]], gained popularity across [[West Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2009-08-18 |title=Les années 1970: L'âge d'or de la musique congolaise |trans-title=The 1970s: The Golden Age of Congolese Music |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-35012968.html |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2008-07-30 |title='Father' of Congolese rumba dies |language=en-GB |work=BBC |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7533358.stm |access-date=2023-08-26}}</ref> Congolese rumba gained prominence in [[Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese music]] as early pioneers revolutionized their relationship with the instruments they held.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=December 7, 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=daily.redbullmusicacademy.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ossinonde |first=Clément |date=2017-08-02 |title=Qui est à l'origine du "Sebene" dans la musique congolaise ? Sa notation musicale ? |url=https://www.pagesafrik.com/a-lorigine-sebene-musique-congolaise-notation-musicale/ |access-date=2023-08-26 |website=Pagesafrik.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref>

=== Formation and paternity debate ===
Etymologically, the term ''soukous'', derived from the French verb ''secouer'', denoting "to shake," initially described a person who moved jerkily but evolved into a dance style synonymous with vitality and cadence.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=Bavon+and+Bholen's+N%C3%A9gro+Succ%C3%A8s+is+'le+premier+au+marathon+du+soucous,+Etoile+du+Congo+announced+in+1968.&pg=PT194 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York, New York State, United States |language=en}}</ref> The term ''secousse'' evolved over time, transitioning to ''soucousses'' and eventually ''soucous'' in [[Colloquialism|colloquial language]] and the media, until the "''c''" fell out of favor, replaced by a "''k''".<ref name=":7" />

During the early 1960s, a surge of young Congolese musicians sought to speed up the slow tempo of Congolese rumba, which precipitated the emergence of soukous. Artists began incorporating faster rhythms, and prominent guitar improvisation, often characterized by high-pitched, fast-paced lines imbued with more heightened African [[Motif (music)|motif]]. The drummer shifts to the high-octane cadence, wherein the [[Clave (rhythm)|clave rhythm]] shifts to the [[snare drum]], singers engage in rhythmic chanting (''[[atalaku]]''), and lead guitars take center stage.<ref name=":8">{{cite news |last1=AP |date=1989 |title=Franco, 51, Zairian Band Leader And Creator of the Soukous Style |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/17/obituaries/franco-51-zairian-band-leader-and-creator-of-the-soukous-style.html |access-date=18 November 2022 |work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0XNvklcqbwC |title=Encyclopedia of Africa |last2=Gates (Jr.) |first2=Henry Louis |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-533770-9 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=407 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=15 August 2018 |title=The mixed legacy of DRC musician Franco |url=https://newafricanmagazine.com/17337/ |access-date=26 August 2023 |website=[[New African]] |language=en-GB}}</ref>
{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = L'Orchestre Sinza Kotoko avec plusieurs de ses membres en 1976.jpg
| image2            = Franco Luambo Makiadi.jpg
| footer            = [[Orchestre Sinza Kotoko]] (left) is regarded as a pioneer of the genre, while [[Franco Luambo]] (center) and [[Nico Kasanda]] (right) are also credited.
| direction         = horizontal
| caption1          = 
| image3            = Docteur Nico.jpg
}}

The origins of soukous are a matter of dispute, with divergent attributions and viewpoints. Clément Ossinondé, a Congolese musicologist specializing in Congolese music, accredits [[Franco Luambo]] and [[TPOK Jazz]] with pioneering soukous, citing his ''odemba''-inspired style, known for its fast tempo.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=2 March 2020 |title=Voyage Musical : l'aller et retour de la rumba |trans-title=Musical Journey: the back and forth of the rumba |url=https://www.congopage.com/Voyage-musical-l-aller-et-retour-de-la-rumba |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=Congopage.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref> American [[Music journalism|music journalist]] Morgan Greenstreet similarly emphasizes Franco's role in transforming the [[sebene]], previously a transitional instrumental bridge between vocal sections, into the principal element of Congolese music.<ref name=":46">{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=7 December 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Daily.redbullmusicacademy.com}}</ref> Franco's ''odemba'' style is described as "rougher, more repetitive, and rooted in rhythms that moved the hips of dancers at Kinshasa's hottest clubs".<ref name=":46" /> In contrast, British music historian Gary Stewart locates the emergence of soukous as a musical and dance genre in Brazzaville. He credits guitarist Jacques Kimbembe and the formation of the Super Band in 1964, later renamed [[Orchestre Sinza Kotoko]], with introducing the soukous style to Brazzaville's nightlife in 1966.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":21" /> This group supplanted the traditional ''boucher'' style popularized by Les Bantous de la Capitale.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=Orchestre+Sinza+introduced+the+soukous+to+Brazzaville+bar+patrons+in+1966+but+lacked+the+connections&pg=PT195 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York, New York, United States |language=en}}</ref> Congolese journalist Audifax Bemba notes that Orchestre Sinza distinguished itself through singers with conversational vocal delivery, an expressive lead guitar that elevated the ''sebene'', and a celebratory [[Time signature|{{music|time|4|4}}]] rhythmic foundation.<ref name=":21">{{Cite web |last=Bemba |first=Audifax |date=14 October 2023 |title=Orchestre Sinza "Kotoko" de Brazzaville |trans-title=Sinza "Kotoko" Orchestra of Brazzaville |url=https://www.congopage.com/orchestre-sinza-kotoko-de-brazzaville |access-date=31 August 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}</ref> Kimbembe's lead guitar technique doubled [[Eighth note|notes in eighths]], diverging from the conventional [[Quarter note|quarter-note]] pattern, and introduced [[Dance improvisation|freestyle dance]] sections conducive to festive movement.<ref name=":21" /> According to popular anecdotes, the band's energetic performances routinely incited audiences to dance even before entering the venue.<ref name=":21" />
{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Pamelo Mounk'a - Foire de Brazzaville (1973).jpg
| caption1          = Pamelo Mounk'a at the Brazzaville fair in 1973.
| align             = left
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}}

During the late 1960s, Congolese musicians, much like their Western contemporaries exploring dances such as the [[Twist (dance)|twist]] and the [[The Stroll|stroll]], developed a succession of new styles to maintain their competitive edge.<ref name=":53">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC&printsec=frontcover&vq=Belgium+and+the+Congo+once+again+unimpeded,+a+Belgian+entrepreneur+named+Fernand+Janssens+had+come+to+L%C3%A9opoldville+with+a+portable,+direct-to-disc+recording+machine.&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=17 November 2003 |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |isbn=978-1-85984-368-0 |pages=134–136}}</ref><ref name=":14" /> In 1968, Orchestre Sinza innovated the genre further with a variation known as ''mossaka''. The group's popularity surged following the addition of singer Pierre Moutouari, leading to their first [[Paris]] tour and a recording contract with the French label [[EMI|Pathé Marconi]].<ref name=":53" /> Meanwhile, [[Nico Kasanda|Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay]], widely known as [[Nico Kasanda|Docteur Nico]], introduced ''kiri-kiri'', a new dance form inspired partly by the Western ''[[Jerk (dance)|jerk]]''. Kiri-kiri compositions followed the standard Congolese rumba format before introducing a decelerated sebene marked by a brief guitar flourish, allowing dancers to showcase novel steps.<ref name=":53" /><ref name=":14" /> Nico's 1968 composition "Kiri-Kiri Mabina Ya Sika" ("Kiri-Kiri, the New Dance"), performed with his group Fiesta Sukisa, became the defining anthem of the style.<ref name=":53" /><ref name=":14" /> Other artists and bands soon followed suit. Les Bantous de la Capitale experimented with hybrids, such as Pamelo Mounk'a's "Masuwa", billed as ''soukous-kiri-kiri''. [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] introduced ''the jobs'', a dance he described as blending the jerk with Congolese rumba.<ref name=":53" /><ref name=":14" /> His 1968 composition "[[Martin Luther King Jr.|Martin Luther King]]", a tribute to the slain [[Civil rights movement|civil rights]] leader, exemplified this style. Notable for its ambitious references, including to [[Johnny Hallyday]] and [[Mao Zedong]], and its eight-minute runtime, the track employed a Western-style [[drum kit]] and pointed toward the gradual obsolescence of traditional percussion setups like [[Maraca|maracas]].<ref name=":53" /><ref name=":14" /> This period saw a proliferation of new dance styles rooted in Congolese rumba, including Jeannot Bombenga's ''mambenga'', [[Le Grand Kallé|Joseph Kabasele]]'s ''yéké yéké'' (described as the "eighth phase of the rumba"), and others such as ''Apollo 11''.<ref name=":53" /><ref name=":14" /> Docteur Nico would later reflect, "We invent a new dance style every day". Despite this stylistic diversification, Congolese rumba remained the genre's foundational framework.<ref name=":53" /><ref name=":14" />

{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 220
| image1            = Zaiko Langa Langa JP Buse Nyoka Longo Lengi Lenga.jpg
| caption1          = Members of [[Zaïko Langa Langa]]—JP Buse, [[Jossart N'Yoka Longo]], and Claude Nsumbu Makola (Nsumbu Lengi Lenga)—at Ngoss Club in [[Kasa-Vubu, Kinshasa]], circa 1983.
| align             = right
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}}

During this epoch, the dominant orchestras in Congolese music included [[TPOK Jazz|O.K. Jazz]], African Fiesta National, African Fiesta Sukisa, and Les Bantous de la Capitale, followed closely by Négro Succès, Conga Succès, and Cobantou. For Nicolas Kasanda, who led African Fiesta Sukisa, the period marked a creative high point.<ref name=":53" /><ref name=":14" /> Simultaneously, Orchestre Sinza emerged as a paradox: a second-tier orchestra within Congo-Brazzaville that nonetheless became the top-selling African act in the Pathé Marconi catalog from 1969 to 1974.<ref name=":21" /> Orchestre Sinza's innovations played a crucial role in shaping the so-called [[Congolese rumba#Schools of Congolese rumba|"third school"]] of Congolese music, most notably influencing the band [[Zaïko Langa Langa]]. In 1974, Zaïko Langa Langa adopted many of Orchestre Sinza's stylistic features: a brisk  [[Time signature|{{music|time|4|4}}]] tempo, eighth-note doubling in the sebene, free-form dance, and celebratory rhythms.<ref name=":21" /> The sebene in Zaïko Langa Langa's "Éluzam", often cited as the "birth certificate" of the third school, mirrored the sebene from Orchestre Sinza's 1969 track "Vévé".<ref name=":21" />

=== 1960s–1980s: International popularity ===

==== Europe and the United States ====
[[File:Rochereau performing at Paris Olympia.jpg|thumb|[[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] performing at the [[Paris Olympia]] in 1970|214x214px]]
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, soukous became a predominant popular African dance style across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, and the United States.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ngoye |first=Achille |date=1995 |title=Le soukouss des Zaïrois en Europe |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/homig_1142-852x_1995_num_1191_1_2536 |journal=Hommes & Migrations |volume=1191 |issue=1 |pages=42–47 |doi=10.3406/homig.1995.2536}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Winders |first=James A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iqoYDAAAQBAJ |title=Paris Africain: Rhythms of the African Diaspora |date=5 June 2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-0-230-60207-6 |location=New York, New York State, United States |pages=57 |language=en}}</ref> During this period, a surge of Zairean musicians moved to Belgium and France, primarily driven by the hegemony of the [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] regime, which propagated propaganda songs as part of the ''[[Authenticité (Zaire)|Authenticité]]'' campaign to foster a sense of national identity and pride through ideological slogans of the [[one-party state]], the [[Popular Movement of the Revolution|Movement Populaire de la Révolution]] (MPR).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ndaliko |first=Chérie Rivers |date=March 2020 |title=Mobutu's Ghost: A Case for the Urgency of History in Cultural Aid |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/40543/chapter-abstract/347879247?redirectedFrom=fulltext# |access-date=11 May 2024 |website=academic.oup.com |publication-place=Oxford, England, United Kingdom}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L0OKDwAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+mobutu+authenticity&pg=PT1157 |title=The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture |date=26 February 2019 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-5063-5337-1 |editor-last=Sturman |editor-first=Janet |location=Thousand Oaks, California, United States |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+mobutu+authenticity&pg=RA1-PA201 |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517055-9 |editor-last=Appiah |editor-first=Anthony |location=Oxford, England, United Kingdom |pages=201 |language=en |editor-last2=Gates |editor-first2=Henry Louis}}</ref> This [[Ideocracy|state ideological]] shift gradually infiltrated Zairean popular music, with popular musicians embracing the regime's ideology and documenting its achievements. Mobutu's encouragement of urban musicians paralleled [[Mao Zedong]]'s approach in [[China]], where music served the revolution.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |last=Wa Mukuna |first=Kazadi |date=7 December 2014 |title=A brief history of popular music in DRC |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/brief-history-popular-music-drc |access-date=13 May 2024 |website=Music In Africa |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":15" /><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-OPNEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+artists+praise+mobutu&pg=PA301 |title=Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes] |date=2015-12-14 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-666-9 |editor-last=Jean-Jacques |editor-first=Daniel |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States |pages=301 |language=en |editor-last2=Falola |editor-first2=Toyin}}</ref> As a result, the [[globalization]] of Congolese urban music expanded, leading to a massive exodus of musicians to African and European countries, most notably [[Belgium]] and [[France]].<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":26">{{Cite journal |last=Perullo |first=Alex |date=2008 |title=Rumba in the City of Peace: Migration and the Cultural Commodity of Congolese Music in Dar es Salaam, 1968-1985 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174590 |journal=Ethnomusicology |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=296–323 |doi=10.2307/20174590 |issn=0014-1836 |jstor=20174590|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Many youths with limited employment options gravitated towards a music career, with Kinshasa's soukous scene becoming an attractive choice.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rand |first=Jonas |date=17 December 2016 |title=Congolese Music, 1970s |url=https://saheltothecape.wordpress.com/2016/12/17/congolese-music-1970s/ |access-date=2024-05-11 |website=From the Sahel to the Cape |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Journalist [[Susan Orlean]], writing for ''[[the New Yorker]]'', observed that many African musicians were recording in France and Belgium during the mid-1970s, even though, at the time, there were no shops in France exclusively selling African music.<ref name=":33">{{Cite news |last=Orlean |first=Susan |date=7 October 2002 |title=The Congo Sound |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2002/10/14/the-congo-sound |access-date=12 November 2025 |work=[[The New Yorker]] |location=New York, New York, United States |language=en-US |issn=0028-792X}}</ref> Their records were typically produced in Parisian or Brussels studios and shipped back to Africa for distribution. Nonetheless, the growing [[Black French people|African diaspora in France]], over a million people, mostly from [[Francophonie|Francophone nations]] including [[Gabon]], [[Benin]], [[Togo]], [[Mali]], [[Chad]], [[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Senegal]], and Zaire, provided a strong listener base. Soukous stood out as a cosmopolitan and widely appreciated genre.<ref name=":33" /> [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] made history as the first African artist invited to perform at Paris's [[Olympia (Paris)|Olympia Hall]] in December 1970, where he attracted few connoisseurs and set a precedent for subsequent Zairean musicians.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=White |first=Bob W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsLMW6gCULgC |title=Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire |date=6 June 2008 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-8926-2 |location=Durham, North Carolina, United States |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bf0DAQAAIAAJ&q=Tabu+Ley+Rochereau+Paris+Olympia |title=Africa Events: Volume 1 |date=1985 |publisher=Dar es Salaam Limited |location=Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam Region, Tanzania |pages=60–61 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barlow |first1=Sean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BCzaAAAAMAAJ&q=Tabu%20Ley%20Rochereau%20Paris%20Olympia |title=Afropop!: An Illustrated Guide to Contemporary African Music |last2=Eyre |first2=Banning |last3=Vartoogian |first3=Jack |date=1995 |publisher=Chartwell Books |isbn=978-0-7858-0443-7 |location=New York, New York State, United States |pages=28 |language=en}}</ref> [[Abeti Masikini]] followed suit, becoming the second Zairean and the first female soukous artist to grace the Olympia stage alongside [[Mireille Mathieu]] and [[Hugues Aufray]].<ref name=":24">{{Cite web |title=musicMe: Biographie de Abeti Maskini |url=https://www.musicme.com/Abeti-Masikini/biographie/ |access-date=2023-11-14 |website=musicMe |language=Fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref><ref name=":52">{{Cite web |date=2012-06-19 |title=Abeti Masikini Finant Elisabeth 1954 -1994 |url=https://www.universrumbacongolaise.com/artistes/abeti-masikini/ |access-date=2023-11-17 |website=Universrumbacongolaise.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bergman |first=Billy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fzLaAAAAMAAJ&q=abeti+masikini+1974 |title=African Pop: Goodtime Kings |publisher=Blandford |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-7137-1551-4 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref> This momentum continued with Masikini's performance at [[Carnegie Hall]] in New York on 11 March 1974, setting the stage for burgeoning singers, [[griot]]s, and other lesser-known divas from Africa.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite news |last=Fraser |first=C. Gerald |date=1974-03-11 |title=African Singer, Too, Got A Start in Church Choir |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/03/11/archives/african-singer-too-got-a-start-in-church-choir.html |access-date=2023-11-16 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Abeti Masikini, 1978.jpg
| caption1          = [[Abeti Masikini]] in 1978
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}}

Concurrently, the M'Bamina orchestra ventured to Paris before seeking audiences in [[Italy]] in 1972.<ref name=":1" /> In Paris, an expanding African nightlife scene emerged, with clubs such as Keur Samba, the first of its kind near the [[Place de la Concorde]], opening in 1975, followed by the Black and White Club, Atlantis, Timmy's, L'Alizé, and Au Petit Tam-Tam. By the late 1970s, many of Zaire's top musicians were touring Europe and choosing not to return home.<ref name=":33" /> Pablo 'Porthos' Lubadika arrived in Paris in 1979 with singer [[Sam Mangwana]] through [[Lomé]], Togo, after recording under the name the African All Stars. Mangwana, having collaborated with nearly every prominent figure in Congo, relocated to [[Abidjan]] in 1978 to pursue better opportunities. He formed a new band of Congolese economic exiles, who became regulars in Parisian session bands.<ref name=":28"/> The African All Stars' breakout hit, "Suzana Coulibaly", released on 31 December 1979, featured "simple, repetitive rhythms" at a faster tempo than traditional Congolese rumba.<ref name=":28"/> Mangwana's exclamation "soukous sophistiqué" as Lokassa Ya M'Bongo and [[Rigo Star]] crafted a "rock-solid" sebene solidified the record's direction, initiating an independent musical movement targeting the international market. As their influence grew, the African All Stars adapted the fast, rough stylings of youth bands in Brazzaville and Kinshasa, introducing this new tempo globally.<ref name=":28"/>

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Rhythme–Congolaise.jpg
| caption1          = The band Ry-Co Jazz was a major act under the French label Disques Vogue during the 1960s. Founded by Henri Bowane at the [[Loningisa]] studio in Kinshasa in 1958, the band's name stood for "Rhythme-Congolaise"
| caption_align     = center
}}

The genre gained moderate traction in the United States, though, as reported by ''the New York Times'', mainstream American audiences since 1982 remained hesitant to fully embrace [[African popular music]], favoring songs with English lyrics and "basic rhythms".<ref name=":34">{{Cite news |last=Pareles |first=Jon |date=13 May 1984 |title=With the traditional and the exotic, Africa invigorates pop |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/13/arts/with-the-traditional-and-the-exotic-africa-invigorates-pop.html?searchResultPosition=76 |access-date=12 November 2025 |work=[[The New York Times]] |location=Manhattan, New York, United States |language=en}}</ref> Nonetheless, several independent record labels began releasing African music by licensing and reissuing African recordings, and by the early 1980s, U.S. tours and albums by artists such as Tabu Ley, the Flamingos of Ghana, Sweet Talks (Ghana), and [[Sonny Okosun]] began to appear.<ref name=":34" /> As exposure grew, American listeners developed a deeper appreciation for African pop, and record executives identified soukous, [[Jùjú music|jùjú]], and [[highlife]] as the most exportable dance styles. Journalist [[Jon Pareles]] of ''the New York Times'' described Zairean popular music as the closest thing to a [[Pan-Africanism|pan-African]] sound, with its guitars producing "circular runs like audible grins"''.<ref name=":34" />'' This wave brought two generations of Congolese musicians into the U.S. market: Tabu Ley Rochereau's ''Tabu Ley'' ([[Shanachie Records]]) marked his American debut, offering Congolese rumba and soukous, while [[Nyboma]]'s 1981 hit "Doublé doublé" and Bibi Den's Tshibayi"s ''The Best Ambiance'' were reissued in 1984 by [[Rounder Records]].<ref name=":34" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Christgau |first=Robert |title=Robert Christgau: Tabu Ley Rochereau |url=https://www.robertchristgau.com/get_artist.php?id=1344 |access-date=12 November 2025 |website=Robertchristgau.com}}</ref>

==== Africa ====
{{Further|Benga music|Muziki wa dansi|Kidandali|Igbo highlife}}
Across Africa, soukous dominated [[East Africa]]n nightclubs' dance floors and played a pivotal role in shaping virtually all the styles of contemporary [[African popular music]], including [[benga music]], [[muziki wa dansi]], [[Kidandali]], [[Igbo highlife]], [[palm-wine music]], [[taarab]], and inspiring the establishment of approximately 350 youth orchestras in Kinshasa, paving the way for new traditional dances, rhythmic patterns, and bands.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 February 2014 |title=Zambia: Origins of Rhumba Music |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201402230048.html |access-date=3 April 2025 |website=[[Times of Zambia]] |publication-place=Ndola, Zambia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Vietnam |date=31 December 2021 |title=The Secrets And Legend of Rumba, "The Soul Of The Congolese" |url=https://vietnamtimes.org.vn/the-secrets-and-legend-of-rumba-the-soul-of-the-congolese-38972.html#:~:text=The%20lively%20cavacha,%20a%20dance,Shama%20Shama,%20influencing%20Kenyan%20musicians. |access-date=3 April 2025 |website=Vietnam Times |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XEeTAgAAQBAJ |title=The Garland Handbook of African Music |date=2 April 2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781135900014 |editor-last=Stone |editor-first=Ruth M. |location=Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom |pages=132–133}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Messager |date=2009-08-18 |title=Les années 1970: L'âge d'or de la musique congolaise |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-35012968.html |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":6" />
[[File:Congolese band Zaïko Langa Langa in 1971.jpg|thumb|[[Zaïko Langa Langa]] performing in 1971. From left to right: Beaudoin Mitsho, Meridjo Belobi (behind), Enoch Zamuangana (behind), Teddy Sukami, [[Papa Wemba]], Damien Ndebo (behind), [[Evoloko Jocker]], [[Félix Manuaku Waku]]|166x166px]]
As sociopolitical turmoil in Zaire deteriorated in the 1970s, a great number of musicians ventured to [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]] and [[Uganda]], where orchestras sustained themselves through record sales and consistent stage performances. By the early 1970s, several Congolese bands had taken up the soukous beat in Kenyan nightclubs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=2008-07-29 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |pages=849 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6dEW14KykIC |title=The Rough Guide to Kenya |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2016 |isbn=9781848369733 |location=London, United Kingdom |pages=598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=2020-05-05 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":73">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |publisher=State University of New York Press |date=June 2012 |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref name=":84">{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The [[cavacha]] dance craze, propagated by bands like [[Zaïko Langa Langa]] and Orchestra Shama Shama, swept across East and [[Central Africa]], exert influence on Kenyan musicians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adieu |first=Verckys |date=2022-10-19 |title=congolese rumba |url=https://cavacha.wordpress.com/tag/congolese-rumba/ |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{Cite web |last=Mutara |first=Eugene |date=29 April 2008 |title=Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200804290721.html |access-date=27 July 2024 |website=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]]}}</ref> The utilization of the cavacha rhythm, typically played on the [[snare drum]] or [[Hi-hat|high-hat]], became emblematic of the Zairean sound in [[Nairobi]] and was frequently adopted by regional bands. Prominent Congolese rumba [[Swahili language|Swahili]] bands in Nairobi formed around [[Tanzania]]n bands like [[Simba Wanyika]], giving rise to offshoots like [[Les Wanyika]] and Super Wanyika Stars.<ref name=":12"/><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |date=19 October 2022 |title=congolese rumba |url=https://cavacha.wordpress.com/tag/congolese-rumba/ |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Cavacha Express! Classic congolese hits}}</ref><ref name=":23"/> [[Maroon Commandos]], a Nairobi-based band, assimilated the soukous style while infusing their distinctive artistic imprint. [[Japanese people|Japanese]] students in Kenya, including Rio Nakagawa, developed a fondness for Congolese music, with Rio eventually spearheading Yoka Choc Nippon, a Japanese-conceived Congolese rumba band.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Mwamba |first=Bibi |date=7 February 2022 |title=L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/linfluence-de-la-rumba-congolaise-sur-la-scene-musicale-mondiale |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Music in Africa |language=fr}}</ref>
[[File:A posture of Pepe Kalle in 1978.jpg|left|thumb|294x294px|A posture of [[Pépé Kallé]] in 1978]]
Virgin Records produced albums by the Tanzanian-Zairean [[Orchestra Makassy]] and the Kenya-based [[Orchestra Super Mazembe]]. The Swahili song "Shauri Yako" ("It's your problem") gained widespread acclaim in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Another influential Zairean band, [[Les Mangelepa]], relocated to Kenya and achieved immense popularity across East Africa. Zairean singer [[Samba Mapangala]] and his band Orchestra Virunga, based in Nairobi, released the [[LP record|LP]] ''Malako'', which became a pioneering release in Europe's emerging world music scene.<ref name=":29" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shauri Yako — Orchestra Super Mazembe |url=https://www.last.fm/music/Orchestra+Super+Mazembe/Shauri+Yako |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=Last.fm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=congo in kenya |url=http://muzikifan.com/shika.html |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=muzikifan.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nyanga |first=Caroline |title=Stars who came for music and found eternal resting place |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/standard-entertainment/article/2001370770/stars-who-came-for-music-and-found-eternal-resting-place |access-date=10 July 2023 |website=The Standard}}</ref> Soukous soon eclipsed East African styles like benga and taarab, emerging as the dominant form of urban entertainment and creating challenges for East African musicians who found it hard to rival its widespread success.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kimani |first=Peter |date=24 January 1999 |title=Africa: Where Is Kenyan Music? |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/199901240008.html |access-date=1 November 2025 |website=[[Daily Nation]] |publication-place=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref> Meanwhile, between 1976 and 1977, [[Sam Mangwana]] and the African All Stars dominated the dance halls of Kinshasa with records produced in [[West Africa]], which were different from the sounds produced in the two-track studios of Kinshasa. Following this, there was a migration to [[Lomé]] and [[Cotonou]], followed by Franco Luambo's departure to Belgium.<ref name=":1" /> 

In [[Sierra Leone]], the genre [[Music of Sierra Leone#Afropop|enjoyed strong appreciation]] among local and diaspora musicians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sankoh |first=Osman Benk |date=5 June 2002 |title=Sierra Leone: Talking 'Soukous' With the Safarians |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200207050240.html |access-date=1 November 2025 |website=Concord Times |publication-place=Freetown, Sierra Leone}}</ref> One of its foremost "purveyors" is guitarist Abdul Tee-Jay, a major figure in Sierra Leone's contemporary London music scene, who first picked up the guitar while listening to Congolese bands and [[Nico Kasanda]]'s recordings.<ref name=":31">{{Cite web |last=Stewart |first=Gary |date=1993 |title=The Music of Sierra Leone: Maringa Roots, Rokoto Shoots, vol. 12, no. 1 |url=https://afropop.org/migrated-uploads/2017/05/BOTBSierraLeone.pdf |access-date=1 November 2025 |website=[[Afropop Worldwide]] |publisher=The Beat |page=47}}</ref> In a 1989 interview with ''[[FRoots|Folk Roots]]'', he explained that his "Rokoto" style emerged from adapting old Sierra Leonean folk melodies while drawing from soukous and [[highlife]] traditions.<ref name=":31" /> His 1992 album ''Fire Dombolo'' blended highlife, soukous, [[makossa]], milo, and [[Jazz|American jazz]] into a distinctive sound. His band Rokoto'','' meaning "to dance" in Krio, evoked the sound of early 1980s Parisian productions by Richard Dick and Eddy Gustave, blending up-tempo reminiscent of Super Combo and Afro National, though less frenetic than the fast-paced TGV soukous of Loketo and Matchatcha.<ref name=":31" />[[File:Gaby Lita Bembo jouant du piano à la fin des années 1970.jpg|thumb|180x180px|[[Orchestre Stukas|Gaby Lita Bembo]] playing piano in the 1970s]]In [[Nigeria]], soukous became widespread due to the transmission of Zairean music through Radio Brazzaville, where audiences were introduced to material from ''Zaire Vol. 6'' (Soundpoint SOP 044, 1978).<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last=Beadle |first=John |date=18 August 2010 |title=From Congo via Nigeria |url=https://likembe.blogspot.com/2010/08/from-congo-via-nigeria.html |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Likembe |publication-place=Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=1978 |title=Various – Music From Zaire Vol. 6 |url=https://www.discogs.com/release/11788853-Various-Music-From-Zaire-Vol-6 |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Discogs |publication-place=Beaverton, Oregon, United States}}</ref> Soukous catalyzed the emergence of a distinct genre of guitar-based [[Igbo highlife]] music, exemplified by musicians like [[Oliver De Coque]], the [[Oriental Brothers International]], and their various imitators and followers.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=14 April 2021 |title=Google Honors Oliver de Coque with a Doodle on his 74th Posthumous Birthday |url=https://www.bellanaija.com/2021/04/oliver-de-coque-google-doodle/ |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=BellaNaija |language=en-US |publication-place=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Collins |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzvuAAAAMAAJ&q=Oliver%20de%20Coque%20soukous |title=The Ghanaian Concert Party: African Popular Entertainment at the Cross Roads |date=1994 |publisher=State University of New York at Buffalo |location=Buffalo, New York State, United States |pages=47 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQM5AQAAIAAJ&q=Oliver%20de%20Coque%20soukous |title=The Beat: Volume 14 |date=1995 |publisher=Beat Magazine |location=Melbourne, Australia |pages=41 |language=en}}</ref> The superabundance of Nigerian pressings of Zairean music featured the musicians who influenced this trend, as seen in the case of ''Music From Zaire Vol. 6'', which showcased artists from [[Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta]]'s stable like Orchestre Kiam, Orchestre Lipua-Lipua, and the cavacha rhythm.<ref name=":18" /> There was a prevalent inclination to exclude the slower "A" sides of various recordings and instead focus on the climactic [[sebene]], the faster and more improvisational [[Half-time (music)|second half]].<ref name=":18" /> This structural paradigm became emblematic of Igbo guitar highlife recordings epitomized by the music style of Oliver De Coque and Oriental Brothers International.<ref name=":18" /> Although often misidentified locally as Makossa, a Cameroonian genre, Congolese music was widely embraced in Nigeria. According to ''[[Vanguard (Nigeria)|Vanguard]]'' entertainment editor Amadi Ogbonna, Igbo highlife was the dominant musical form prior to the [[Nigerian Civil War]] (1967–1970).<ref name=":27">{{Cite web |last=Amadi |first=Ogbonna |date=28 October 2000 |title=Nigeria: The Triumph of Makossa/Soukous |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200010280054.html |access-date=6 July 2025 |website=[[Vanguard (Nigeria)|Vanguard]] |publication-place=Lagos, Nigeria}}</ref> After the conflict, many young men, including former members of the disbanded [[Biafran Armed Forces]], turned to music for livelihood and emotional relief. These musicians, initially performing under pseudonyms and adopting Congolese styles, found popularity with audiences through energetic dance routines and infectious rhythms, particularly those of [[TPOK Jazz]].<ref name=":27" /> One notable incident involved the defection of [[Chief Stephen Osita Osadebe]]'s band members while on tour in London. Upon returning to Nigeria, they formed the Ikenga Super Stars of Africa, pioneering a new hybrid genre known as [[Ikwokirikwo]].<ref name=":27" /> This style blended Igbo highlife with soukous, emphasized by elaborate guitar work and rhythmic swaying movements.<ref name=":27" /> The 1970s saw the rise of additional bands, such as the Oriental Brothers International, Peacocks Guitar Band International, [[Prince Nico Mbarga]], and Rockfill Jazz, that also popularized this fusion. Although many artists continued to label their music as "highlife", it bore clear influence from Congolese rhythmic and structural elements.<ref name=":27" /> By the 1990s, the popularity of soukous in Nigeria had reached unprecedented heights. The ''[[Mail & Guardian]]'', in an article published on 17 October 1997, reported that "Nigerian soukous" had become a staple of the country's musical programming.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Janet |date=17 October 1997 |title=Africa: M-Net Launches Music Channel |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/199710170054.html |access-date=6 July 2025 |website=[[Mail & Guardian]] |publication-place=Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa}}</ref> Soukous cassette tapes were widely circulated, particularly in [[South West (Nigeria)|southwestern Nigeria]], and the genre was frequently heard on street cassette players and in public entertainment venues.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Alex Duval |date=30 October 1998 |title=Nigeria: Hard to follow Fela |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/199810300052.html |access-date=6 July 2025 |website=[[Mail & Guardian]] |publication-place=Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa}}</ref> Some Nigerian youths, enamored with the style, even began singing in French despite lacking comprehension of the language.<ref name=":27" /> 

Soukous experienced widespread diffusion across [[southern Africa]], where it was both adopted and adapted into various offshoots, such as [[Zimbabwe]]'s immensely popular sungura genre.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Musira |first=Patrick |date=6 July 2011 |title=Slow down on ndombolo song and dance Congolese urged |url=https://theafronews.com/slow-down-on-ndombolo-song-and-dance-congolese-urged/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |website=Theafronews.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== South America, the Caribbean, and Réunion ====
{{See also|Champeta}}{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Pépé Kallé et Nyboma en 1986 lors de leur collaboration pour un projet d'album commun.jpg
| caption1          = [[Nyboma]] (left) and Pépé Kallé (right) in 1986.
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}}
During this epoch, African music began procuring popularity globally due to the world music movement. In [[Colombia]], soukous made inroads into the local culture, contributing to the development of [[champeta]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Malandra |first=Ocean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2nbDwAAQBAJ&dq=congolese+in+colombia+champeta&pg=PT60 |title=Moon Cartagena & Colombia's Caribbean Coast |publisher=Avalon Publishing |date=December 2020 |isbn=9781640499416 |location=New York City, New York State, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Utpc5-zDBqAC |title=The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: Africa; South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean; The United States and Canada; Europe; Oceania |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |editor-last=Koskoff |editor-first=Ellen |location=Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom |pages=185}}</ref> In the third chapter of the documentary ''Pasos de la Cumbia'', Lucas Silva, a DJ and cultural producer specializing in African music, recounts how [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] purchased a plane in Colombia.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web |last=Akindes |first=Simon Adetona |date=20 September 2022 |title=The "Caribbeanization" of Afrobeat in Colombia |url=https://africasacountry.com/2023/09/the-caribbeanization-of-afrobeat-in-colombia |access-date=17 October 2024 |website=Africasacountry.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Documentary series - Pasos de Cumbia |url=https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLRjmZTr5CUMsSry3F7q_nqF74yFNH7aRs#:~:text=%E2%80%9CPasos%20de%20Cumbia%E2%80%9D%20es%20una,a%20Latinoam%C3%A9rica,%20espec%C3%ADficamente%20a%20Colombia. |access-date=17 October 2024 |website=[[YouTube]] |language=en |publication-place=San Bruno, California, United States}}</ref> When it required maintenance, a Colombian mechanic traveled to Zaire, returning with a collection of 45 rpm records, including the iconic ''El Mambote'' by l'Orchestre Veve, which became a hit.<ref name=":30" /><ref name=":84" /> Other 45 rpm records soon flooded [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]] and [[Barranquilla]].<ref name=":30" />
{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Souzy Kaseya, 1980.png
| caption1          = [[Souzy Kasseya]] in 1980
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}}
In the article "''Champeta is Liberation''"'': The Indestructible Sound System Culture of Afro-Colombia'', journalist April Clare Welsh observes, "When 'música Africana' swept the region during the '70s and '80s, sound systems were instrumental in forging a collective diasporic identity for [[Afro-Colombians]] in a society deeply divided by race and class".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Welsh |first=April Clare |date=21 August 2016 |title="Champeta is liberation": The indestructible sound system culture of Afro-Colombia |url=https://www.factmag.com/2016/08/21/champeta-colombia-sound-system-music-lucas-silva-palenque/ |access-date=17 October 2024 |website=[[Fact (UK magazine)|Fact]] |language=en-US |publication-place=London, England, United Kingdom}}</ref> African musicians like [[Kanda Bongo Man]], [[Nico Kasanda|Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay]], [[Diblo Dibala]], Ikenga Super Stars of Africa, [[M'bilia Bel]], and [[Mahlathini]] and the [[Mahotella Queens]] became local celebrities, forging a "pan-African connection that was, at the time, largely unknown to many Africans within the continent".<ref name=":30" /> Local musicians began replicating the arrangements of Congolese artists like Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay, [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]], M'bilia Bel, [[Syran Mbenza]], Lokassa Ya M'Bongo, [[Pépé Kallé]], Rémy Sahlomon, and Kanda Bongo Man.<ref name=":73" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Slater |first=Russ |date=17 January 2020 |title=Colombia's African Soul |url=https://longlivevinyl.net/2020/01/17/colombias-african-soul/ |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=Long Live Vinyl}}</ref><ref name=":84" /> Homegrown musicians such as Viviano Torres, Luis Towers, and Charles King became renowned for this.<ref name=":73" /> This movement led to the creation of champeta, a genre rooted in "soukous guitars, bass, drumming, and dance".<ref name=":30" /> Due to its overtly sensual dance moves and its association with the "Black Below", champeta was derided by the [[White Colombians|white]] [[Social class in Colombia|upper classes]].<ref name=":30" /> However, for Afro-Colombians, it was an assertion of their cultural identity and resilience.<ref name=":30" /> DJs often renamed African songs with Spanish titles, composed champetas in the [[Palenquero|Palenque]] language (a creole fusion of Spanish and [[Bantu languages]] such as [[Kongo language|Kikongo]] and [[Lingala]]), or phonetically distorted the original names.<ref name=":30" /> For instance, Mbilia Bel's "Mobali Na Ngai Wana" became known in Colombia as "La Bollona". Champeta emerged as a new marker of Black identity along Colombia's western coast and evolved from a peripheral genre to a mainstream national phenomenon.<ref name=":30" /> During the [[Super Bowl LIV halftime show]] on 2 February 2020, at [[Hard Rock Stadium]] in Miami Gardens, Florida, [[Shakira]] danced to Syran Mbenza's "Icha", a song colloquially referred to as "El Sebastián" in Colombia, which spawned the #ChampetaChallenge on social media platforms worldwide.<ref name=":102">{{Cite web |last=Mwamba |first=Bibi |date=7 February 2022 |title=L'influence de la rumba congolaise sur la scène musicale mondiale |trans-title=The influence of Congolese rumba on the world music scene |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/linfluence-de-la-rumba-congolaise-sur-la-scene-musicale-mondiale |access-date=17 October 2024 |website=Music in Africa |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2 February 2020 |title=Shakira Brought Afro-Colombian Dance to the Super Bowl |url=https://www.okayafrica.com/shakira-afro-colombian-dance-champeta-to-the-super-bowl-performance/ |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=[[OkayAfrica]]}}</ref>

The genre also expanded its reach to the [[Overseas France|French overseas territories]], notably [[Martinique]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[French Guiana]], and [[Réunion]], largely due to the extensive tours of Congolese artists. Among them, the band Loketo stood out as a "cultural ambassador" in helping introduce and popularize African music across these regions.<ref name=":35">{{Cite web |last=Bétis |first=Daniel |last2=Samyde |first2=Jean-Claude |date=19 March 2020 |title=Coronavirus: Aurlus Mabélé le roi du soukous a été emporté par le virus |trans-title=Coronavirus: Aurlus Mabélé, the king of soukous, has been taken by the virus |url=https://la1ere.franceinfo.fr/martinique/coronavirus-aurlus-mabele-roi-du-soukous-ete-emporte-virus-814150.html |access-date=12 November 2025 |website=Franceinfo.fr |publisher=[[France Info]] |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> [[Aurlus Mabélé]] was particularly influential, with his hits such as "Embargo", "Loketo", "Vacances aux Antilles", "Zebola", and "Waka Waka" becoming staples of local parties and dance floors.<ref name=":35" /> Jacob Desvarieux, guitarist and co-founder of [[Kassav']], told ''[[Libération]]'' that his guitar style drew inspiration from [[Chuck Berry]], [[Jimi Hendrix]], and musicians from the Paris-based soukous scene, alongside [[Rock music|rock]] artists.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Denis |first=Jacques |date=23 May 2016 |title=Jacob Desvarieux: "Au départ, Kassav' était un laboratoire" |trans-title=Jacob Desvarieux: "Initially, Kassav' was a laboratory" |url=https://www.liberation.fr/musique/2016/05/23/au-depart-kassav-etait-un-laboratoire_1454622/ |access-date=12 November 2025 |website=[[Libération]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> According to the [[Centre for Fine Arts, Brussels|Centre for Fine Arts]], bands like Kassav' and [[Tabou Combo]] were key to transmitting [[cavacha]] drumming pattern to France, the [[French West Indies|French Antilles]], and the broader [[Caribbean]].<ref name=":62">{{Cite web |date=29 January 2022 |title=Mythique Rumba Congolaise Internationale (MRCI) présente Génération Cavacha |trans-title=Legendary International Congolese Rumba (MRCI) presents Generation Cavacha |url=https://www.bozar.be/fr/calendrier/mythique-rumba-congolaise-internationale-mrci-presente-generation-cavacha |access-date=2 April 2025 |website=[[Centre for Fine Arts]] |language=fr |publication-place=Brussels, Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Eyre |first=Banning |date=14 November 2018 |title=Interview with the Legendary Nyoka Longo of Zaïko Langa Langa |url=https://afropop.org/articles/interview-with-the-legendary-nyoka-longo-of-za%C3%AFko-langa-langa |access-date=25 August 2025 |website=[[Afropop Worldwide]] |language=en |publication-place=New York, New York, United States}}</ref>

==== Paris scene ====
[[File:Papa Wemba and Koffi Olomide, 1988.jpg|thumb|[[Koffi Olomide|Koffi Olomidé]] and [[Papa Wemba]], 1988|225x225px]]
As sociopolitical unrest persisted in Zaire throughout the 1980s, numerous musicians sought refuge across Africa, with a considerable number relocating to Belgium, France, and the United Kingdom. Some traversed through Central and East Africa before ultimately establishing their operational bases in Europe.<ref name=":112">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=29 July 2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=849}}</ref><ref name=":232">{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6dEW14KykIC |title=The Rough Guide to Kenya |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2016 |isbn=9781848369733 |location=London, United Kingdom |page=598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State}}</ref><ref name=":732">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |date=June 2012 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref name=":842">{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |work=[[The Guardian]] |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Soukous gained traction in Brussels, Paris, and London, emerging as the only sub-Saharan African genre universally embraced in Belgium and France.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daoudi |first=Bouziane |date=29 August 1998 |title=World. Le chanteur ex-zaïrois en concert à l'Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo de la rumba. Koffi Olomidé. Samedi à 23 heures à l'Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris IXe. Tél.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: "Loi", Sonodisc. |trans-title=World. The ex-Zairian singer in concert at the Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo of rumba. Koffi Olomide. Saturday at 11 p.m. at the Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris 9th. Tel.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: “Law”, Sonodisc. |url=https://www.liberation.fr/culture/1998/08/29/world-le-chanteur-ex-zairois-en-concert-a-l-olympia-koffi-olomide-rambo-de-la-rumba-koffi-olomide-sa_244600/ |access-date=29 December 2023 |website=[[Libération]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> According to Congolese columnist [[:fr:Achille Ngoye|Achille Ngoye]], Belgium offered a significant permanent operational base for numerous Zairean artists.<ref name=":1" /> Orchestras such as Los Nickelos, Yéyé National, and Les Mongali, predominantly composed of students, garnered significant attention in Belgium.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mbu-Mputu |first=Norbert X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfWiDwAAQBAJ&dq=Y%C3%A9y%C3%A9+National+brussels&pg=PA331 |title=L'AUTRE LUMUMBA. Peuple du CONGO: Histoire, résistances, assassinats et victoires sur le front de la Guerre froide |publisher= |isbn=978-0-244-77422-6 |location=Morrisville, North Carolina, United States |pages=331 |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mLQ4AQAAIAAJ&q=Los+Nickelos+brussels+1980s |title=The World of African Music: Volume 1 |date=1992 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-948390-03-6 |editor-last=Graham |editor-first=Ronnie |location=London, England, United Kingdom |pages=130 |language=en}}</ref> In July 1980, [[Franco Luambo]] consolidated his European influence by creating Visa 80, a Brussels-based distribution center for Zairean music, following his purchase of property in the city.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":33" /> Meanwhile, [[Dieudonné Kabongo]], Dizzy Mandjeku, and [[Ntesa Dalienst]] rose to prominence due to the bankruptcy of Belgian record label Fonior!, which prompted many Zairean artists like [[Orchestre Stukas|Lita Bembo]] and Matima to seek reputable distribution entities in Belgium, while others found solace in performing in religious choirs, which frequently toured [[Holland]].<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Nyboma, 1973.jpg|thumb|218x218px|Nyboma in 1973|left]]
Soukous was chosen by [[Island Records]] producer [[Ben Mandelson]] and Togolese entrepreneur Richard Dick as the title of a 1982 compilation, ''Sound D'Afrique II: Soukous''. The compilation included music from [[Mali]] and [[Cameroon]] alongside "Madeleina", a track from Pablo 'Porthos' Lubadika's 1981 album ''Ma Coco'', which gained significant attention in Europe.<ref name=":28"/> Zaïko Langa Langa introduced the role of a dedicated hypeman, known as ''[[atalaku]]'' or ''[[animateur]]'', into the ensemble of singers, setting a trend that almost every band on the Congolese music scene adopted, making atalakus emblematic of soukous as well as Congolese rumba.<ref name=":28" /> Zaïko Langa Langa achieved significant success, becoming the third generation of Congolese music as many founding members split off to form their own groups, which in turn splintered into more groups: [[Isifi Lokole|Isife Lokole]], Grand Zaïko Wa Wa, [[Langa Langa Stars]], Clan Langa Langa, [[Choc Stars]], and Anti-Choc among them.<ref name=":28" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lavaine |first=Bertrand |date=30 September 2020 |title=Zaïko Langa Langa, une histoire congolaise |trans-title=Zaïko Langa Langa, a Congolese story |url=https://musique.rfi.fr/rumba-congolaise/20200930-zaiko-langa-langa-une-histoire-congolaise |access-date=27 May 2024 |website=RFI Musique |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> [[Papa Wemba]] and [[Viva La Musica]] made the longest-lasting impact, partly due to Wemba's ability to maintain a presence in both Paris and Kinshasa with dual bands, one focusing on soukous and another featuring French session players for international pop. In Parisian studios, the sebene guitars blended with the tight drum machines and synths of [[zouk]] and funky disco [[makossa]] on numerous records.<ref name=":28" /><ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ&q=congolese+rumba+on+the+river |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=2020-05-05 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last1=Vogel |first1=Christoph |last2=Network |first2=part of the Guardian Africa |date=2013-08-23 |title=Say my name: How 'shout-outs' keep Congolese musicians in the money |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/aug/23/congo-musicians-kinshasa-rumba |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref> However, this fusion received criticism for deviating from authentic Congolese styles. Notable critics like [[Nyboma]] argued that the music had become commercialized and lacked emotional depth, calling for a return to the fundamentals of "beautiful melodies and highly tuned voices".<ref name="Stewart">{{cite book |last1=Stewart |first1=Gary |url=https://archive.org/details/rumbaonriverhist00stew |title=Rumba on the river : a history of the popular music of the two Congos |date=2000 |publisher=Verso |isbn=1-85984-744-7 |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|384–385}}<ref name="Afropop">Public Radio International, Afropop Worldwide, program on "The Four Stars," recorded February 1996 from KSKA Anchorage.</ref>

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Le groupe Loketo.jpg
| image2            = Le groupe Loketo en concert, en 1986.jpg
| footer            = The Loketo group, established by [[Aurlus Mabélé]] and [[Diblo Dibala]], emerged as a prominent soukous band during the 1980s and 1990s.
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The influx of Zairean artists to France catalyzed the proliferation of Parisian studios as epicenters for soukous production, with an increasing reliance on synthesizers and [[Electronic musical instrument|electronic instruments]]. Some artists continued to record for the Congolese market, but others abandoned the demands of the Kinshasa public and set out to pursue new audiences.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":17" /> A sizable Zairean community established itself in France and [[Switzerland]], with Zairean artists conducting training programs in the country.<ref name=":1" /> [[Kanda Bongo Man]], another Paris-based artist, pioneered fast, short tracks conducive for play on dance floors worldwide, popularly known as [[kwassa kwassa]], after the dance moves popularized in his and other artists' music videos. This music appealed to Africans and to new audiences as well. Artists like [[Diblo Dibala]], [[Aurlus Mabélé]], Tchicl Tchicaya, Jeannot Bel Musumbu, [[M'bilia Bel]], [[Yondo Sister]], Tinderwet, [[Loketo]], [[Rigo Star]], Nyboma, [[Madilu System]], [[Souzy Kasseya]], Soukous Stars and veterans like [[Pépé Kallé]] and [[Koffi Olomide|Koffi Olomidé]] followed suit. Soon Paris became home to talented studio musicians who recorded for the African and Caribbean markets and filled out bands for occasional tours.<ref name=":11" /><ref name="Kanda Bongo Man dances a new dance">{{Cite news |date=29 September 2014 |title=Kanda Bongo Man dances a new dance |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-29418790 |access-date=27 August 2023 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":29" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Goldiner |first=Dave |date=14 March 2003 |title=Zimbabwe: Kanda Bongo Man Sings for Peace in War-Ravaged DRC |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200303190758.html |access-date=1 November 2025 |website=[[Daily News (Harare)|Daily News]] |publication-place=Harare, Zimbabwe}}</ref> Diblo Dibala and Aurlus Mabélé dominated the clubs with "Africa Moussou", creating a hyperactive style of super-speed soukous, dubbed ''TGV soukous'' by fans, alluding to France's high-speed trains.<ref name=":28" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 March 2020 |title=Covid-19: Aurlus Mabélé, le roi du soukous n'est plus |trans-title=Covid-19: Aurlus Mabélé, the King of Soukous, has passed away |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/covid-19-aurlus-mabele-le-roi-du-soukous-nest-plus |access-date=1 November 2025 |website=Music In Africa |language=fr}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Mbilia Bel, 1986.jpg
| caption1          = [[M'bilia Bel]] (center) performing in Kinshasa, Zaire, in 1986.
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}}

[[Israelis|Israeli]] songwriter David Halfon's [[Music store|instrument shop]] in [[Place Saint-Michel|Saint-Michel]] became a central hub for African musicians, even as most Africans in Paris lived in Barbès, [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]], or [[Montreuil, Seine-Saint-Denis|Montreuil]], the latter known for hosting the largest [[Malians in France|Malian community]] outside [[Mali]].<ref name=":33" /> The shop became a bridge to the homeland, offering the sound of the familiar for a diaspora far from home. As business grew, David opened a full-fledged Afric' Music store, where his son Hervé, who worked after school, absorbed the sounds of Congo, Senegal, Nigeria, and the [[French West Indies|French Antilles]].<ref name=":33" /> In 1988, David sold the store to start a chain of fast-food restaurants but continued to produce African music acts, including Diblo Dibala & Matchatcha, Les Cœurs Brisés, Branché, and Flaïsha Mani, nicknamed "the Diamond of Zaire".<ref name=":33" />

Swede-Swede, a band exclusively employing traditional instruments, operates out of Belgium, while Les Malo, primarily comprising former instructors from the [[National Institute of Arts, Kinshasa|National Institute of Arts]] in Kinshasa, specializes in Afro-jazz in [[Lyon]].<ref name=":1" /> [[Tshala Muana]] gained prominence in Africa and Europe for her [[Luba people|Luba]] traditional hip-swaying dance known as ''mutuashi'', which make waves across African stadiums and earned her the moniker of "Queen of Mutuashi".<ref name=":1" /> Other female vocalists such as Déesse Mukangi, Djena Mandako, Faya Tess, Isa, and Abby Surya garnered widespread recognition.<ref name=":1" /> On 25 July 2000, the [[World Music Network]] released ''The Rough Guide to Congolese Soukous'', a [[compilation album]] that showcased a diverse selection of songs by artists such as Franco Luambo, Tabu Ley Rochereau, Kanda Bongo Man, Papa Wemba, Koffi Olomide, Zaïko Langa Langa, Ry-Co Jazz, Déesse Mukangi, Pépé Kallé, Thu Zahina, Yondo Sister, Nouvelle Génération, and Sam Mangwana.<ref>{{Citation |last=Zimmermann |first=Curtis |title=The Rough Guide to Congolese Soukous |date=25 July 2000 |url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-rough-guide-to-congolese-soukous-mw0000098766 |access-date=1 November 2025 |place=Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=de Waal |first=Shaun |date=10 November 2000 |title=South Africa: SoundBites |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200011100061.html |access-date=1 November 2025 |website=[[Mail & Guardian]] |publication-place=Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa}}</ref>

==Ndombolo==
{{main|Ndombolo}}

By the late 1990s, musicians such as Radja Kula, [[Wenge Musica]], [[Koffi Olomide|Koffi Olomidé]], [[Defao|Général Defao]], and [[Extra Musica]] metamorphosed soukous into raunchy, frenetic hip-swinging dance music, renaming it ''[[ndombolo]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ngaira |first=Amos |date=22 August 2020 |title=Dancing styles innovator Radja Kula Mbuta takes last bow |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/life-and-style/culture/dancing-styles-innovator-radja-kula-mbuta-takes-last-bow-1923740 |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=Nation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mafuta |first=Masand |date=5 September 2020 |title=Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila s'engage mordicus pour l'organisation des obsèques de Radja Kula |trans-title=Kinshasa: Gentiny Ngobila is committed to organizing the funeral of Radja Kula |url=https://axenordsudmedia.com/2020/09/05/kinshasa-gentiny-ngobila-sengage-mordicus-pour-lorganisation-des-obseques-de-radja-kula/ |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=AxeNordSud Media |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite book |last1=George |first1=Nelson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtBj4psmJlcC&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PA129 |title=Best Music Writing 2008 |last2=Carr |first2=Daphne |date=20 October 2008 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2612-7 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=129}}</ref><ref name=":162"/><ref name="Makumeno">{{Cite web |last=Makumeno |first=Emery |date=1 July 2022 |title=Musique : qu'est-ce que le clan Wenge, pionnier de la danse Ndombolo ? |url=https://www.bbc.com/afrique/articles/c84xqw9ppk1o |access-date=12 November 2023 |website=BBC News Afrique |language=fr}}</ref> This style surged in popularity across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, Germany, Canada, and the United States.<ref name=":43">{{Cite book |last1=George |first1=Nelson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vtBj4psmJlcC&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PA129 |title=Best Music Writing 2008 |last2=Carr |first2=Daphne |date=20 October 2008 |publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2612-7 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=129}}</ref><ref name=":162">{{Cite book |last=Buettner |first=Elizabeth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QjPDAAAQBAJ&dq=many+congolese+move+to+europe+in+1990s&pg=PA313 |title=Europe after Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture |date=24 March 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-59470-4 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |page=313}}</ref><ref name="Makumeno"/> However, by the early 2000s, ndombolo faced scrutiny, with accusations of [[obscenity]] leading to attempts to prohibit it from state media in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, [[Cameroon]], [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], and [[Kenya]].<ref name="ndb1">"[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/851033.stm Anger at Cameroon dance ban; BBC News]", ''BBC News'', July 25, 2000</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite book |last1=Falola |first1=Toyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOTNEAAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+POPULAR&pg=PT419 |title=Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes] |last2=Jean-Jacques |first2=Daniel |date=14 December 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=979-8-216-04273-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99x5ea1Gq-cC&dq=ndombolo+ban+in+kenya&pg=PA301 |title=Kenya |date=2002 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=978-1-85828-859-8 |location=London, England, United Kingdom |pages=301 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":82">{{Cite news |last=Nzale |first=Félix |date=3 February 2004 |title=Sénégal: Ndombolo, mapuka : ces danses jugées indésirables |trans-title=Senegal: Ndombolo, mapuka: these dances considered undesirable |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200402030685.html |access-date=10 November 2023 |work=Sudquotidien.sn |language=fr}}</ref> In February 2005, ndombolo music videos in the Democratic Republic of the Congo underwent censorship for indecency, which resulted in the banning of videos by Koffi Olomidé, JB Mpiana, and [[Werrason]] from airwaves.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mutara |first=Eugene |date=29 April 2008 |title=Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200804290721.html |access-date=12 May 2024 |website=Newtimes.co.rw}}</ref> Despite the censure, ndombolo record sales surged, remaining popular with new releases dominating discos, bars, and clubs across Africa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Woods |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4t2xDgAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+banned+in+cameroon&pg=PT246 |title=The 50 Greatest Musical Places |date=6 July 2017 |publisher=Icon Books |isbn=978-1-78578-190-2 |location=North Road, London, United Kingdom}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Soukous musicians]]
*[[List of Democratic Republic of the Congo musicians]]
*[[Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Sébène]]
*[[Champeta]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos|year=2000|publisher=Verso|isbn=1-85984-368-9|author=Gary Stewart}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Wheeler|first1=Jesse Samba|title=Rumba Lingala as Colonial Resistance|journal=Image & Narrative|date=March 2005|issue=10|url=http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/worldmusica/jessesambawheeler.htm|access-date=July 14, 2014|archive-date=January 15, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115030503/http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/worldmusica/jessesambawheeler.htm|url-status=dead}}

==External links==
* [http://www.worldhum.com/dispatches/item/soukous_and_the_sound_of_sunshine_20060701/ The Sound of Sunshine: How soukous saved my life]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9S6ezPLmyI Rare recording (1961) of rural finger style Soukous guitarist Pierre Gwa with home made guitar]
* [http://www.guitaresoukous.com/ GuitOp81's Soukous Guitar site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227120328/http://www.guitaresoukous.com/ |date=February 27, 2017 }}

{{Genres of African popular music}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Soukous| ]]