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{{Short description|Habitable artificial satellite}}
{{About|an outpost in space|radio broadcasts sent from space|space radio station|stations named "Space"|Space (disambiguation)}}
{{Space_station_size_comparison}}
A '''space station''' (or '''orbital station''') is a [[spacecraft]] which remains [[orbital spaceflight|in orbit]] and [[human spaceflight|hosts humans]] for extended periods of time. It is therefore an [[artificial satellite]] featuring [[space habitat (facility)|habitation facilities]]. The purpose of maintaining a space station varies depending on the program. Most often space stations have been [[research station]]s, but they have also served [[militarization of space|military]] or [[commercialization of space|commercial uses]], such as hosting [[space tourism|space tourists]].

Space stations have been hosting the only continuous [[human presence in space|presence of humans in space]]. The first space station was [[Salyut 1]] (1971), hosting the first crew, of the ill-fated [[Soyuz 11]]. Consecutively space stations have been operated since [[Skylab]] (1973) and occupied since 1987 with the [[Salyut program|Salyut]] successor [[Mir]]. Uninterrupted human presence in orbital space through space stations has been sustained since the operational transition from the Mir to the [[International Space Station]] (ISS), with the latter's first occupation in 2000.

Currently there are two fully operational space stations – the ISS and [[Chinese space program|China]]'s [[Tiangong Space Station|''Tiangong'' Space Station]] (TSS), which have been occupied since October 2000 with [[Expedition 1]] and since June 2022 with [[Shenzhou 14]]. The highest number of people at the same time on one space station has been 13, first achieved with the eleven day docking to the ISS of [[STS-127|the 127th]] [[Space Shuttle]] mission in 2009. The present record for most people on all space stations at the same time has been 17, first reached on May 30, 2023, with 11 people on the ISS and 6 on the TSS.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Stephen |title=Chinese astronaut launch breaks record for most people in orbit – Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2023/05/30/chinese-astronaut-launch-breaks-record-for-most-people-in-orbit/ |access-date=1 June 2023}}</ref>

Space stations are often [[Modular building|modular]], featuring [[space docking|docking ports]], through which they are built and maintained, allowing the joining or movement of modules and the docking of other spacecrafts for the exchange of people, supplies and tools. While space stations generally do not leave their orbit, they do feature [[Thruster (disambiguation)#Spacecraft thrusters|thruster]]s for [[Orbital station-keeping|station keeping]].

== History ==
{{See also|List of space stations}}

=== Early concepts ===
The first mention of anything resembling a space station occurred in [[Edward Everett Hale]]'s 1868 "[[The Brick Moon]]".<ref name="Wired">{{cite news |last=Mann |first=Adam |title=Strange Forgotten Space Station Concepts That Never Flew |url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/01/space-station-concepts/ |access-date=January 22, 2018 |newspaper=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=January 25, 2012}}</ref> The first to give serious, scientifically grounded consideration to space stations were [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]] and [[Hermann Oberth]] about two decades apart in the early 20th century.<ref name="boys">{{Cite news|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2YEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA20|title=The First Space Station|page=20|newspaper=[[Boys' Life]]|date=September 1989}}</ref>

[[File:Noordung space station.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|First description of a [[Rotating wheel space station|rotating space station]], in [[Hermann Noordung]]'s ''The Problem of Space Travel'' (1929).<br>(Legend: ''Achs-Körper'': [[axle]] body. ''Aufzugschacht'': [[elevator]] shaft. ''Treppenschacht'': [[stairwell]]. ''Verdampfungsrohr'': boiler pipe).]]
In 1929, [[Herman Potočnik]]'s ''The Problem of Space Travel'' was published, the first to envision a "rotating wheel" space station to create [[artificial gravity]].<ref name="Wired" /> Conceptualized during the [[Second World War]], the "[[sun gun]]" was a theoretical [[orbital weapon]] orbiting Earth at a height of {{convert|8200|km}}. No further research was ever conducted.<ref name="Time">{{cite magazine  | date = July 9, 1945  | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852344-1,00.html  | title = Science: Sun Gun  | magazine = Time  | access-date = September 13, 2011  | archive-date = May 21, 2013  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130521131705/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,852344-1,00.html  | url-status = dead  }}</ref> In 1951, [[Wernher von Braun]] published a concept for a [[rotating wheel space station]] in ''[[Collier's Weekly]]'', referencing Potočnik's idea. However, development of a rotating station was never begun in the 20th century.<ref name="boys" />

=== First advances and precursors ===
{{Further|Space rendezvous#First docking}}
The first human flew to space and concluded the first orbit on April 12, 1961, with [[Vostok 1]].

The [[Apollo program]] had in [[Apollo spacecraft feasibility study|its early planning]] instead of a [[lunar landing]] a crewed [[lunar orbit]]al flight and an orbital laboratory station in orbit of Earth, at times called ''[[Project Olympus]]'', as two different possible program goals, until the [[Kennedy administration]] sped ahead and made the Apollo program focus on what was originally planned to come after it, the lunar landing. The Project Olympus space station, or orbiting laboratory of the Apollo program, was proposed as an in-space unfolded structure with the [[Apollo command and service module]] docking.<ref name="Nast 2013 t554">{{cite magazine | title=Project Olympus (1962) | magazine=WIRED | date=2013-09-02 | url=https://www.wired.com/2013/09/project-olympus-1962/ | access-date=2023-10-12}}</ref> While never realized, the Apollo command and service module would perform [[Docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking maneuvers]] and eventually become a lunar orbiting module which was used for station-like purposes.

But before that the [[Gemini program]] paved the way and achieved the first [[space rendezvous]] (undocked) with [[Gemini 6]] and [[Gemini 7]] in 1965. Subsequently in 1966 [[Neil Armstrong]] performed on [[Gemini 8]] the first ever space docking, while in 1967 [[Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188]] were the first spacecrafts that docked automatically.

[[File:Gemini8Docking.gif|thumb|Gemini 8 docking with Agena vehicle]]

In January 1969, [[Soyuz 4]] and [[Soyuz 5]] performed the first docked, but not internal, crew transfer, and in March, [[Apollo 9]] performed the first ever internal transfer of astronauts between two docked spaceships.

=== Salyut, Almaz and Skylab ===
{{main|Salyut|Almaz|Skylab}}
[[File:Skylab 3 flyaround.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Skylab]] (1973–1974), the first U.S. space station and second overall]]
In 1971, the [[Soviet Union]] developed and launched the world's first space station, [[Salyut 1]].<ref name="Salyut">{{Cite book|title=Salyut – The First Space Station: Triumph and Tragedy |first=Grujica S. |last=Ivanovich |year=2008 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |isbn=978-0-387-73973-1 |oclc=304494949}}</ref> The [[Almaz]] and [[Salyut Program|Salyut series]] were eventually joined by [[Skylab]], ''[[Mir]]'', and [[Tiangong-1]] and [[Tiangong-2]]. The hardware developed during the initial Soviet efforts remains in use, with evolved variants comprising a considerable part of the ISS, orbiting today. Each crew member stays aboard the station for weeks or months but rarely more than a year.

Early stations were monolithic designs that were constructed and launched in one piece, generally containing all their supplies and experimental equipment. A crew would then be launched to join the station and perform research. After the supplies had been consumed, the station was abandoned.<ref name="Salyut"/>

The first space station was [[Salyut 1]], which was launched by the [[Soviet Union]] on April 19, 1971. The early Soviet stations were all designated "Salyut", but among these, there were two distinct types: civilian and military. The military stations, [[Salyut 2]], [[Salyut 3]], and [[Salyut 5]], were also known as [[Almaz]] stations.<ref name="Outposts">{{Cite book |title=Outposts on the Frontier: A Fifty-Year History of Space Stations |first=Jay |last=Chladek |year=2017 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |isbn=978-0-8032-2292-2 |others=Clayton C. Anderson |oclc=990337324}}</ref>

The civilian stations [[Salyut 6]] and [[Salyut 7]] were built with two docking ports, which allowed a second crew to visit, bringing a new spacecraft with them; the [[Soyuz 7K-T|Soyuz ferry]] could spend 90 days in space, at which point it needed to be replaced by a fresh Soyuz spacecraft.<ref name="MHH">{{cite web |author=Portree |first=D. S. F. |year=1995 |title=Mir Hardware Heritage |url=http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/RP1357.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090907191412/http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/RP1357.pdf |archive-date=7 September 2009 |access-date=30 November 2010 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> This allowed for a crew to man the station continually. The American [[Skylab]] (1973–1979) was also equipped with two docking ports, like second-generation stations, but the extra port was never used. The presence of a second port on the new stations allowed [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] supply vehicles to be docked to the station, meaning that fresh supplies could be brought to aid long-duration missions. This concept was expanded on Salyut 7, which "hard docked" with a [[TKS spacecraft|TKS tug]] shortly before it was abandoned; this served as a proof of concept for the use of modular space stations. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seen as a transition between the two groups.<ref name="Outposts"/>

=== ''Mir'' ===
{{main|Mir}}
[[File:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|left|thumb|''[[Mir]]'' station seen in 1998]]
Unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station ''[[Mir]]'' had a [[modular design]]; a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added. This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful [[launch vehicle]]. Modular stations are also designed from the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support craft, which allows for a longer lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.<ref>{{cite book |title=The History of Mir 1986–2000 |year=2000 |publisher=[[British Interplanetary Society]] |isbn=978-0-9506597-4-9 |editor=Hall, R. |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse}}</ref>

===International Space Station===
{{main|International Space Station}}
[[File:The station pictured from the SpaceX Crew Dragon 5 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|View of the [[International Space Station]] in 2021]]
The ISS is divided into two main sections, the [[Russian Orbital Segment]] (ROS) and the [[US Orbital Segment]] (USOS). The first module of the ISS, [[Zarya (ISS module)|Zarya]], was launched in 1998.<ref name="CASIS">{{Cite web|title=History and Timeline of the ISS|website=[[Center for the Advancement of Science in Space]]|url=https://www.iss-casis.org/about/iss-timeline/|access-date=8 February 2018|archive-date=25 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225195017/https://www.iss-casis.org/about/iss-timeline/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Russian Orbital Segment's "second-generation" modules were able to launch on [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]], fly to the correct orbit, and dock themselves without human intervention.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usu.edu/mae/aerospace/publications/JDSC_RoadToAutonomy.pdf |title=Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering |publisher=Usu.edu |access-date=2012-08-13 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Connections are automatically made for power, data, gases, and propellants. The Russian autonomous approach allows the assembly of space stations prior to the launch of crew.

The Russian "second-generation" modules are able to be reconfigured to suit changing needs. As of 2009, [[RKK Energia]] was considering the removal and reuse of some modules of the ROS on the [[Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex]] after the end of mission is reached for the ISS.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8064060.stm |title=Russia 'to save its ISS modules' |work=BBC News |date=22 May 2009 |access-date=23 May 2009 |first=Anatoly |last=Zak}}</ref> However, in September 2017, the head of Roscosmos said that the technical feasibility of separating the station to form OPSEK had been studied, and there were now no plans to separate the Russian segment from the ISS.<ref>{{cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |url=http://spacenews.com/international-partners-in-no-rush-regarding-future-of-iss/ |title=International partners in no rush regarding future of ISS |website=[[SpaceNews]] |date=25 September 2017 |access-date=26 October 2017 }}</ref>

In contrast, the main US modules launched on the [[Space Shuttle]] and were attached to the ISS by crews during [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVAs]]. Connections for electrical power, data, propulsion, and cooling fluids are also made at this time, resulting in an integrated block of modules that is not designed for disassembly and must be deorbited as one mass.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/9794/chapter/8|isbn=978-0-309-06938-0|publisher=National Academies Press|year=2000|pages=28–30|first=Thomas|last=Kelly|title=Engineering Challenges to the Long-Term Operation of the International Space Station|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

[[Axiom Station]] is a planned commercial space station that will begin as a single module docked to the ISS. [[Axiom Space]] gained NASA approval for the venture in January 2020. The first module, the Payload Power Transfer Module (PPTM), is expected to be launched to the ISS no earlier than 2027.<ref name="sn-20241218">{{cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |url=https://spacenews.com/axiom-space-revises-space-station-assembly-plans/ |title=Axiom Space revises space station assembly plans |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=18 December 2024 |access-date=18 December 2024}}</ref> PPTM will remain at the ISS until the launch of Axiom's Habitat One (Hab-1) module about one year later, after which it will detach from the ISS to join with Hab-1.<ref name="sn-20241218" />

===''Tiangong'' program===
{{main|Tiangong space station|Tiangong program}}
[[File:Chinese Tiangong Space Station.jpg|thumb|alt=Rendering of the completed Tiangong Space Station in November 2022|Rendering of the completed Tiangong Space Station in November 2022|left]]

China's first space laboratory, [[Tiangong-1]] was launched in September 2011.<ref name="NASAspaceflight">{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui |date=29 September 2011 |title=China launches TianGong-1 to mark next human space flight milestone |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/09/china-major-human-space-flight-milestone-tiangong-1s-launch/ |publisher=NASASpaceflight.com}}</ref> The uncrewed [[Shenzhou 8]] then successfully performed an automatic rendezvous and docking in November 2011. The crewed [[Shenzhou 9]] then docked with Tiangong-1 in June 2012, followed by the crewed [[Shenzhou 10]] in 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Astronauts of Shenzhou-10 enter Tiangong-1 orbiter |url=https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6479023/content.html |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=www.cnsa.gov.cn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-06-13 |title=神舟十號與天宮一號實現自動交會對接 |url=https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/china/2013/06/130613_china_space |access-date=2025-11-13 |website=BBC News 中文 |language=zh-Hant}}</ref>

According to the [[China Manned Space Engineering Office]], Tiangong-1 [[#Re-entry|reentered]] over the South [[Pacific Ocean]], northwest of [[Tahiti]], on 2 April 2018 at 00:15 UTC.<ref name="BBC-20180401">{{cite news |author=Staff |date=1 April 2018 |title=Tiangong-1: Defunct China space lab comes down over South Pacific |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-43614408 |access-date=1 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20180401">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=1 April 2018 |title=China's Tiangong-1 Space Station Has Fallen Back to Earth Over the Pacific |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/01/science/chinese-space-station-crash-tiangong.html |access-date=1 April 2018}}</ref>

A second space laboratory [[Tiangong-2]] was launched in September 2016, while a plan for [[Tiangong-3]] was merged with Tiangong-2.<ref name="tiangong">{{Cite news |last=Dickinson |first=David |date=10 November 2017 |title=China's Tiangong 1 Space Station to Burn Up |url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/chinas-tiangong-1-set-to-reenter-in-the-coming-months/ |access-date=8 February 2018 |website=[[Sky & Telescope]]}}</ref> The station made a controlled reentry on 19 July 2019 and burned up over the South Pacific Ocean.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Liptak |first=Andrew |date=20 July 2019 |title=China has deorbited its experimental space station |newspaper=[[The Verge]] |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/7/20/20701831/china-tiangong-2-deorbited-experimental-space-station |access-date=21 July 2019}}</ref>

The [[Tiangong Space Station|''Tiangong'' Space Station]] ({{lang-zh|s=天宫|p=Tiāngōng|l=Heavenly Palace}}), the first module of which was launched on 29 April 2021,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-56924370|title = China launches first module of new space station|work = BBC News|date = 29 April 2021}}</ref> is in low Earth orbit, 340 to 450 kilometres above the Earth at an orbital inclination of 42° to 43°. The core module was extended in 2022 with two laboratory modules, bringing the total station capacity to six crew members. The station was completed on 5 November 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=7 January 2021 |title=China plans to launch core module of space station this year |url=https://www.space.com/china-space-station-core-module-launch-spring-2021 |access-date=2021-05-04 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|title=China to begin construction of space station this year – Spaceflight Now|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2021/01/10/china-to-begin-construction-of-space-station-this-year/|access-date=2021-05-04|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Dobrijevic |first1=Daisy |last2=Jones |first2=Andrew |date=2021-08-24 |title=China's space station, Tiangong: A complete guide |url=https://www.space.com/tiangong-space-station |access-date=2025-03-28 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Planned projects ===
{{excerpt|List of space stations|Planned and proposed}}

==Architecture==
Two types of space stations have been flown: monolithic and modular. Monolithic stations consist of a single vehicle and are launched by one rocket. Modular stations consist of two or more separate vehicles that are launched independently and docked on orbit. Modular stations are currently preferred due to lower costs and greater flexibility.<ref>{{Cite news |last=As |first=Ganesh |date=2020-03-13 |title=Mir, the first modular space station |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/children/mir-the-first-modular-space-station/article31057476.ece |access-date=2022-08-27 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Matt |last2=Today |first2=Universe |title=Looking back at the Mir space station |url=https://phys.org/news/2015-06-mir-space-station.html |access-date=2022-08-27 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref>

A space station is a complex vehicle that must incorporate many interrelated subsystems, including structure, electrical power, thermal control, [[Attitude dynamics and control|attitude determination and control]]<!-- attitude (=orientation), not altitude (=height)-->, orbital navigation and propulsion, automation and robotics, computing and communications, environmental and life support, crew facilities, and crew and cargo transportation. Stations must serve a useful role, which drives the capabilities required.{{citation_needed|date=June 2019}}

=== Orbit and purpose ===

===Materials===
{{Main|Manufacturing of the International Space Station}}
{{See also|Bigelow Expandable Activity Module}}
Space stations are made from durable materials that have to weather [[space radiation]], internal pressure, [[micrometeoroids]], thermal effects of the sun and cold temperatures for long periods of time. They are typically made from [[stainless steel]], [[titanium]] and high-quality [[aluminum alloys]], with layers of insulation such as [[Kevlar]] as a ballistics shield protection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State space corporation ROSCOSMOS &#124; |url=http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/ |access-date=2020-06-26 |archive-date=2021-06-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627235737/http://en.roscosmos.ru/202/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The International Space Station (ISS) has a single inflatable module, the [[Bigelow Expandable Activity Module]], which was installed in April{{nbsp}}2016 after being delivered to the ISS on the [[SpaceX CRS-8]] resupply mission.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |date=2016-05-11 |title=CRS-8 Dragon completes ISS mission, splashes down in Pacific |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2016/05/crs-8-dragon-iss-mission-splashdown-pacific/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=2016-04-16 |title=BEAM installed on ISS following CRS-8 Dragon handover |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2016/04/beam-iss-installation-dragon-handover/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref> This module, based on NASA research in the 1990s, weighs {{convert|1400|kg|lb}} and was transported while compressed before being attached to the ISS by the space station arm and inflated to provide a {{convert|16|m3|cuyd}} volume. Whilst it was initially designed for a 2{{nbsp}}year lifetime it was still attached and being used for storage in August 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Davis |first=Jason |date=2016-04-05 |title=All about BEAM, the space station's new inflatable module |url=https://www.planetary.org/articles/20160405-beam-preview |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=www.planetary.org |publisher=[[The Planetary Society]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2022-01-21 |title=Bigelow Aerospace transfers BEAM space station module to NASA |url=https://spacenews.com/bigelow-aerospace-transfers-beam-space-station-module-to-nasa/ |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US }}</ref>

=== Construction ===
* [[Salyut 1#Construction and operational history|Salyut 1]] – first space station, launched in 1971
* [[Skylab#Completion and launch|Skylab]] – launched in a single launch in May 1973
* [[Mir]] – first modular space station assembled in orbit
* [[Assembly of the International Space Station|International Space Station]] – modular space station assembled in orbit
* [[Tiangong space station#Construction|Tiangong space station]] – Chinese space station

===Habitability===
{{main|Effect of spaceflight on the human body}}
The space station environment presents a variety of challenges to human habitability, including short-term problems such as the limited supplies of air, water, and food and the need to manage [[waste heat]], and long-term ones such as [[weightlessness]] and relatively high levels of [[ionizing radiation]]. These conditions can create long-term health problems for space-station inhabitants, including [[muscle atrophy]], [[Spaceflight osteopenia|bone deterioration]], [[Space adaptation syndrome|balance disorders]], [[Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure|eyesight disorders]], and elevated risk of [[cancer]].<ref name="NYT-20140127">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=27 January 2014 |title=Beings Not Made for Space |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/28/science/bodies-not-made-for-space.html |access-date=27 January 2014}}</ref>

Future [[space habitat]]s may attempt to address these issues, and could be designed for occupation beyond the weeks or months that current missions typically last. Possible solutions include the creation of [[artificial gravity]] by a [[Rotating wheel space station|rotating structure]], the inclusion of [[radiation shielding]], and the development of on-site agricultural ecosystems. Some designs might even accommodate large numbers of people, becoming essentially "cities in space" where people would reside semi-permanently.<ref>{{Cite web |year=1975 |title=Space Settlements: A Design Study |url=https://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/s.s.doc.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100531200344/http://settlement.arc.nasa.gov/75SummerStudy/s.s.doc.html |archive-date=31 May 2010 |access-date=10 February 2018 |publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref>

Molds that develop aboard space stations can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. Despite an expanding array of molecular approaches for detecting microorganisms, rapid and robust means of assessing the differential viability of the microbial cells, as a function of phylogenetic lineage, remain elusive.<ref>{{cite web |first=Trudy E. |last=Bell |year=2007 |title=Preventing "Sick" Spaceships |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2007/11may_locad3/ |access-date=2017-07-12 |archive-date=2017-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514233537/https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2007/11may_locad3 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Power ===
{{Main|Solar panels on spacecraft}}
{{See also|Electrical system of the International Space Station|Roll Out Solar Array}}
Like uncrewed spacecraft close to the Sun, space stations in the inner [[Solar System]] generally rely on [[solar panels]] to obtain power.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Basics of Space Flight Section II. Space Flight Projects |url=https://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf11-3.php |access-date=2022-08-23 |website=www2.jpl.nasa.gov}}</ref>

=== Life support ===
{{Main|Environmental Control and Life Support System|Vika oxygen generator}}
Space station air and water is brought up in spacecraft from Earth before being recycled. Supplemental [[oxygen]] can be supplied by a [[Chemical oxygen generator|solid fuel oxygen generator]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brown |first=Michael J. I. |title=Curious Kids: Where does the oxygen come from in the International Space Station, and why don't they run out of air? |url=http://theconversation.com/curious-kids-where-does-the-oxygen-come-from-in-the-international-space-station-and-why-dont-they-run-out-of-air-82910 |access-date=2022-08-27 |website=The Conversation |date=5 December 2017 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Communications ===
{{Main|Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System|Lira (ISS)|Amateur Radio on the International Space Station}}
{{See also|Interplanetary Internet|InterPlaNet|Optical Payload for Lasercomm Science}}

=== Military ===
The last military-use space station was the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Salyut 5]], which was launched under the [[Almaz]] program and orbited between 1976 and 1977.<ref>[[wikisource:NASA FACTS/Russian Space Stations|Russian Space Stations (wikisource)]].</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-06-23 |title=Are there military space stations out there? |url=https://science.howstuffworks.com/military-space-station.htm |access-date=2022-08-27 |website=HowStuffWorks |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hitchens |first=Theresa |date=2019-07-02 |title=Pentagon Eyes Military Space Station |url=https://breakingdefense.com/2019/07/pentagon-eyes-military-space-station/ |access-date=2022-08-27 |website=Breaking Defense |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Occupation ==
Space stations have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station, [[Salyut 1]] (1971), and its tragic [[Soyuz 11]] crew, space stations have been operated consecutively since [[Skylab]] (1973–1974), having allowed a progression of long-duration direct human presence in space. Long-duration resident crews have been joined by visiting crews since 1977 ([[Salyut 6]]), and stations have been occupied by consecutive crews since 1987 with the [[Salyut program|Salyut]] successor [[Mir]]. Uninterrupted occupation of stations has been achieved since the operational transition from the Mir to the [[ISS]], with its first occupation in 2000. The ISS has hosted the highest number of people in orbit at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking of [[STS-127]] in 2009.<ref name="Canadian Space Agency 2008">{{cite web | title=Mission STS-127 | website=Canadian Space Agency | date=Aug 13, 2008 | url=https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/missions/sts-127.asp | access-date=Oct 20, 2021}}</ref>

The [[List of spaceflight records#Most time in space|duration record for a single spaceflight]] is 437.75 days, set by [[Valeri Polyakov]] aboard ''Mir'' from 1994 to 1995.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Madrigal |first=Alexis |title=March 22, 1995: Longest Human Space Adventure Ends |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/03/0322cosmonaut-space-record/ |access-date=2022-08-27 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref> {{As of|2021}}, four cosmonauts have completed single missions of over a year, all aboard ''Mir''.

== Operations ==

=== Resupply and crew vehicles ===
{{Main|List of crewed spacecraft|Comparison of space station cargo vehicles}}
{{See also|Commercial Resupply Services}}
Many spacecraft are used to dock with the space stations. Soyuz flight [[Soyuz T-15|T-15]] in March to July 1986 was the first and as of 2016, only spacecraft to visit two different space stations, [[Mir]] and [[Salyut 7]].<ref name=T15 />

====International Space Station====
{{main|List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station|Uncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station}}
The [[International Space Station]] has been supported by many different spacecraft.
* Future
** [[Sierra Nevada Corporation]] [[Dream Chaser#CRS-2 cargo version|Dream Chaser]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=NASA Adds Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser To ISS Supply Vehicles |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/01/14/nasa-adds-sierra-nevadas-dream-chaser-to-iss-supply-vehicles/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=TechCrunch |date=15 January 2016 |language=en-US }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-29 |title=First Dream Chaser vehicle takes shape |url=https://spacenews.com/first-dream-chaser-vehicle-takes-shape/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref>
** [[Roscosmos]] [[Orel (spacecraft)|Orel]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russia's position in space race above India but below US and China |url=https://realnoevremya.com/articles/4793-russias-position-in-space-race-above-india-but-below-us-and-china |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=realnoevremya.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-16 |title=Orel, the russian capsule that will replace the Soyuz |url=https://www.enkey.it/en/2020/07/16/orel-the-russian-capsule-that-will-replace-the-soyuz/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=Enkey Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Current
** [[Northrop Grumman]] [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]] (2013–present)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-09-18 |title=Orbital's Antares launches Cygnus on debut mission to ISS |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/09/orbitals-antares-loft-cygnus-debut-mission-iss/ |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-10-08 |title=Cygnus sets date for next ISS mission – Castor XL ready for debut |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/10/cygnus-next-iss-mission-castor-xl-debut/ |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
** [[HTV-X|New Space-Station Resupply Vehicle (HTV-X)]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |title=Last in current line of Japan's HTV cargo ships departs space station – Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/08/18/htv-9-iss-departure/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Noumi |first1=Ai |last2=Ujiie |first2=Ryo |last3=Ueda |first3=Satoshi |last4=Someya |first4=Kazunori |last5=Ishihama |first5=Naoki |last6=Kondoh |first6=Yoshinori |date=2018-01-08 |title=Verification of HTV-X resilient design by simulation environment with model-based technology |url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.2018-1926 |journal=2018 AIAA Modeling and Simulation Technologies Conference |series=AIAA SciTech Forum |language=en |location=Kissimmee, Florida |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |doi=10.2514/6.2018-1926 |isbn=978-1-62410-528-9|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
** [[Roscosmos]] [[Progress (spacecraft)|Progress (multiple variants)]] (2000–present)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Progress cargo ship |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/progress.html |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=www.russianspaceweb.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Progress MS – Spacecraft & Satellites |url=https://spaceflight101.com/spacecraft/progress-ms/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-06-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601233911/https://spaceflight101.com/spacecraft/progress-ms/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
** [[Energia (corporation)|Energia]] [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz (multiple variants)]] (2001–present)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spaceflight mission report: Soyuz TM-32 |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/soyuz-tm32.htm |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=www.spacefacts.de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=2016-10-30 |title=Soyuz MS-01 trio return to Earth |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2016/10/soyuz-ms-01-trio-trip-earth/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
** [[SpaceX Dragon 2#Cargo Dragon|SpaceX Dragon 2]] (2020–present)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-06 |title=SpaceX's debut Cargo Dragon 2 docks to Station |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/spacex-next-gen-cargo-dragon-crs21/ |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |date=2021-01-11 |title=CRS-21 Dragon completes mission with splashdown off Tampa |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/01/dragon-departs-iss-with-science/ |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
* Retired
** [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV)]] (2008–2015)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Jenniskens |first1=Peter |last2=published |first2=Jason Hatton |date=2008-09-25 |title=The Spectacular Breakup of ATV: One Final Experiment |url=https://www.space.com/5885-spectacular-breakup-atv-final-experiment.html |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-07-30 |title=Ariane 5 Launches Final ATV Mission to Station |url=https://spacenews.com/41433ariane-5-launches-final-atv-mission-to-station/ |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref>
** [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV)]] (2009–2020)<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Malik |first=Tariq |date=2009-09-10 |title=Japan Launches Space Cargo Ship on Maiden Flight |url=https://www.space.com/7216-japan-launches-space-cargo-ship-maiden-flight.html |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=William |date=2020-05-25 |title=HTV-9 arrives at ISS on final mission |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/05/h-iib-last-htv-mission-iss/ |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
** [[Space Shuttle]] (1998–2011)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-05-22 |title=Space History Photo: Madeleine Albright & Daniel Goldin at STS-88 Launch |url=https://www.space.com/15695-madeleine-albright-daniel-goldin-sts-88-launch.html |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author1=Howell |first=Elizabeth |date=2021-07-09 |title=The last voyage of NASA's space shuttle: Looking back at Atlantis' final mission 10 years later |url=https://www.space.com/space-shuttle-final-mission-atlantis-10-years |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref>
** [[SpaceX Dragon 1]] (2012–2020)<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Moskowitz |first=Clara |author1-link=Clara Moskowitz |date=2012-05-22 |title=SpaceX Launches Private Capsule on Historic Trip to Space Station |url=https://www.space.com/15805-spacex-private-capsule-launches-space-station.html |access-date=2022-08-24 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |title=With successful splashdown, SpaceX retires first version of Dragon spacecraft – Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/04/07/spacex-retires-first-version-of-dragon-spacecraft/ |access-date=2022-08-24 |language=en-US}}</ref>

====Tiangong space station====
{{Main|Tiangong space station}}
The [[Tiangong space station]] is supported by the following spacecraft:
* [[Shenzhou (spacecraft)|Shenzhou]] (2021–present)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-06-17 |title=China space station: Shenzhou-12 delivers first crew to Tianhe module |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57504052 |access-date=2022-08-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Davenport |first=Justin |date=2021-06-16 |title=Shenzhou-12 and three crew members successfully launch to new Chinese space station |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/06/shenzhou-12-new-chinese-station/ |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Tianzhou (spacecraft)|Tianzhou]] (2021–present)<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Wall |first=Mike |date=2021-05-29 |title=China launches new cargo ship to Tianhe space station module |url=https://www.space.com/china-tianzhou-2-cargo-mission-launch |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=Space.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Graham |first=William |date=2021-05-29 |title=China launches Tianzhou 2, first cargo mission to new space station |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/05/tianzhou-2-launch/ |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

====Tiangong program====
{{Main|Tiangong program}}
The [[Tiangong program]] relied on the following spacecraft.
* [[Shenzhou program]] (2011–2016)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-11-17 |title=China's unmanned Shenzhou 8 capsule returns to Earth |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-15776662 |access-date=2022-08-26}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-17 |title=China launches Shenzhou-11 crewed spacecraft |url=https://spacenews.com/china-launches-shenzhou-11-crewed-spacecraft/ |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref>

====Mir====
{{main|List of human spaceflights to Mir|List of uncrewed spaceflights to Mir}}
The [[Mir]] space station was in orbit from 1986 to 2001 and was supported and visited by the following spacecraft:

* [[Roscosmos]] [[Progress (spacecraft)|Progress (multiple variants)]] (1986–2000)<ref>{{Cite web |title=NASA – NSSDCA – Spacecraft – Details |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1986-023A |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=NASA – NSSDCA – Spacecraft – Details |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2000-064A |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov}}</ref> – An additional Progress spacecraft was used in 2001 to deorbit Mir.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spaceflight Now {{!}} Mir {{!}} Space tug poised for launch to Russia's Mir station |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/mir/010116progroll/ |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=spaceflightnow.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Spaceflight Now {{!}} Mir {{!}} Deorbiting space tug arrives at Russia's Mir station |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/mir/010127dock/ |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=spaceflightnow.com}}</ref>
* [[Energia (corporation)|Energia]] [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz (multiple variants)]] (1986–2000)<ref name="T15">{{Cite web |last1=Zak |first1=Anatoly |title=The Strange Trip of Soyuz T-15 |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/moving-day-orbit-strange-trip-soyuz-t-15-180959014/ |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref name=nmech >{{Cite web |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |date=2016-02-19 |title=Why Mir Mattered More Than You Think |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/a19517/mir-space-station-30th-anniversary/ |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=Popular Mechanics |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Space Shuttle]] (1995–1998)<ref>{{Cite web |title=When Atlantis Met MIR 25 Years Since STS-71 |url=https://www.ccssc.org/sts71/ |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=Coca-Cola Space Science Center |date=16 June 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=STS-91 Space Radiation Environment Measurement Program -TOP- |url=https://iss.jaxa.jp/shuttle/flight/sts91/index_e.html |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=iss.jaxa.jp}}</ref>

====Skylab====
{{Main|Skylab}}
* [[Apollo command and service module]] (1973–1974)<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Compton |first1=W. D. |last2=Benson |first2=C. D. |date=January 1983 |title=SP-4208 LIVING AND WORKING IN SPACE: A HISTORY OF SKYLAB – Chapter 15 |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/ch15.htm |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=history.nasa.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Compton |first1=W. D. |last2=Benson |first2=C. D. |date=January 1983 |title=SP-4208 LIVING AND WORKING IN SPACE: A HISTORY OF SKYLAB – Chapter 17 |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/ch17.htm |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=history.nasa.gov}}</ref>

====Salyut programme====
{{main|Salyut programme}}
* [[Energia (corporation)|Energia]] [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz (multiple variants)]] (1971–1986)<ref name=nmech /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The USSR launches first space station crew |url=https://www.russianspaceweb.com/soyuz10.html |access-date=2022-08-26 |website=www.russianspaceweb.com}}</ref>

=== Docking and berthing===
{{Main|Docking and berthing of spacecraft}}
{{See also|International Docking System Standard|Chinese Docking Mechanism}}

=== Maintenance ===

=== Research ===
{{Main|Scientific research on the International Space Station}}
Research conducted on the Mir included the first long term space based ESA research project EUROMIR{{nbsp}}95 which lasted 179{{nbsp}}days and included 35 scientific experiments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reiter |first=T. |author-link=Thomas Reiter |title=Space Station Utilisation, Proceedings of the Symposium held 30 September – 2 October, 1996 in Darmstadt, Germany |date=December 1996 |publisher=European Space Agency Publications Division |others=European Space Agency |isbn=92-9092-223-0 |editor-last=Guyenne |editor-first=T. D. |volume=385 |location=Noordwijk, The Netherlands |pages=19–27 |chapter=Utilisation of the MIR Space Station |bibcode=1996ESASP.385.....G |oclc=38174384 |access-date=2022-08-28 |chapter-url=https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996ESASP.385...19R}}</ref>

During the first 20 years of operation of the International Space Station, there were around 3,000 scientific experiments in the areas of biology and biotech, technology development, educational activities, human research, physical science, and Earth and space science.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Witze |first=Alexandra |date=2020-11-03 |title=Astronauts have conducted nearly 3,000 science experiments aboard the ISS |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-03085-8 |journal=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-020-03085-8|pmid=33149317 |s2cid=226258372 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Guzman |first=Ana |date=2020-10-26 |title=20 Breakthroughs from 20 Years of Science aboard the ISS |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/iss-20-years-20-breakthroughs |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=NASA}}</ref>

==== Materials research ====
Space stations provide a useful platform to test the performance, stability, and survivability of materials in space. This research follows on from previous experiments such as the [[Long Duration Exposure Facility]], a free flying experimental platform which flew from April{{nbsp}}1984 until January{{nbsp}}1990.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kinard |first1=W. |last2=O'Neal |first2=R. |last3=Wilson |first3=B. |last4=Jones |first4=J. |last5=Levine |first5=A. |last6=Calloway |first6=R. |date=October 1994 |title=Overview of the space environmental effects observed on the retrieved long duration exposure facility (LDEF) |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0273117794904448 |journal=Advances in Space Research |language=en |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=7–16 |doi=10.1016/0273-1177(94)90444-8|pmid=11540010 |bibcode=1994AdSpR..14j...7K |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zolensky |first=Michael |date=May 2021 |title=The Long Duration Exposure Facility—A forgotten bridge between Apollo and Stardust |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/maps.13656 |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |language=en |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=900–910 |doi=10.1111/maps.13656 |bibcode=2021M&PS...56..900Z |s2cid=235890776 |issn=1086-9379|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* [[Mir Environmental Effects Payload]] (1996–1997)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Harvey |first1=Gale A |last2=Humes |first2=Donald H |last3=Kinard |first3=William H |date=March 2000 |title=Shuttle and MIR Special Environmental Effects and Hardware Cleanliness |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1088/0954-0083/12/1/306 |journal=High Performance Polymers |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=65–82 |doi=10.1088/0954-0083/12/1/306 |s2cid=137731119 |issn=0954-0083|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="nicogossian-roy-1998">{{Cite conference |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=A. |last1=Nicogossian |first1=Arnauld E. |last2=Roy |first2=Stephanie |date=November 1998 |title=Transitioning from Spacelab to the International Space Station |url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1999ESASP.433..653N |conference=2nd European Symposium on Utilisation of the International Space Station |location=Noordwijk, Netherlands |publisher=[[ESA]] Publications Division, ESTEC |publication-date=1999 |volume=433 |pages=653–658 |bibcode=1999ESASP.433..653N |isbn=92-9092-732-1 |oclc=41941169 |id=ESA SP-433 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614141320/https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1999ESASP.433..653N |archive-date=14 June 2023 |access-date=28 August 2022 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Materials International Space Station Experiment]] (2001–present)<ref name="degroh-2009">{{Cite conference |last1=de Groh |first1=Kim K. |last2=Banks |first2=Bruce A. |last3=Dever |first3=Joyce A. |last4=Jaworske |first4=Donald A. |last5=Miller |first5=Sharon K. R. |last6=Sechkar |first6=Edward A. |last7=Panko |first7=Scott R. |date=March 2008 |title=International Space Station Experiments (Misse 1–7) |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20090005995/downloads/20090005995.pdf |conference=International Symposium on SM/MPAC and SEED Experiments |location=Tsukuba, Japan |publisher=[[NASA]] |publication-date=August 2009 |id=TM-2008-215482 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612203601/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20090005995/downloads/20090005995.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2024 |hdl-access=free |url-status=live |hdl=2060/20090005995 |s2cid=54880762 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Center |first=NASA's Marshall Space Flight |title=Marshall contributes to key Space Station experiment |url=https://www.theredstonerocket.com/tech_today/article_3268170a-1636-11ec-80cf-b3599068766d.html |access-date=2022-08-28 |website=The Redstone Rocket |date=15 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Human research ====
{{Main|Effect of spaceflight on the human body|Bioastronautics}}
{{See also|ISS year-long mission}}

==== Botany  ====
{{Main|Astrobotany}}

=== Space tourism ===
{{Main|Space tourism#Orbital space tourism|l1=Orbital space tourism}}
On the [[International Space Station]], guests sometimes pay $50 million to spend the week living as an [[astronaut]]. Later, [[space tourism]] is slated to expand once launch costs are lowered sufficiently. By the end of the 2020s, [[space hotel]]s may become relatively common.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

== Finance ==

As it currently costs on average $10,000 to $25,000 per kilogram to launch anything into orbit, space stations remain the exclusive province of government space agencies, which are primarily funded by [[taxation]]. In the case of the [[International Space Station]], [[space tourism]] makes up a small portion of money to run it.

== Legacy ==

=== Technology spinoffs ===
{{See also|NASA spinoff technologies}}

=== International cooperation and economy ===

=== Cultural impact ===
{{excerpt|Space stations and habitats in fiction}}

=== Space settlement ===
{{Main|Space settlement}}
{{See also|Moonbase|Mars habitat}}

== See also ==
* [[Apollo–Soyuz]]
* [[Spacelab]]
* [[Shuttle–Mir program]]
* [[List of space stations]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}

* {{Cite book|title=Outposts on the Frontier: A Fifty-Year History of Space Stations|first=Jay|last=Chladek|year=2017|publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]]|isbn=978-0-8032-2292-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V60oDwAAQBAJ}}
* Haeuplik-Meusburger: ''Architecture for Astronauts – An Activity based Approach''. Springer Praxis Books, 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-7091-0666-2}}.
* {{cite book|title=Salyut: the first space station: triumph and tragedy|url=https://archive.org/details/salyutfirstspace00ivan_020|url-access=limited|first=Grujica S.|last=Ivanovich|publisher=Praxis|date=July 7, 2008|isbn=978-0-387-73585-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/salyutfirstspace00ivan_020/page/n444 426]}}
* {{Cite book|last=Neri Vela |first=Rodolfo |title=Manned space stations" Their construction, operation and potential application |year=1990 |publisher=European Space Agency SP-1137 |location=Paris |isbn=978-92-9092-124-0 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://digital.library.unt.edu/explore/collections/CRSR/browse/?q=%22space+station%22&t=fulltext&sort= Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Space Stations]
* [https://iss.tass.com/?_ga=2.120421256.1836958623.1578914712-1128464502.1578914712 ISS] – on [[TASS|Russian News Agency TASS]], Official [[Infographic]] {{in lang|en}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxQVu6Nd_3Q The star named ISS] – on Roscosmos TV {{in lang|ru}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=OSEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA120#v=twopage&q&f=true "Giant Doughnut Purposed as Space Station"], ''[[Popular Science]]'', October 1951, pp.&nbsp;120–121; article on the subject of space exploration and a space station orbiting earth

==Further reading==

* {{Cite book |last=Baker |first=David |title=International Space Station : 1998-2011 (all stages) : an insight into the history, development, collaboration, production and role of the permanently manned earth-orbiting complex |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-85733-839-6 |publisher=[[Haynes Manual]] |location=Sparkford, Yeovil, Somerset |oclc=945783975 }}

{{Space stations}}
{{Solar System}}
{{Space tourism}}
{{Space exploration lists and timelines}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Space stations| ]]
[[Category:1971 introductions]]
[[Category:Human habitats]]
[[Category:Soviet inventions]]
[[Category:Solar System]]