View source for South Slavic languages

{{Short description|Language family}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = South Slavic
| map           = Slavic europe (Kosovo shaded).svg
| mapcaption    = {{legend|#004040|Countries where a South Slavic language is the national language}}
| region        = [[Southeast Europe]]
| familycolor   = Indo-European
| fam2          = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
| fam3          = [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
| child1        = [[Eastern South Slavic]]
| child2        = {{ill|Western South Slavic|ru|Западные южнославянские языки}}
| iso5          = zls
| glotto        = sout3147
| glottorefname = South Slavic
| map2          = 
| mapcaption2   = 
}}
{{South Slavic languages sidebar}}

The '''South Slavic languages''' are one of three branches of the [[Slavic languages]]. There are approximately 30 million speakers, mainly in the [[Balkans]]. These are separated geographically from speakers of the other two Slavic branches ([[West Slavic languages|West]] and [[East Slavic languages|East]]) by a belt of [[Austrian German]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Romanian language|Romanian]] speakers.

== History ==

The first South Slavic language to be written (also the first attested Slavic language) was the variety of the Eastern South Slavic spoken in [[Thessaloniki]], now called [[Old Church Slavonic]], in the ninth century. It is retained as a [[liturgical language]] in Slavic [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] churches in the form of various local [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]] traditions.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

== Classification ==
[[File:Slavic languages tree.svg|thumb|right|300px|Balto-Slavic language family tree]]{{tree list}}
*'''South Slavic'''
** '''[[Eastern South Slavic]]'''
*** [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] 
*** [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] 
*** [[Old Church Slavonic]]
**{{ill|Western South Slavic{{!}}'''Western South Slavic'''|ru|Западные южнославянские языки|v=sup}}
*** [[Slovene language|Slovene]] 
<!--Please do not remove Serbo-Croatian from the subgroup below. These languages are Serbo-Croatian, irrespective of the question of whether its components are separate languages or not. -->
***[[Serbo-Croatian]]
**** [[Serbian language|Serbian]] 
**** [[Croatian language|Croatian]] 
**** [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] 
**** [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]]
{{tree list/end}}

=== Linguistic prehistory ===
The [[Slavic languages]] are part of the [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic group]], which belongs to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family. The South Slavic languages have been considered a [[Genetic (linguistics)|genetic]] [[Comparative linguistics|node]] in [[Slavic studies]]: defined by a set of phonological, morphological and [[lexical innovation]]s (isoglosses) which separate it from the Western and Eastern Slavic groups. That view, however, has been challenged in recent decades (see below).

Some innovations encompassing all South Slavic languages are shared with the Eastern Slavic group, but not the Western Slavic. These include:<ref>Cited after {{harvcoltxt|Matasović|2008|pp=59, 143}}</ref>
# Consistent application of [[Slavic second palatalization]] before Proto-Slavic *v
# Loss of *d and *t before Proto-Slavic *l
# Merger of Proto-Slavic *ś (resulting from the second and third palatalization) with *s

This is illustrated in the following table:
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%; text-align:center"
! colspan=2 | Late [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]]
! colspan=5 | South Slavic
! colspan=3 | [[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]
! colspan=3 | [[East Slavic languages|East Slavic]]
|-
!c=psl| reconstruction
!c=m|    meaning
!c=cu| [[Old Church Slavonic]]
!c=sl| [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
!c=sh| [[Serbo-Croatian]]
!c=bg| [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
!c=mk| [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
!c=cs| [[Czech language|Czech]]
!c=sk| [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
!c=pl| [[Polish language|Polish]]
!c=be| [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
!c=ru| [[Russian language|Russian]]
!c=uk| [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
|-
|c=psl| {{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*gvězda}}
|c=mean| star
|c=cu| {{wikt-lang|cu|звѣзда}}
|c=sl| {{wikt-lang|sl|zvezda}}
|c=sh| {{wikt-lang|sh|zvijezda|zv(ij)ézda}}<br/>{{wikt-lang|sh-Cyrl|звијезда|зв(иј)е́зда}}
|c=bg| {{wikt-lang|bg|звезда}}
|c=mk| {{wikt-lang|mk|ѕвезда}}
|c=cs| {{wikt-lang|cs|hvězda}}
|c=sk| {{wikt-lang|sk|hviezda}}
|c=pl| {{wikt-lang|pl|gwiazda}}
|c=be| {{wikt-lang|be|зорка}},<br/>{{wikt-lang|be|звязда}}
|c=ru| {{wikt-lang|ru|звезда}}<br/>({{wikt-lang|ru|звѣзда}})
|c=uk| {{wikt-lang|uk|зірка}}
|-
|c=psl| {{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*květъ}}
|c=mean| flower, bloom
|c=cu| {{wikt-lang|cu|цвѣтъ}}
|c=sl| {{wikt-lang|sl|cvet}}
|c=sh| {{wikt-lang|sh|cvijet|cv(ij)ȇt}}<br/>{{wikt-lang|sh-Cyrl|цвијет|цв(иј)е̑т}}
|c=bg| {{wikt-lang|bg|цвете}}
|c=mk| {{wikt-lang|mk|цвет}}
|c=cs| {{wikt-lang|cs|květ}}
|c=sk| {{wikt-lang|sk|kvet}}
|c=pl| {{wikt-lang|pl|kwiat}}
|c=be| {{wikt-lang|be|кветка}},<br />{{wikt-lang|be|цвет}}
|c=ru| {{wikt-lang|ru|цветок}},<br/>{{wikt-lang|ru|цвет}}
|c=uk| {{wikt-lang|uk|цвіт}},<br/>{{wikt-lang|uk|квітка}}
|-
|c=psl| {{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*ordlo}}
|c=mean| plough
|c=cu| {{wikt-lang|cu|рало}}
|c=sl| {{wikt-lang|sl|ralo}}
|c=sh| {{wikt-lang|sh|ralo|rȁlo}}<br/>{{wikt-lang|sh-Cyrl|рало|ра̏ло}}
|c=bg| {{wikt-lang|bg|рало}}
|c=mk| {{wikt-lang|mk|рало}}
|c=cs| {{wikt-lang|cs|rádlo}}
|c=sk| {{wikt-lang|sk|radlo}}
|c=pl| {{wikt-lang|pl|radło}}
|c=be| {{wikt-lang|be|арала}}
|c=ru| {{wikt-lang|ru|орало}},<br/>{{wikt-lang|ru|рало}}
|c=uk| {{wikt-lang|uk|орало}},<br/>{{wikt-lang|uk|рало}}
|-
|c=psl| {{wikt-lang|sla-pro|*vьśь}}
|c=mean| all
|c=cu| {{wikt-lang|cu|вьсь}}
|c=sl| {{wikt-lang|sl|ves}}
|c=sh| {{wikt-lang|sh|sav|sȁv}}<br/>{{wikt-lang|sh-Cyrl|сав|са̏в}}
|c=bg| {{wikt-lang|bg|вси}}
|c=mk| {{wikt-lang|mk|сиот}}
|c=cs| {{wikt-lang|cs|vše}}
|c=sk| {{wikt-lang|sk|všetok}}
|c=pl| {{wikt-lang|pl|wszystkie}}
|c=be| {{wikt-lang|be|усе}},<br />{{wikt-lang|be|увесь}}
|c=ru| {{wikt-lang|ru|все}},<br />{{wikt-lang|ru|весь}}
|c=uk| {{wikt-lang|uk|всі}},<br />{{wikt-lang|uk|весь}}
|}

Several [[isogloss]]es have been identified which are thought to represent exclusive common innovations in the South Slavic language group. They are prevalently [[phonology|phonological]] in character, whereas [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] and [[syntax|syntactical]] isoglosses are much fewer in number. {{harvcoltxt|Sussex|Cubberly|2006|pp=43–44}} list the following phonological isoglosses:

# Merger of [[yers]] into [[schwa]]-like sound, which became {{IPA|/a/}} in Serbo-Croatian, or split according to the retained hard/soft quality of the preceding consonant into {{IPA|/o e/}} (Macedonian), or {{IPA|/ə e/}} (Bulgarian)
# Proto-Slavic *ę > {{IPA|/e/}}
# Proto-Slavic *y > {{IPA|/i/}}, merging with the reflex of Proto-Slavic *i
# Proto-Slavic syllabic liquids *r̥ and *l̥ were retained, but *l̥ was subsequently lost in all the daughter languages with different outputs (> {{IPA|/u/}} in Serbo-Croatian, > vowel+{{IPA|/l/}} or {{IPA|/l/}}+vowel in Slovene, Bulgarian and Macedonian), and *r̥ became {{IPA|[ər/rə]}} in Bulgarian. This development was identical to the loss of ''yer'' after a liquid consonant.
# Hardening of palatals and dental affricates; e.g. š' > š, č' > č, c' > c.
# South Slavic form of [[liquid metathesis]] (CoRC > CRaC, CoLC > CLaC etc.)

Most of these are not exclusive in character, however, and are shared with some languages of the Eastern and Western Slavic language groups (in particular, Central Slovakian dialects). On that basis, {{harvcoltxt|Matasović|2008}} argues that South Slavic exists strictly as a geographical grouping, not forming a true genetic [[clade]]; in other words, there was never a proto-South Slavic language or a period in which all South Slavic dialects exhibited an exclusive set of extensive phonological, morphological or lexical changes (isoglosses) peculiar to them. Furthermore, Matasović argues, there was never a period of cultural or political unity in which Proto-South-Slavic could have existed during which Common South Slavic innovations could have occurred. Several South-Slavic-only lexical and morphological patterns which have been proposed have been postulated to represent common Slavic [[archaism]]s, or are shared with some Slovakian or Ukrainian dialects.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The South Slavic dialects form a [[Dialect continuum#South Slavic continuum|dialectal continuum]] stretching from today's southern [[Austria]] to southeast [[Bulgaria]].<ref>[[#refKordiJin2010|Kordić 2010]], p. 75.</ref> On the level of [[dialectology]], they are divided into Western South Slavic (Slovene and Serbo-Croatian dialects) and Eastern South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian dialects); these represent separate migrations into the Balkans and were once separated by intervening Hungarian, Romanian, and Albanian populations; as these populations were assimilated, Eastern and Western South Slavic fused with [[Torlakian dialect|Torlakian]] as a transitional dialect.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} On the other hand, the breakup of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]s, followed by formation of [[nation-states]] in the 19th and 20th centuries, led to the development and codification of [[standard language]]s. Standard Slovene, Bulgarian, and Macedonian are based on distinct dialects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Friedman |first=Victor |author-link=Victor Friedman |editor1-last=Brian |editor1-first=D. Joseph |title= When Languages Collide: Perspectives on Language Conflict, Language Competition, and Language Coexistence |publisher=Ohio State University Press |pages=261–262 |chapter=Language in Macedonia as an Identity Construction Site |location=Columbus |year=2003 |oclc=50123480 |display-editors=etal}}</ref> The Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian [[Differences between Serbo-Croatian standard varieties|standard variants]]<ref>[[#refKordiJin2010|Kordić 2010]], pp. 77–90.</ref> of the [[Pluricentric language#Serbo-Croatian|pluricentric]] [[Serbo-Croatian]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Bunčić |first=Daniel |editor1-last=Kempgen |editor1-first=Sebastian |title=Deutsche Beiträge zum 14. Internationalen Slavistenkongress, Ohrid, 2008 |series=Welt der Slaven |publisher=Otto Sagner |page=93 |language=de |chapter=Die (Re-)Nationalisierung der serbokroatischen Standards |trans-chapter=The (Re-)Nationalisation of Serbo-Croatian Standards |location=Munich |year=2008 |oclc=238795822}}</ref> are based on the [[Language secessionism#In Serbo-Croatian|same dialect]] ([[Shtokavian]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Gröschel |first=Bernhard| author-link=Bernhard Gröschel |year=2009 |language=de |title=Das Serbokroatische zwischen Linguistik und Politik: mit einer Bibliographie zum postjugoslavischen Sprachenstreit |trans-title=Serbo-Croatian Between Linguistics and Politics: With a Bibliography of the Post-Yugoslav Language Dispute |series=Lincom Studies in Slavic Linguistics; vol 34 |location=Munich |publisher=Lincom Europa |page=265 |isbn=978-3-929075-79-3 |oclc=428012015 |lccn=2009473660 |ol=15295665W}}</ref> Thus, in most cases national and ethnic borders do not coincide with dialectal boundaries.

'''Note''': Due to the differing political status of languages/dialects and different historical contexts, the classifications are arbitrary to some degree.

=== Dialectal classification ===
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2022}}
[[File:South_Slavic_dialect_continuum.svg|thumb|right|350px|South Slavic dialect continuum with major dialect groups]]The South Slavic languages constitute a [[Dialect continuum#South Slavic continuum|dialect continuum]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Friedman |first=Victor |author-link=Victor Friedman |title=Linguistic emblems and emblematic languages: on language as flag in the Balkans |publisher=Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures |year=1999 |series=Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 1 |location=Columbus, Ohio |page=8 |oclc=46734277}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Alexander |first=Ronelle |title=In honor of diversity: the linguistic resources of the Balkans |publisher=Ohio State University, Dept. of Slavic and East European Languages and Literatures |year=2000 |series=Kenneth E. Naylor memorial lecture series in South Slavic linguistics; vol. 2 |location=Columbus, Ohio |page=4 |oclc=47186443}}</ref>
{{tree list}}
*'''South Slavic'''
** '''[[Eastern South Slavic]]'''
*** [[Bulgarian dialects]]
**** [[Eastern Bulgarian dialects]]
**** [[Western Bulgarian dialects]]
*** [[Macedonian dialects]]
**** [[Northern Macedonian dialects]]
**** [[Western Macedonian dialects]]
**** [[Southeastern Macedonian dialects]]
** '''[[South Slavic languages#Transitional South Slavic languages|Transitional South Slavic]]''' ([[Torlakian dialects|Torlakian]])
*** [[Transitional Bulgarian dialects]] in western Bulgaria
*** [[Gora dialect]] in southern Kosovo, western North Macedonia and northeast Albania
*** [[Prizren-Timok dialect]] in southeast Serbia and eastern Kosovo 
*** [[Krashovani|Karashevian]] dialect in western Romania
** {{ill|Western South Slavic{{!}}'''Western South Slavic'''|ru|Западные южнославянские языки|v=sup}}
*** [[Shtokavian dialects]]
**** [[Šumadija–Vojvodina dialect]] (Ekavian, Neo-Shtokavian): Serbia
**** [[Smederevo–Vršac dialect]] (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): east-central Serbia
**** [[Kosovo–Resava dialect]] (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian): north Kosovo, eastern central Serbia
**** [[Zeta-Raška dialect]] (Ijekavian, Old-Shtokavian), in south and east Montenegro and southwest Serbia
**** [[Eastern Herzegovinian dialect]] (Ijekavian, Neo-Shtokavian), Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro
**** [[Eastern Bosnian dialect]] (Ijekavian, Old-Shtokavian), in central and northern Bosnia
**** [[Slavonian dialect]] (mixed yat, Old-Shtokavian), in eastern Croatia
**** [[Younger Ikavian dialect]] (Ikavian) with 3 subdialects — Dalmatian, Danubian ([[Bunjevac dialect|Bunjevac speech]]), and Littoral-Lika: in Dalmatia, central Bosnia, northern Serbia, southern Hungary (incl. Budapest) 
**** [[Prizren-Timok dialect]] (Ekavian, Old-Shtokavian), in southeast Serbia and south Kosovo
*** [[Chakavian dialects]]
**** [[Buzet dialect]]: Croatia
**** [[Northern Chakavian|Northern Chakavian dialect]]: Croatia
**** [[Central Chakavian|Central Chakavian dialect]]
**** [[Southern Chakavian|Southern Chakavian dialect]]: Croatia
**** [[Southeastern Chakavian|Southeastern Chakavian dialect]]
**** [[Southwestern Istrian|Southwestern Istrian dialect]]: Croatia
**** [[Lastovo dialect]]: Croatia
*** [[Kajkavian dialects]], in Croatia
**** [[Zagorje–Međimurje dialect]]
**** [[Križevci–Podravina dialect]]
**** [[Turopolje–Posavina dialect]]
**** [[Prigorje dialect]]
**** [[Lower Sutla dialect]]
**** {{ill|Gora dialect (Kajkavian){{!}}Gora dialect|hr|Goranski dijalekt|v=sup}}
*** [[Slovene dialects]] [[File:Nouvi Zakon (razstava).JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Prekmurje Slovene]] [[Lutheran]] [[New Testament]], the ''[[Nouvi Zákon]]'' (1770s) |alt=Open, illustrated Prekmurje New Testament from the 18th century]] <!-- This needs to be part of the list item to allow for correct formatting -->
**** Littoral [[Slovene dialects|Slovene]] dialect: Primorsko; west Slovenia and Adriatic
**** Rovte Slovene dialect: Rovtarsko; between Littoral and Carniolan
**** Upper and Lower Carniolan dialect: Gorenjsko and Dolenjsko; central; basis of [[Slovene language|Standard Slovene]]
**** Styrian dialect: Štajersko; eastern Slovenia
**** [[Pannonian dialect group|Pannonian]] or [[Prekmurje Slovene|Prekmurje Slovene dialect]]: Panonsko; far eastern Slovenia 
**** Carinthian dialect: Koroško; far north and northwest Slovenia
**** [[Resian dialect]]: Rozajansko; Italy, west of Carinthian
***Other
**** [[Burgenland Croatian]] (mixed), minority in Austria and Hungary
{{tree list/end}}

== Eastern South Slavic languages ==
{{more citations needed|section|date=August 2022}}
{{Main article|Eastern South Slavic}}
[[File:Bulgaro-macedonian-dialect-continuum.png|thumb|300px|right|Areas where Eastern South Slavic dialects are spoken:{{legend|#1E90FF|by a majority of speakers}}
{{legend|#87CEEB|by a minority.}}]]
[[File:Bulgarian dialect map-yus.png|right|300px|thumb|Map of the big [[yus]] (*ǫ) isoglosses in [[Eastern South Slavic languages|Eastern South Slavic]] and the eastern part of the transitional [[Torlakian dialects]] according to the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences' atlas from 2001.<ref>{{cite book |title=Български диалектен атлас (Bulgarian dialect atlas)|last=Кочев (Kochev)|first=Иван (Ivan) |year=2001 |location=София |publisher=Bulgarian Academy of Sciences |language=bg |isbn=954-90344-1-0 |oclc=48368312 }}</ref>
Pronunciation of [[:wikt:man|man]] and [[:wikt:tooth|tooth]], derived from proto-words [[:wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/zǫbъ|zǫbъ]] [[:wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/mǫžь|mǫžь]] on the map:{{ordered list
| {{IPA|bg|mɤʃ|}}, {{IPA|bg|zɤp|}} (see [[:wikt:зъб|зъб]] and [[:wikt:ząb|ząb]])
| {{IPA|bg|maʃ|}}, {{IPA|bg|zap|}} (see [[:wikt:заб|заб]])
| {{IPA|bg|muʃ|}}, {{IPA|bg|zup|}} (see [[:wikt:зуб|зуб]] and [[:wikt:zub|zub]])
| {{IPAc-en|m|ɒ|ʃ}}, {{IPAc-en|z|ɒ|p}}
| {{IPA|bg|mɔʃ|}}, {{IPA|bg|zɔp|}} (see [[:wikt:zob|zob]], [[:wikt:mąż|mąż]])
| {{IPAc-en|m|æ|ʃ}}, {{IPAc-en|z|æ|p}}  (see [[:wikt:mężczyzna|mężczyzna]])
| {{IPA|bg|mɤmʃ|}}, {{IPA|bg|zɤmp|}}
| {{IPA|bg|mamʃ|}}, {{IPA|bg|zamp|}}
| {{IPAc-en|m|ɒ|m|ʃ}}, {{IPAc-en|z|ɒ|m|p}} (see [[:wikt:ząb|ząb]])}}]]

The dialects that form the eastern group of South Slavic, spoken mostly in [[Bulgaria]] and [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and adjacent areas in neighbouring countries (such as the [[Bessarabian Bulgarians]] in [[Ukraine]]), share a number of characteristics that set them apart from other [[Slavic languages]]:<ref name=BWFortson>{{cite book|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=_kn5c5dJmNUC |page=431 }} |title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction Blackwell textbooks in linguistics|first=Benjamin W.|last=Fortson|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-8896-8| page= 431 |date=2009-08-31 |access-date=2015-11-19}}</ref><ref name=nvanwijk>{{cite book |last = van Wijk |first = Nicolaas |author-link=Nicolaas van Wijk | title = Les Langues Slaves |trans-title = The Slavic Languages | language = fr | edition=2nd | year = 1956 | publisher = Mouton & Co - 's-Gravenhage }}</ref>
* the existence of a [[definite article]] (e.g. ''книга'', book – ''книга'''та''''', '''the''' book, ''време'', time – ''време'''то''''', '''the''' time)
* a near-complete lack of [[grammatical case|noun cases]]
* the lack of a [[infinitive|verb infinitive]]
* the formation of comparative forms of adjectives formed with the prefix ''по-'' (e.g. ''добър, по-добър'' (Bulg.)/''добар, подобар'' (Maced.) – good, better) 
* a [[future tense]] formed by the present form of the verb preceded by ''ще/ќе''
* the existence of a [[inferential mood|renarrative mood]] (e.g. ''Той ме видял.'' (Bulg.)/''Тој ме видел.'' (Maced.) – He supposedly saw me. Compare with ''Той ме видя.''/''Тој ме виде.'' – He saw me.)
Bulgarian and Macedonian share some of their unusual characteristics with other languages in the Balkans, notably [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Albanian language|Albanian]] (see [[Balkan sprachbund]]).<ref name=BWFortson/>

=== Bulgarian dialects ===
{{Main|Bulgarian language}}
{{See also|Bulgarian dialects|Banat Bulgarian language}}
*Eastern Bulgarian dialects{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
*Western Bulgarian dialects (includes [[Torlakian dialects]]){{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

=== Macedonian dialects ===
{{Main|Macedonian language}}
{{see also|Dialects of Macedonian}}
* Southeastern Macedonian dialects{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
* Northern Macedonian (including three [[Torlakian dialects]]){{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
* Western Macedonian dialects{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

=== Torlakian dialect in Serbian ===
* Torlakian dialects in southeast Serbia are only spoken and unstandardized, as Serbian literary language only recognizes the [[Shtokavian]] form (as other [[Serbo-Croatian language]]s){{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

== Transitional South Slavic languages ==

=== Torlakian dialects ===
{{Main|Torlakian dialects}}

Torlakian dialects are spoken in southeastern [[Serbia]], northern [[North Macedonia]], western [[Bulgaria]], southeastern [[Kosovo]], and pockets of western [[Romania]]; it is considered transitional between the Western and Eastern groups of South Slavic languages. Torlakian is thought to fit together with Bulgarian and Macedonian into the [[Balkan sprachbund]], an area of linguistic [[Language convergence|convergence]] caused by long-term contact rather than genetic relation. Because of this some researchers tend to classify it as [[Eastern South Slavic|Southeast Slavic]].<ref>Balkan Syntax and Semantics, John Benjamins Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|158811502X}}, The typology of Balkan evidentiality and areal linguistics, Victor Friedman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=VYoWE_tNKNQC p. 123.]</ref>

== Western South Slavic languages==

=== History ===
Each of these primary and secondary dialectal units breaks down into subdialects and accentological isoglosses by region. In the past (and currently, in isolated areas), it was not uncommon for individual villages to have their own words and phrases. However, during the 20th century the local dialects have been influenced by Štokavian standards through mass media and public education and much "local speech" has been lost (primarily in areas with larger populations). With the [[Yugoslavia#Breakup|breakup of Yugoslavia]], a rise in national awareness has caused individuals to modify their speech according to newly established standard-language guidelines. The wars have caused large migrations, changing the ethnic (and dialectal) picture of some areas—especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but also in central Croatia and Serbia (Vojvodina in particular). In some areas, it is unclear whether location or ethnicity is the dominant factor in the dialect of the speaker. Because of this the speech patterns of some communities and regions are in a state of flux, and it is difficult to determine which dialects will die out entirely. Further research over the next few decades will be necessary to determine the changes made in the dialectical distribution of this language group.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

=== Shtokavian dialects ===
{{main|Shtokavian}}

The eastern Herzegovinian dialect is the basis of the Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kordić, Snježana |author-link=Snježana Kordić |title=Glotonim "srbohrvaški jezik" glede na "srbski, hrvaški, bosanski, črnogorski" |trans-title=The glotonym "Serbo-Croatian" vs. "Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin" |journal=Slavistična revija |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=355–364|year=2003 |url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430280.GLOTONIM_SRBOHRVASKI_JEZIK.PDF |language=sl|issn=0350-6894 |ssrn=3433071 |id={{CROSBI|430280}}. {{COBISS|23508578}} |archive-date=8 August 2012  |url-status=live |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/69lPVTUWt?url=http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/430280.GLOTONIM_SRBOHRVASKI_JEZIK.PDF |access-date=19 April 2019}}</ref>

=== Chakavian dialects ===
{{Main|Chakavian}}

Chakavian is spoken in the western, central, and southern parts of Croatia—mainly in [[Istria]], the Kvarner Gulf, [[Dalmatia]] and inland Croatia (Gacka and Pokupje, for example). The Chakavian reflex of proto-Slavic ''[[yat]]'' is ''i'' or sometimes ''e'' (rarely as ''(i)je''), or mixed (''Ekavian–Ikavian''). Many dialects of Chakavian preserved significant number of [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]] words, but also have many loanwords from [[Venetian language|Venetian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and other Mediterranean languages.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Example: ''Ča je, je, tako je vavik bilo, ča će bit, će bit, a nekako će već bit!''

==== Burgenland Croatian ====
{{Main|Burgenland Croatian}}
This dialect is spoken primarily in the federal state of [[Burgenland]] in Austria and nearby areas in Vienna, [[Slovakia]], and Hungary by descendants of Croats who migrated there during the 16th century. This dialect (or family of dialects) differs from standard Croatian, since it has been heavily influenced by German and Hungarian. It has properties of all three major dialectal groups in Croatia, since the migrants did not all come from the same area, but the linguistic standard is based on the Chakavian dialect.

=== {{anchor|Kajkavian dialects}}Kajkavian dialects ===
{{Main|Kajkavian}}

Kajkavian is mostly spoken in northern and northwest Croatia near the Hungarian and Slovene borders—chiefly around the towns of [[Zagreb]], Varaždin, Čakovec, Koprivnica, Petrinja, Delnice and so on. Its reflex of ''[[yat]]'' is primarily {{IPA|/e/}}, rarely diphthongal ''ije''). This differs from that of the Ekavian accent; many Kajkavian dialects distinguish a closed ''e''—nearly ''ae'' (from ''yat'')—and an open ''e'' (from the original ''e''). It lacks several palatals ''(ć, lj, nj, dž)'' found in the Shtokavian dialect, and has some loanwords from the nearby [[Slovene dialects]] and [[German language|German]] (chiefly in towns).{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Example: ''Kak je, tak je; tak je navek bilo, kak bu tak bu, a bu vre nekak kak bu!''

=== Slovene dialects ===
{{Main|Slovene dialects}}
[[Slovene language|Slovene]] is mainly spoken in [[Slovenia]]. Spoken Slovene has numerous dialects, but there is no consensus on how many;<ref>Sussex, Roland & Paul Cubberly. 2006. ''The Slavic Languages.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 502–503.</ref> estimates range from 7 to 50.<ref>[[Rado Lenček|Lencek, Rado L.]] 1982. ''The Structure and History of the Slovene Language.'' Columbus, OH: Slavica.</ref><ref>Logar, Tine & Jakob Rigler. 1986. ''Karta slovenskih narečij.'' Ljubljana: Geodetski zavod SRS.</ref> The lowest estimate refers to the language's seven commonly recognized dialect groups, without subdividing any of them. Some of the seven groups are more heterogeneous than others, and the higher estimates reflect the varying criteria that have been used to differentiate dialects and subdialects. Slovenian dialects can be so different from each other that a speaker of one dialect may have a very difficult time understanding a speaker of another,<ref>Sussex, Roland & Paul V. Cubberley. 2006. ''The Slavic Languages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 502.</ref> particularly if their dialects belong to different groups. Some dialects spoken in southern Slovenia transition into Chakavian or Kajkavian [[Serbo-Croatian]], while the transition from eastern dialects to Kajkavian is general, with cases of essentially the same linguistic variety spoken on both sides of the border (this is particularly true for the upper course of the [[Kupa]] and [[Sutla]] rivers).{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

=== Comparison ===
The table below compares grammatical and phonological innovations. The similarity of Kajkavian and Slovene is apparent.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

<!-- this table was created by User Rua on the Serbo-Croatian talk page on 1 February 2019, and had the support of users TaivoLinguist and GregorB.--><!--That is nice to know, but when are you going to cite [[WP:RS]]? -->
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left"
|+ Western South Slavic isoglosses
!
! Slovene
! Kajkavian
! Chakavian
! Shtokavian
|-
! Acute > neoacute nonfinally
| {{Partial|Most dialects}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! Loss of Proto-Slavic tone
| {{Partial|Some dialects}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{Partial|Neoshtokavian}}
|-
! u- > vu-
| {{Partial|Some dialects}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! ǫ > o
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! -ojo > -o in instrumental singular
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! ć > č
| {{Partial|Most dialects}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! Neocircumflex
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! Loss of vocative
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Partial|Some dialects}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! Final devoicing
| {{Partial|Most dialects}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! đ > j
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! žV > rV
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Partial|Western}}
|-
! Final -m > -n
| {{Partial|Some dialects}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! ľ, ň > l, n
| {{Partial|Most dialects}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{No2|No}}
|-
! jd, jt > đ, ć
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
|-
! ř > r
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
|-
! ə > a
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
|-
! čr > cr
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
|-
! Dat/loc/ins plural -ma/-u (from dual)
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{No2|No}}
| {{Yes2|Yes}}
|}

== Grammar ==

=== Eastern–Western division ===

In broad terms, the Eastern dialects of South Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian) differ most from the Western dialects in the following ways:

* The Eastern dialects have almost completely lost their noun declensions, and have become entirely [[Isolating language|analytic]].<ref>Note that some remnants of cases do still exist in Bulgarian – [[Bulgarian grammar#Case remnants|see here]].</ref>
* The Eastern dialects have developed definite-article suffixes similar to the other languages in the [[Balkan sprachbund]].<ref>In Macedonian, these are especially well-developed, also taking on a role similar to demonstrative pronouns:
*
* Bulgarian : stol – "chair"  → stolat – "the chair"
* Macedonian : stol – "chair"  →  stolot – "the chair"  →  stol''ov'' – "this chair here"  →  stol''on'' – "that chair there". As well as these, Macedonian also has a separate set of demonstratives: ovoj stol – "this chair"; onoj stol – "that chair".</ref>
* The Eastern dialects have lost the [[infinitive]]; thus, the first-person singular (for Bulgarian) or the third-person singular (for Macedonian) are considered the main part of a verb. Sentences which would require an infinitive in other languages are constructed through a clause in Bulgarian, ''искам да ходя (iskam da hodya)'', "I want to go" (literally, "I want that I go").

Apart from these three main areas there are several smaller, significant differences:

* The Western dialects have three genders in both singular and plural (Slovene has [[Dual (grammatical number)#Slovene|dual]]—see [[#Division within Western dialects|below]]), while the Eastern dialects only have them in the singular—for example, Serbian  ''on'' (he), ''ona'' (she), ''ono'' (it), ''oni'' (they, masc), ''one'' (they, fem), ''ona'' (they, neut); the Bulgarian ''te'' (they) and Macedonian тие (''tie'', 'they') covers the entire plural.
* Inheriting a generalization of another demonstrative as a base form for the third-person pronoun which already occurred in late Proto-Slavic, standard literary Bulgarian (like Old Church Slavonic) does not use the Slavic ''"on-/ov-"'' as base forms like ''on, ona, ono, oni'' (he, she, it, they), and ''ovaj, ovde'' (this, here), but uses ''"to-/t-"''based pronouns like ''toy, tya, to, te'', and ''tozi, tuk'' (it only retains ''onzi'' – "that" and its derivatives). Western Bulgarian dialects and Macedonian have "ov-/on-" pronouns, and sometimes use them interchangeably.
* All dialects of Serbo-Croatian contain the concept of "any" – e.g. Serbian ''neko'' "someone"; ''niko'' "no one"; ''iko'' "anyone". All others lack the last, and make do with ''some-'' or ''no-'' constructions instead.<ref>In Bulgarian, more complex constructions such as ''"koyto i da bilo"'' ("whoever it may be" ≈ "anyone") can be used if the distinction is necessary.</ref>

=== {{anchor|Division within Western dialects}}Divisions within Western dialects ===

* While Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian [[Shtokavian]] dialects have basically the same grammar, its usage is very diverse. While all three languages are relatively highly inflected, the further east one goes the more likely it is that [[Isolating language|analytic]] forms are used – if not spoken, at least in the written language.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}} A very basic example is:
** Croatian – ''hoću ići'' – "I want – to go"
** Serbian – ''hoću da idem'' – "I want – that – I go"
* Slovene has retained the proto-Slavic [[Dual (grammatical number)#Slovene|dual]] number (which means that it has ''nine'' personal pronouns in the third person) for both nouns and verbs.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}} For example:
** nouns: ''volk'' (wolf) → ''volkova'' (two wolves) → ''volkovi'' (some wolves)
** verbs: ''hodim'' (I walk) → ''hodiva'' (the two of us walk) → ''hodimo'' (we walk)

=== {{anchor|Division within Eastern dialects}}Divisions within Eastern dialects ===

* In Macedonian, the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]] is largely based on the verb "to have" (as in other Balkan languages like Greek and Albanian, and in English), as opposed to the verb "to be", which is used as the auxiliary in all other Slavic languages (see also [[Macedonian grammar#Verbs|Macedonian verbs]]):{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
** Macedonian – ''imam videno'' – I have seen (''imam'' – "to have")
** Bulgarian – ''vidyal sum'' – I have seen (''sum'' – "to be")
*In Macedonian, there are three types of definite article (base definite form, definite noun near the speaker and definite noun far from the speaker).{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}
**дете (''dete'', 'а child')
**детето (''deteto'', 'the child')
**детево (''detevo'', 'this child [near me]')
**детено (''deteno'', 'that child [over there]')

== Writing systems ==

Languages to the west of Serbia use the [[Latin script]], whereas those to the east and south use [[Cyrillic]]. Serbian officially uses the Cyrillic script, though commonly Latin and Cyrillic are used equally. Most newspapers are written in Cyrillic and most magazines are in Latin; books written by Serbian authors are written in Cyrillic, whereas books translated from foreign authors are usually in Latin, other than languages that already use Cyrillic, most notably Russian. On television, writing as part of a television programme is usually in Cyrillic, but advertisements are usually in Latin. The division is partly based on religion – Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Macedonia (which use Cyrillic) are [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox]] countries, whereas Croatia and Slovenia (which use Latin) are [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]].<ref>This distinction is true for the whole Slavic world: the Orthodox Russia, Ukraine and Belarus also use Cyrillic, as does Rusyn (Eastern Orthodox/Eastern Catholic), whereas the Catholic Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia use Latin, as does [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]]. Romania and Moldova, which are not Slavic but are Orthodox, also used Cyrillic until 1860 and 1989, respectively, and it is still used in Transdnistria.</ref> The [[Bosnian language]], used by the [[Islam|Muslim]] [[Bosniaks]], also uses Latin, but in the past used [[Bosnian Cyrillic]]. The [[Glagolitic alphabet]] was also used in the Middle Ages (most notably in Bulgaria, Macedonia and Croatia), but gradually disappeared.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

== See also ==
* [[Abstand and ausbau languages]]
* [[Comparison of standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian]]
* [[Language secessionism#In Serbo-Croatian|Language secessionism in Serbo-Croatian]]
* [[Mutual intelligibility]]
* [[Outline of Slavic history and culture]]
* [[Pluricentric language#Serbo-Croatian|Pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language]]
* [[Dialect continuum#South Slavic continuum|South Slavic dialect continuum]]
* [[Yat]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Kordić |first=Snježana| author-link=Snježana Kordić |year=2010 |language=sh |title= Jezik i nacionalizam |trans-title=Language and Nationalism |url= http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf |url-status=live |series=Rotulus Universitas |location=Zagreb |publisher=Durieux |page=430 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.3467646 |isbn=978-953-188-311-5 |lccn=2011520778 |oclc=729837512 |ol=15270636W |id={{CROSBI|475567}} |archive-date=1 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601175359/http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/475567.Jezik_i_nacionalizam.pdf |access-date=3 March 2013|ref=refKordiJin2010}}
* {{citation|first=Ranko |last=Matasović |author-link=Ranko Matasović |title=Poredbenopovijesna gramatika hrvatskoga jezika |location=[[Zagreb]] |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |year=2008|isbn=978-953-150-840-7 |language=sh}}
* {{citation|title=The Slavic languages |first1=Roland |last1=Sussex |author1-link=Roland Sussex |first2=Paul |last2=Cubberly |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-511-24204-5}}
*{{cite book|author=Edward Stankiewicz|title=The Slavic Languages: Unity in Diversity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuaAOMSR8wC|year=1986|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-009904-1}}
*{{cite book|author=Mila Dimitrova-Vulchanova|title=Formal Approaches to South Slavic Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TZJiAAAAMAAJ|year=1998|publisher=Linguistics Department, NTNU}}
*{{cite book|author1=Mirjana N. Dedaic|author2=Mirjana Miskovic-Lukovic|title=South Slavic Discourse Particles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-IHKcaNJS0C|year=2010|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=978-90-272-5601-0}}
*{{cite book|author1=Mila Dimitrova-Vulchanova|author2=Lars Hellan|title=Topics in South Slavic Syntax and Semantics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWlCAAAAQBAJ|date=15 March 1999|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|isbn=978-90-272-8386-3}}
*{{cite book|author=Radovan Lučić|title=Lexical norm and national language: lexicography and language policy in South-Slavic languages after 1989|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f58XAQAAIAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Verlag Otto Sagner|isbn=9783876908236}}
*{{cite book|author=Motoki Nomachi|title=The Grammar of Possessivity in South Slavic Languages: Synchronic and Diachronic Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NKs0twAACAAJ|year=2011|publisher=Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University|isbn=978-4-938637-66-8}}
*{{cite book|author1=Steven Franks|author2=Brian D. Joseph|author3=Vrinda Chidambaram|title=A Linguist's Linguist: Studies in South Slavic Linguistics in Honor of E. Wayles Browne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyQLAQAAMAAJ|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Slavica Publishers|isbn=978-0-89357-364-5}}
*{{cite book|author1=A. A. Barentsen|author2=R. Sprenger|author3=M. G. M. Tielemans|title=South Slavic and Balkan Linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYXwkilZZ2IC|year=1982|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=90-6203-634-1}}
*{{cite book|author1=Anita Peti-Stantic|author2=Mateusz-Milan Stanojevic|author3=Goranka Antunovic|title=Language Varieties Between Norms and Attitudes: South Slavic Perspectives : Proceedings from the 2013 CALS Conference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTcgrgEACAAJ|year=2015|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-3-631-66256-4}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation|author=Тохтасьев, С.Р.|year=1998|title=Древнейшие свидетельства славянского языка на Балканах. Основы балканского языкознания. Языки балканского региона|journal=Ч|volume=2}}
*{{citation|author=Golubović, J. and Gooskens, C.|year=2015|title=Mutual intelligibility between West and South Slavic languages|journal=Russian Linguistics|volume=39|issue=3|pages=351–373|doi=10.1007/s11185-015-9150-9|s2cid=67848448|doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book|author=Henrik Birnbaum|title=On the significance of the second South Slavic influence for the evolution of the Russian literary language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HusYAQAAIAAJ|year=1976|publisher=Peter de Rider Press|isbn=978-90-316-0047-2}}
*{{cite book|author=Masha Belyavski-Frank|title=The Balkan conditional in South Slavic: a semantic and syntactic study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGZgAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Sagner|isbn=9783876908519}}
*{{cite book|author=Patrice Marie Rubadeau|title=A descriptive study of clitics in four Slavic languages: Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian, Polish, and Czech|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JcYeAQAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=University of Michigan|isbn=9780591195705}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{commons category|South Slavic languages}}

{{Slavic languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:South Slavic Languages}}
[[Category:South Slavic languages| ]]