View source for Southeast Asia Treaty Organization

{{Short description|Collective defense organization (1955–1977)}}
{{Not to be confused with|South East Asia Cultural Organisation|ASEAN{{!}}Association of Southeast Asian Nations}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Good article}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Southeast Asia Treaty Organization
| image = Flag of SEATO.svg
| image_border = 
| size = <!-- default 200 -->
| alt = SEATO flag
| caption = SEATO's flag
| map = Map of SEATO member countries - en.svg
| mcaption = Map of SEATO members in 1959, shown in blue.
| abbreviation = SEATO
| motto = 
| formation = 8 September 1954
| dissolved = 30 June 1977
| type = [[Intergovernmental organization|Intergovernmental]] [[military alliance]]
| status = <!-- ad hoc, treaty, foundation, etc -->
| purpose = <!-- focus as e.g. humanitarian, peacekeeping, etc -->
| headquarters = [[Bangkok]], Thailand
| location = 
| coords = <!-- Coordinates of location using a coordinates template -->
| region_served = [[Southeast Asia]]
| membership = {{Collapsible list|title=8 states
|{{flag|Australia}}
|{{flag|France|1974}}
|{{flag|New Zealand}}
|{{flag|Pakistan}}
|{{flag|Philippines|1936}}
|{{flag|Thailand}}
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|{{flag|United States}}
}}'''Non-members protected by SEATO'''{{Collapsible list|title=3 states
|{{flagcountry|Cambodia (1953–1970)}} (until 1956, 1968–1970)
:{{flagcountry|Khmer Republic}} (1970–1975)
|{{flagcountry|Kingdom of Laos}} (until 1975)
|{{flag|South Vietnam}} (until 1975)
}}
| languages = {{Collapsible list|title=6 languages
|[[English language|English]]
|[[Urdu language|Urdu]]
|[[Thai language|Thai]]
|[[Filipino language|Filipino]]
|[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|[[French language|French]]
}}
}}

The '''Southeast Asia Treaty Organization''' ('''SEATO''') was an [[international organization]] for [[collective security|collective defense]] in [[Southeast Asia]] created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty signed in September 1954 in [[Manila]], Philippines. The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in [[Bangkok]], Thailand. The organization's headquarters was also in Bangkok. A total of eight members joined the organization in its lifetime.

Primarily created to block further [[Communist state|communist]] gains in Southeast Asia, SEATO is generally considered a failure, as internal conflict and dispute hindered general use of the SEATO military; however, SEATO-funded cultural and educational programs left longstanding effects in Southeast Asia. SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977, after many of its members lost interest and withdrew.

==Origins and structure==
[[File:CongressBuilding SEATO.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|alt=A picture of several SEATO nation leaders in Manila in 1966|The leaders of several SEATO countries in front of the [[Old Legislative Building (Manila)|Congress Building]] in [[Manila]], hosted by Philippine President [[Ferdinand Marcos]] on 24 October 1966]]

The Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty was signed on 8 September 1954 in [[Manila]],{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=1}} as part of the American [[Truman Doctrine]] of creating anti-communist bilateral and collective defense treaties.{{Sfn|Jillson|2009|p=439}} These treaties and agreements were intended to create alliances that would keep communist powers in check ([[China|Communist China]], in SEATO's case).{{Sfn|Ooi|2004|pp=338–339}} This policy was considered to have been largely developed by American diplomat [[George F. Kennan]]. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] (1953–1959) is considered to be the primary force behind the creation of SEATO, which expanded the concept of anti-communist collective defense to Southeast Asia.{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=1}} Vice President [[Richard Nixon]] advocated an Asian equivalent of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ([[NATO]]) upon returning from his Asia trip of late 1953,{{Sfn|Toledano|1969|pp=173–174}} and NATO was the model for the new organization, with the military forces of each member intended to be coordinated to provide for the collective defense of the member states.{{Sfn|Boyer et al.|2007|p=836}}

The organization, headquartered in [[Bangkok]],{{Sfn|Leifer|2005}} was created in 1955 at the first meeting of the Council of Ministers set up by the treaty. This was contrary to Dulles's preference to call the organization "ManPac" (Manila Pact) to avoid public identification of the pact with NATO.{{Sfn|''United States Department of Defense''||p=A-14}} Organizationally, SEATO was headed by the Secretary General, whose office was created in 1957 at a meeting in [[Canberra]],{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=184}}{{Sfn|Page|2003|p=548}} with a council of representatives from member states and an international staff. Also present were committees for economics, security, and information.{{Sfn|Page|2003|p=548}} SEATO's first Secretary General was [[Pote Sarasin]], a Thai diplomat and politician who had served as Thailand's ambassador to the U.S. between 1952 and 1957,{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=186}}{{Sfn|Weiner|2008|p=351}} and as [[Prime Minister of Thailand]] from September 1957 to 1 January 1958.{{Sfn|''Royal Thai Government''|2011}}

Unlike the [[NATO]] alliance, SEATO had no joint commands with standing forces.{{Sfn|Hoiberg|Ramchandani|2000|p=60}} In addition, SEATO's response protocol in the event of communism presenting a "common danger" to the member states was vague and ineffective, though membership in the SEATO alliance did provide a rationale for a [[Joint warfare in South Vietnam, 1963–1969|large-scale U.S. military intervention]] in the region during the [[Vietnam War]] (1955–1975).{{Sfn|Maga|2010}}

==Membership==
[[File:President Marcos and US President Johnson at the SEATO Conference at Malacañang Palace in 1966.jpg|thumb|alt=Picture of the 1966 SEATO conference in Manila|1966 SEATO conference in [[Manila]]]]
[[File:LBJ meets with Ferdinand Marcos in Manila 1966-10-23.JPG|thumb|Philippine President [[Ferdinand Marcos]], First Lady [[Imelda Marcos]], and US President [[Lyndon Johnson]] conversing at the Manila Conference of SEATO members on the Vietnam War in Manila in October 1966]]

Despite its name, SEATO mostly included countries located outside of the region but with an interest either in the region or the organization itself. They were [[Australia]] (which administered [[Territory of Papua and New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]], until 1975), [[France]] (which had recently relinquished [[French Indochina]], by 1955), [[New Zealand]], [[Pakistan]] (which, until 1971, included [[East Pakistan]], now [[Bangladesh]]), the [[Philippines]], [[Thailand]], the [[United Kingdom]] (which administered [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], [[North Borneo]] and [[Crown Colony of Sarawak|Sarawak]]) and the [[United States]].{{Sfn|Hoiberg|Ramchandani|2000|p=60}}

The [[Philippines]] and Thailand were the only [[Southeast Asia]]n countries that actually participated in the organization. They shared close ties with the United States, particularly the Philippines, and they faced incipient communist insurgencies against their own governments.{{Sfn|''Office of the Historian''|}} [[Thailand]] became a member upon the discovery of the newly founded "Thai Autonomous Region" in [[Yunnan]] (the [[Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture]] in [[Southwest China|South West China]]) – apparently feeling threatened by potential [[Maoism|Maoist]] subversion on its land.{{Sfn|US Psychological Strategy Based on Thailand|1953}} Other regional countries like [[Post-independence Burma (1948–1962)|Burma]] and [[Liberal democracy period in Indonesia|Indonesia]] were far more mindful of domestic internal stability rather than any communist threat,{{Sfn|''Office of the Historian''|}} and thus rejected joining it.{{Sfn|''The Sydney Morning Herald''|1954|p=1}} [[Federation of Malaya|Malaya]] (independence in 1957; including [[Singapore]] between 1963 and 1965) also chose not to participate formally, though it was kept updated with key developments due to its close relationship with the United Kingdom.{{Sfn|''Office of the Historian''|}}

The states newly formed from [[French Indochina]] ([[North Vietnam]], [[South Vietnam]], [[Cambodia (1953–1970)|Cambodia]] and [[Kingdom of Laos|Laos]]) were prevented from taking part in any international military alliance as a result of the [[Geneva Agreements]] signed 20 July of the same year concluding the end of the [[First Indochina War]].{{Sfn|''Office of the Historian''|}} However, with the lingering threat coming from communist [[North Vietnam]] and the possibility of the [[domino theory]] with [[Indochina]] turning into a communist frontier, SEATO got these countries under its protection – an act that would be considered to be one of the main justifications for the U.S. involvement in the [[Vietnam War]].{{Sfn|Blaxland|2006|p=138}} Cambodia, however rejected the protection in 1956.{{Sfn|Grenville|Wasserstein|2001|p=366}}

The majority of SEATO members were not located in [[Southeast Asia]]. To Australia and New Zealand, SEATO was seen as a more satisfying organization than [[ANZUS]] – a collective defense organization with the U.S.{{Sfn|Brands|1987}} The United Kingdom and France joined partly due to having long maintained colonies in the region, and partly due to concerns over developments in [[Indochina]]. The U.S., upon perceiving Southeast Asia to be a pivotal frontier for [[Cold War]] geopolitics, saw the establishment of SEATO as essential to its [[Cold War]] [[Containment|containment policy]].{{Sfn|''Office of the Historian''|}}

The membership reflected a mid-1950s combination of anti-communist Western states and such states in Southeast Asia. The United Kingdom, France and the United States, the latter of which joined after the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] ratified the treaty by an 82–1 vote,{{Sfn|Hearden|1990|p=46}} represented the strongest Western powers.{{Sfn|Tarling|1992|p=604}} [[Canada]] also considered joining, but decided against it in order to concentrate on its NATO responsibilities with its limited defense capabilities.{{Sfn|Blaxland|2006|p=138}}

===Budget===
Average of contributions to civil and military budgets between 1958 and 1973:{{Sfn|Journoud|2011}}
* United States: 24%
* United Kingdom: 16%
* France: 13.5%
* Australia: 13.5%
* Pakistan: 8%
* Philippines: 8%
* Thailand: 8%
* New Zealand: 8%

===Secretaries-General===
Secretaries-General of SEATO:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Country !! From !! To
|-
| [[Pote Sarasin]] || {{Country|Thailand}} || 5 September 1957 || 22 September 1958
|-
| [[William Worth (diplomat)|William Worth]] (<small>acting</small>) || {{Country|Australia}} || 22 September 1957 || 10 January 1958
|-
| [[Pote Sarasin]] || {{Country|Thailand}} || 10 January 1958 || 13 December 1963
|-
| [[William Worth (diplomat)|William Worth]] (<small>acting</small>) || {{Country|Australia}}|| 13 December 1963 || 19 February 1964
|-
| {{Interlanguage link multi|Konthi Suphamongkhon|th|กนต์ธีร์ ศุภมงคล|de|Konthi Suphamongkhon|vertical-align=sup}} || {{Country|Thailand}} || 19 February 1964 || 1 July 1965
|-
| [[Jesus M. Vargas]] || {{Country|Philippines|1936}} || 1 July 1965 || 5 September 1972
|-
| {{Interlanguage link multi|Sunthorn Hongladarom|th|สุนทร หงส์ลดารมภ์|de|Sunthorn Hongladarom|vertical-align=sup}} || {{Country|Thailand}} || 5 September 1972 || 30 June 1977
|}

==Military aspects==
[[File:Sabre Mk32s RAAF in Thailand early 1960s.jpg|thumb|Australian No. 79 Squadron Sabres at [[Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base]] in Thailand, deployed as part of Australia's commitment to SEATO|alt=A monoplane aircraft with three men and a fuel tanker truck. One of the men is wearing military uniform and the other two are clad only in shorts. The aircraft is mainly painted grey, but is marked with the Royal Australian Air Force roundel and stripes on its tail. The tail of another aircraft of similar appearance is visible in the background.]]

After its creation, SEATO quickly became insignificant militarily, as most of its member nations contributed very little to the alliance.{{Sfn|Blaxland|2006|p=138}} While SEATO military forces held joint military training, they were never deployed because of internal disagreements. SEATO was unable to intervene in [[Laotian Civil War|conflicts in Laos]] because France and the United Kingdom rejected the use of military action.{{Sfn|Grenville|Wasserstein|2001|p=366}} As a result, the U.S. provided unilateral support for Laos after 1962.{{Sfn|Grenville|Wasserstein|2001|p=366}} Though sought by the U.S., involvement of SEATO in the [[Vietnam War]] was denied because of lack of British and French cooperation.{{Sfn|Grenville|Wasserstein|2001|p=366}}{{Sfn|Hearden|1990|p=46}}

Both the United States and Australia cited the alliance as justification for involvement in Vietnam.{{Sfn|Blaxland|2006|p=138}} U.S. membership in SEATO provided the United States with a rationale for a large-scale U.S. military intervention in Southeast Asia.{{Sfn|Maga|2010}} Other countries, such as the UK and key states in Asia, accepted the rationale.{{Sfn|Maga|2010}} In 1962, as part of its commitment to SEATO, the [[Royal Australian Air Force]] deployed [[CAC Sabre]]s of its [[No. 79 Squadron RAAF|No. 79 Squadron]] to [[Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base]], Thailand. The Sabres began to play a role in the Vietnam War in 1965, when their air defense responsibilities expanded to include protection of [[United States Air Force|USAF]] aircraft using Ubon as a base for strikes against North Vietnam.{{Sfn|Stephens|1995|p=36}}{{Sfn|''Independent Review Panel''|2004}}

==Cultural effects==
[[File:seatostamp.jpg|thumb|right|150px|alt=A picture of a U.S. postage stamp bearing the SEATO emblem|A [[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States|1960 U.S. postage stamp]] for SEATO]]

In addition to joint military training, SEATO member states worked on improving mutual social and economic issues.{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=183}} Such activities were overseen by SEATO's Committee of Information, Culture, Education, and Labor Activities, and proved to be some of SEATO's greatest successes.{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=183}} In 1959, SEATO's first Secretary General, Pote Sarasin, created the [[Asian Institute of Technology|SEATO Graduate School of Engineering]] (currently the [[Asian Institute of Technology]]) in Thailand to train engineers.{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=186}} SEATO also sponsored the creation of the Teacher Development Center in Bangkok, as well as the Thai Military Technical Training School, which offered technical programs for supervisors and workmen.{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=188}} SEATO's Skilled Labor Project (SLP) created artisan training facilities, especially in Thailand, where ninety-one training workshops were established.{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=188}}

SEATO also provided research funding and grants in agriculture and medical fields.{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=189}} In 1959, SEATO set up the Cholera Research Laboratory in Bangkok, later establishing a second Cholera Research Laboratory in [[Dhaka|Dacca]], [[East Pakistan]].{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=189}} The Dacca (now Dhaka) laboratory soon became the world's leading [[cholera]] research facility and was later renamed the [[International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh]].{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|pp=189–190}} SEATO was also interested in literature, and a SEATO Literature Award was created and given to writers from member states.{{Sfn|Boonkhachorn|2011}}

==Criticism and dissolution==
Though Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] considered SEATO an essential element in U.S. foreign policy in Asia, many historians have considered the pact a failure.{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=1}} In ''The Geneva Conference of 1954 on Indochina'', Sir [[James Cable]], a British diplomat and naval strategist,{{Sfn|''Telegraph Media Group''|2001}} cabled the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office|Foreign Office]] and described SEATO as "a fig leaf for the nakedness of American policy", citing the Manila Pact as a "zoo of [[paper tiger]]s".{{Sfn|Franklin|2006|p=1}} As early as the 1950s [[Aneurin Bevan]] unsuccessfully tried to block SEATO in the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]], at one point interrupting a parliamentary debate between Foreign Secretary [[Anthony Eden]] and Leader of the Opposition [[Clement Attlee]] to excoriate them both for considering the idea.{{Sfn|Campbell|2010|p=222}}

Prince [[Norodom Sihanouk]] of Cambodia reported that Foster Dulles went to great efforts to convince him to join SEATO; however, he refused because "I considered SEATO an aggressive military alliance directed against neighbors whose ideology I did not share but with whom Cambodia had no quarrel".{{Sfn|Sihanouk|1973|p=75}} In the early 1970s, the question of dissolving the organization arose. [[Pakistan]] withdrew in 1973, after [[East Pakistan]] [[Bangladesh Liberation War|seceded]] and became [[Bangladesh]] on 16 December 1971.{{Sfn|Page|2003|p=548}} [[South Vietnam]] was defeated in war and annexed by [[North Vietnam]] and France withdrew financial support in 1975,{{Sfn|Hoiberg|Ramchandani|2000|p=60}} and the SEATO council agreed to the phasing-out of the organization.{{Sfn|''The Montreal Gazette''|1975}} After a final exercise on 20 February 1976, the organization was formally dissolved on 30 June 1977 during the [[Presidency of Jimmy Carter|Carter administration]].{{Sfn|Hoiberg|Ramchandani|2000|p=60}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==

* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article18430820 Nehru Has Alternative To SEATO]. (5 August 1954). [[The Sydney Morning Herald]] (NSW: 1842–1954), p. 1. Retrieved 3 October 2012.
* {{cite book |author=Independent Review Panel |url=http://www.defence.gov.au/medals/Content/+060%20Reviews%20and%20Reports/Complete%20Ubon%20Report.pdf |title=Report to the Minister Assisting the Minister for Defence |date=9 July 2004 |ref={{SfnRef|''Independent Review Panel''|2004}} |access-date=1 May 2011}}
* {{cite web |last=Boonkhachorn |first=Trislipa |date=2011 |title=Literary Trends and Literary Promotions in Thailand |url=http://ppat.dbp.gov.my/ppat2001/trislipa.htm |access-date=24 April 2011}}
* {{cite book|title=Strategic Cousins: Australian and Canadian Expeditionary Forces and the British and American Empires |first=John C. |last=Blaxland |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7735-3035-5 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press}}
* {{cite book|ref={{harvid|Boyer et al.|2007}}|title=The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People|edition=6th AP |first1=Paul |last1=Boyer |first2=Clifford Jr. |last2=Clark |first3=Joseph |last3=Kett |first4=Neal |last4=Salisbury |first5=Harvard |last5=Sitkoff |first6=Nancy |last6=Woloch |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-618-80163-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/boyersenduringvi00paul}}
* {{cite journal |last=Brands |first=Henry W. Jr. |date=May 1987 |title=From ANZUS to SEATO: United States Strategic Policy towards Australia and New Zealand, 1952–1954 |journal=The International History Review |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=250–270 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1987.9640442}}
* {{cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |publisher=Vintage |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |oclc=489636152}}
* {{cite book|first=John K.|last=Franklin|title=The Hollow Pact: Pacific Security and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization |year=2006|isbn=978-0-542-91563-5}}
* {{cite book|title=The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts|editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Grenville|editor2-first=Bernard |editor2-last=Wasserstein|isbn=978-0-415-14125-3 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2001}}
* {{cite book|title=Vietnam: Four American Perspectives |editor-first=Patrick J.|editor-last=Hearden|year=1990 |publisher=Purdue University Press|isbn=978-1-55753-003-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/vietnamfourameri0000unse}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hoiberg|first1=Dale|last2=Ramchandani |first2=Indu|year=2000 |title=Students' Britannica India, Volume Five |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica (India) |url=https://archive.org/details/studentsbritanni05hoib/page/n5/mode/2up |isbn=978-0-85229-760-5}}
* {{cite news |date=13 October 2001 |title=Sir James Cable |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1359279/Sir-James-Cable.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1359279/Sir-James-Cable.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |access-date=29 March 2011 |work=www.telegraph.co.uk |publisher=Telegraph Media Group |ref={{SfnRef|''Telegraph Media Group''|2001}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Journoud |first=Pierre |title=De Gaulle et le Vietnam: 1945–1969 |publisher=Éditions Tallandier |year=2011 |isbn=978-2847345698 |location=Paris}}
* {{cite book|last=Jillson|first=Cal|title=American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2009|isbn=978-0-415-99570-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Leifer|first=Michael|title=Michael Leifer: Selected Works on Southeast Asia|editor=Chin Kin Wah, Leo Suryadinata |year=2005|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-981-230-270-0}}
* {{cite book|first=Timothy P.|last=Maga|year= 2010|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-61564-040-9|title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Vietnam War, 2nd Edition}}
* {{cite book|title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, From Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 2|editor-first=Keat Gin|editor-last=Ooi|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2004|isbn=978-1-57607-770-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Osborne|first=Milton E|title=Sihanouk Prince of Light, Prince of Darkness|year=1994|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-1639-1}}
* {{cite book|title=Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia|editor-first=Melvin E.|editor-last=Page|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2003|isbn=978-1-57607-335-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sihanouk |first=Norodom |title=My War with the CIA The Memoirs of Prince Norodom Sihanouk |date=1973 |publisher=Pantheon Books}}
* {{cite book|title=Going Solo: The Royal Australian Air Force, 1946–1971|first=Alan|last=Stephens|publisher=Australian Govt. Pub. Service|year=1995|isbn=978-0-644-42803-3}}
* {{cite book|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: Volume 2|first=Nicholas|last=Tarling|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-521-35506-3}}
* {{cite news |date=25 September 1975 |title=Thai given mandate to dissolve SEATO |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=0lQ0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=YbkFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3661%2C2633318 |access-date=8 July 2012 |newspaper=The Montreal Gazette |ref={{SfnRef|''The Montreal Gazette''|1975}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Toledano |first=Ralph de |title=One Man Alone: Richard Nixon |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |location=New York |lccn=71-97942|year=1969}}
* {{Cite report |url=https://nara-media-001.s3.amazonaws.com/arcmedia/research/pentagon-papers/Pentagon-Papers-Part-IV-A-1.pdf |title=United States – Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967 |date= |publisher=United States Department of Defense |volume=IV. A. 1. |language=en |ref={{SfnRef|''United States Department of Defense''}} |section=NATO and SEATO: A Comparison |section-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_–_Vietnam_Relations,_1945–1967:_A_Study_Prepared_by_the_Department_of_Defense/IV._A._1._U.S._MAP_for_Diem:_The_Eisenhower_Commitments,_1954–1960}}
* {{Cite report |title=US Psychological Strategy Based on Thailand |date=1953 |publisher=United States Psychological Studies Board, Declassified Documents Reference System |language=en |issue=1994}}
* {{cite web |title=History of Thai Prime Ministers |url=http://www.cabinet.thaigov.go.th/eng/pm_his.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426162320/http://www.cabinet.thaigov.go.th/eng/pm_his.htm |archive-date=26 April 2011 |access-date=22 April 2011 |publisher=Royal Thai Government |ref={{SfnRef|''Royal Thai Government''|2011}}}}
* {{cite web |title=Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 1954 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1953-1960/seato |access-date=2019-03-14 |website=Milestones: 1953–1960 |publisher=Office of the Historian. U.S. Department of State |ref={{SfnRef|''Office of the Historian''}}}}
* {{cite book|title=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA|first=Tim|last=Weiner|publisher=Random House Digital|year=2008|isbn=978-0-307-38900-8}}

==Further reading==
* Buszynski, Leszek. ''SEATO: The Failure of an Alliance Strategy''. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1983.
* {{cite book|last=Dreisbach|first=Kai|title=USA und ASEAN. Amerikanische Aussenpolitik und regionale Kooperation in Südostasien vom Vietnamkrieg bis zur Asienkrise|publisher=Wissenschaftlicher Verlag|year=2004|isbn=3-88476-656-2|language=de}}
* Fenton, Damien Marc. "SEATO and the Defence of Southeast Asia 1955-65," doctoral thesis, [[University of New South Wales]] at the [[Australian Defence Force Academy]], 2006. Discusses SEATO military planning.
* {{cite book|last=Haas|first=Michael|title=The ''Asian Way to Peace: A Story of Regional Cooperation'' |publisher=Praeger |year=1989|isbn=0-275-93216-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Dreisbach|first=Kai|title=USA und ASEAN. Amerikanische Aussenpolitik und regionale Kooperation in Südostasien vom Vietnamkrieg bis zur Asienkrise|publisher=Wissenschaftlicher Verlag|year=2004|isbn=3-88476-656-2|language=de}}

==External links==
* [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/usmu003.asp Copy of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty (Manila Pact); 8 September 1954], from [[Yale Law School]]
* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.2569671|name=Big Picture: Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) Nations}}

{{Cold War}}
{{History of Thailand 1932 - 1973}}
{{Australia–New Zealand relations}}
{{Australia–United States relations}}
{{Australia–United Kingdom relations}}
{{France–United States relations}}
{{Pakistan–United States relations}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Thailand–Vietnam military relations]]
[[Category:United Kingdom–United States military relations]]
[[Category:United States–Vietnam military relations]]
[[Category:1977 disestablishments in Asia]]