View source for Spirituality

{{Short description|Philosophical and theological term}}
{{Distinguish|Spiritualism (beliefs)}}
{{Spirituality sidebar}}

The meaning of '''''spirituality''''' has developed and expanded over time, and various meanings can be found alongside each other.{{sfn|McCarroll|O'Connor|Meakes|2005|p=44}}{{sfn|Koenig|King|Carson|2012|p=36}}{{sfn|Cobb|Puchalski|Rumbold|2012|p=213}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape of man",{{refn|group=note|name=Waaijman|Waaijman{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=460}}{{sfn|Waaijman|2002|p={{page needed|date=January 2022}}}} uses the word "omvorming", "to change the form". Different translations are possible: transformation, re-formation, [[Alchemy|trans-mutation]].}} oriented at "[[the image of God]]"{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=460}}{{sfn|Waaijman|2002|p={{page needed|date=January 2022}}}} as exemplified by the [[List of founders of religious traditions|founders]] and [[sacred texts]] of the [[religion]]s of the world. The term was used within [[early Christianity]] to refer to a life oriented toward [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|the Holy Spirit]]{{sfn|Wong|Vinsky|2009}} and broadened during the [[Late Middle Ages]] to include [[mind|mental]] aspects of life.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-29/november-2016/looking-back-medieval-mind | title=The medieval mind | website=The Psychologist | access-date=2019-12-11 | archive-date=2021-10-23 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023144850/https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-29/november-2016/looking-back-medieval-mind }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Safaria |first1=Triantoro |last2=Bashori |first2=Khoiruddin |date=2022-10-27 |title=Relationship between Spirituality and Emotional Maturity with Cultural Intelligence in Preventing Culture Shock |url=https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/psy/article/view/15628 |journal=Psympathic: Jurnal Ilmiah Psikologi |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=45–54 |doi=10.15575/psy.v9i1.15628 |issn=2502-2903 |doi-access=free |access-date=2023-01-06 |archive-date=2023-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230106092359/https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/psy/article/view/15628 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In modern times, the term has spread to other religious traditions.{{sfn|Gorsuch|Miller|1999}} It broadened to refer to a wider range of experiences, including a range of [[Western esotericism|esoteric]] and religious traditions. Modern usages tend to refer to a subjective experience of a [[Sacredness|sacred]] [[dimension]],{{sfn|Saucier|Skrzypinska|2006|p=1259}} and the "deepest values and meanings by which people live",{{sfn|Sheldrake|2007|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Griffin|1988}} often in a context separate from [[Organized religion|organized religious institutions]].{{sfn|Wong|Vinsky|2009}} This may involve belief in a [[supernatural]] realm beyond the ordinarily observable world,{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2014}} [[personal growth]],{{sfn|Houtman|Aupers|2007}} a quest for an ultimate or sacred [[Meaning of life|meaning]],{{sfn|Snyder|Lopez|2007|p=261}} [[religious experience]],{{sfn|Sharf|2000}}  or an encounter with one's own "inner dimension" or [[Spirit (metaphysics)|spirit]].{{sfn|Waaijman|2002|p=315}}

==Etymology==
The term spirit means "animating or vital principle in man and animals".<ref group=web name="OED-Spirit" /> It is derived from the Old French {{Lang|fro|espirit}}, which comes from the Latin word {{Lang|la|spiritus}} ([[soul]], ghost, courage, vigor, breath) and is related to ''spirare'' (to breathe). In the [[Vulgate]], the Latin word {{Lang|la|spiritus}} is used to translate the Greek ''[[pneuma]]'' and Hebrew ''[[ruach]]''.<ref group=web name="OED-Spirit">{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=spirit&allowed_in_frame=0 |title=Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spirit'' |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=2014-01-04 |archive-date=2013-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021141653/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=spirit&allowed_in_frame=0 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The term "spiritual", meaning "concerning the spirit", is derived from Old French {{Lang|fro|spirituel}} (12c.), which is derived from Latin {{Lang|la|spiritualis}}, which comes by {{Lang|la|spiritus}} or "spirit".<ref group=web name="OED-Spiritual">{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=spiritual&allowed_in_frame=0 |title=Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spiritual'' |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=2014-01-04 |archive-date=2013-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131028175954/http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=spiritual&allowed_in_frame=0 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The term "spirituality" is derived from Middle French ''{{Lang|frm|spiritualité}}'', from Late Latin {{Lang|la|spiritualitatem}} (nominative {{Lang|la|spiritualitas}}), which is also derived from Latin ''{{Lang|la|spiritualis}}''.<ref group=web name="OED-Spirituality">{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=spirituality&searchmode=none |title=Online Etymology Dictionary, ''Spirituality'' |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=2014-01-04 |archive-date=2014-01-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102192347/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=spirituality&searchmode=none |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Definition==
There is no single, widely agreed-upon definition of spirituality.{{sfn|Koenig|King|Carson|2012|p=36}}{{sfn|Cobb|Puchalski|Rumbold|2012|p=213}}{{refn|group=note|name="definition"|See:<br />* Koenig et al.: "There is no widely agreed on definition of spirituality today".{{sfn|Koenig|King|Carson|2012|p=36}}<br />* Cobb et al.: "The spiritual dimension is deeply subjective and there is no authoritative definition of spirituality".{{sfn|Cobb|Puchalski|Rumbold|2012|p=213}}}} Surveys of the definition of the term, as used in scholarly research, show a broad range of definitions with limited overlap.{{sfn|McCarroll|O'Connor|Meakes|2005|p=44}} A survey of reviews by McCarroll, each dealing with the topic of spirituality, gave twenty-seven explicit definitions among which "there was little agreement".{{sfn|McCarroll|O'Connor|Meakes|2005|p=44}} This causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically; i.e., it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion.

According to Kees Waaijman, the traditional meaning of spirituality is a process of re-formation that "aims to recover the original shape of man, the image of God. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the original shape: in [[Judaism]] the [[Torah]], in [[Christianity]] there is [[Christ]], for [[Buddhism]], [[Buddha]], and in [[Islam]], [[Muhammad]]."{{refn|group=note|name=Waaijman}} Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions, and Eastern religions.{{Sfn|Houtman|Aupers|2007}}

In modern times the emphasis is on subjective experience{{sfn|Saucier|Skrzypinska|2006|p=1259}}  and the "deepest values and meanings by which people live",{{sfn|Sheldrake|2007|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Griffin|1988}} incorporating [[Personal development|personal growth]] or transformation, usually in a context separate from organized religious institutions.{{sfn|Wong|Vinsky|2009}} Spirituality can be defined generally as an individual's search for ultimate or sacred [[meaning of life|meaning, and purpose]] in life.{{sfn|Snyder|Lopez|2007|p=261}} Additionally it can mean to seek out or search for personal growth, [[religious experience]], belief in a supernatural realm or afterlife, or to make sense of one's own "inner dimension".{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2014}}{{sfn|Houtman|Aupers|2007}}{{sfn|Sharf|2000}}{{sfn|Waaijman|2002|p=315}}

==Development of the meaning of spirituality==

===Classical, medieval, and early modern periods===
Bergomi detects "an enlightened form of non-religious spirituality" in [[late antiquity]].<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Bergomi
| first1 = Mariapaola
| chapter = Non-religious Spirituality in the Greek Age of Anxiety
| editor1-last = Salazar
| editor1-first = Heather
| editor2-last = Nicholls
| editor2-first = Roderick
| title = The Philosophy of Spirituality: Analytic, Continental and Multicultural Approaches to a New Field of Philosophy
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LqSODwAAQBAJ
| series = Philosophy and Religion
| location = Leiden
| publisher = Brill
| date = 2018
| page = 143
| isbn = 978-90-04-37631-1
| access-date = 2019-04-29
| quote = My aim is to show that [...] an enlightened form of non-religious spirituality did exist.
}}
</ref>

In ancient Rome, the concept of spirituality consisted mainly of the [[pax deorum]] (the peace of the gods); this was achieved through rituals and festivals that ensured divine favour and cosmic order.<ref>Gradel, I. (2002). Emperor Worship and Roman Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> While Roman spirituality was communal, it also involved personal engagement with the divine through the study of [[mythology]] and [[philosophy]]. Myths served as allegories for moral lessons and models for personal conduct, guiding individuals in their relationship with the gods.<ref>Barton, T. (1997). Power and Knowledge: Astrology, Physiognomics, and Medicine under the Roman Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</ref> The influence of [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagorean]] philosophy, especially the [[Golden Verses]], encouraged introspection, self-discipline, and ethical living. This blend of myth, philosophy, and ritual shaped a spirituality focused on both societal harmony and personal connection with the divine.<ref>Hingley, R. (2005). Roman Religion and the Religious World of the Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

Words translatable as "spirituality" first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the [[Middle Ages]].<ref>Jones, L.G., "A thirst for god or consumer spirituality? Cultivating disciplined practices of being engaged by god," in L. Gregory Jones and James J. Buckley eds., Spirituality and Social Embodiment, Oxford: Blackwell, 1997, 3–28 [4, n. 4].</ref>{{request quotation|date=April 2019}} In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God.{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|pp=359–360}} The New Testament offers the concept of being driven by the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]], as opposed to living a [[personal life|life]] in which one rejects this influence.{{sfn|Wong|Vinsky|2009}}

In the 11th century, this meaning of "Spirituality" changed. Instead, the word began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, "the ecclesiastical sphere of light against the dark world of matter".{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=360}}{{refn|group= note|In Dutch: "de hemelse lichtsfeer tegenover de duistere wereld van de materie".{{Sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=360}}}} In the 13th century "spirituality" acquired a social and psychological meaning. Socially it denoted the territory of the clergy: "the ecclesiastical against the temporary possessions, the ecclesiastical against the secular authority, the clerical class against the secular class".{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|pp=360–361}}{{refn|group=note|In Dutch: "de kerkelijke tegenover de tijdelijke goederen, het kerkelijk tegenover het wereldlijk gezag, de geestelijke stand tegenover de lekenstand".{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|pp=360–361}}}} Psychologically, it denoted the realm of the inner life: "the purity of motives, affections, intentions, inner dispositions, the psychology of the spiritual life, the analysis of the feelings".{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=361}}{{refn|group=note|In Dutch: "Zuiverheid van motieven, affecties, wilsintenties, innerlijke disposities, de psychologie van het geestelijk leven, de analyse van de gevoelens".{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=361}}}}

In the 17th and 18th centuries, a distinction was made{{by whom|date=April 2019}} between higher and lower forms of spirituality:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Differences Between 17th Century And Early 18th Century {{!}} ipl.org |url=https://www.ipl.org/essay/Differences-Between-17th-Century-And-Early-18th-FKHRQLQBUXFV |access-date=2022-11-05 |website=www.ipl.org |archive-date=2022-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105134503/https://www.ipl.org/essay/Differences-Between-17th-Century-And-Early-18th-FKHRQLQBUXFV |url-status=live }}</ref> "A spiritual man is one who is Christian 'more abundantly and deeper than others'."{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=361}}{{refn|group=note|In Dutch: "Een spiritueel mens is iemand die 'overvloediger en dieper dan de anderen' christen is".{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=361}}}} The word was also associated with [[mysticism]] and [[Quietism (Christian philosophy)|quietism]], and acquired a negative meaning.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pryce |first1=Elaine |title="Negative to a marked degree" or "an intense and glowing faith"? Rufus Jones and quaker quietism |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/common-knowledge/article-abstract/16/3/518/6682/NEGATIVE-TO-A-MARKED-Degree-OR-AN-INTENSE-AND |journal=Common Knowledge |date=August 2010 |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=518–531 |doi=10.1215/0961754X-2010-009 |s2cid=144442025 |access-date=19 November 2022 |archive-date=20 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120054822/https://read.dukeupress.edu/common-knowledge/article-abstract/16/3/518/6682/NEGATIVE-TO-A-MARKED-Degree-OR-AN-INTENSE-AND |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Modern spirituality===
{{See also|Western esotericism#18th, 19th and early 20th centuries|l1=History of Western esotericism|New Age|l2=New Age}}

Modern notions of spirituality developed throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, mixing Christian ideas with [[Western esotericism|Western esoteric]] traditions and elements of Asian, especially Indian, religions. Spirituality became increasingly disconnected from traditional religious organizations and institutions. It is sometimes associated today with philosophical, social, or political movements such as [[liberalism]], [[feminist theology]], and [[green politics]].{{sfn|Snyder|Lopez|2007|pp=261–261}}

====Modern Roman religion====

{{See also|Roman Way to the Gods}}

In modern Roman neopagan spirituality, initiation is a central element that facilitates deeper spiritual development and access to sacred knowledge.<ref>Barbera, Giuseppe, Pietas: An Introduction to Roman Traditionalism, Mythology Corner, 2 June 2021, ISBN 978-0981759616.</ref> It is viewed as a transformative process, guiding the initiate through stages of spiritual growth. Initiation introduces the individual to the esoteric meanings of Roman myths, deities, and the concept of [[pax deorum]] (peace of the gods),<ref>Viotti, E.,La Via Romana agli Dèi: la storia, i miti, le fondamenta e i riti della religione romana oggi, Armenia, Milano, 2022, ISBN 9788834440438.</ref> aligning the individual with cosmic order. This process not only prepares the initiate for participation in rituals but also emphasizes personal alignment with the divine will. As such, initiation is both a rite of passage and a means to engage meaningfully with divine forces, ensuring the individual's spiritual preparedness to uphold the traditions of Roman religious practice.<ref>Barbera, Giuseppe, *Esoteric Aspects of Roman Tradition*, Elio Ermete Publisher, 29 April 2017. Language: Italian, Paperback, 128 pages, ISBN 8826425434, ISBN 978-8826425436.</ref>

====Transcendentalism and Unitarian Universalism====
[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] (1803–1882) was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field.<ref>Schmidt, Leigh Eric. ''Restless Souls: The Making of American Spirituality''. San Francisco: Harper, 2005. {{ISBN|0-06-054566-6}}</ref> He was one of the major figures in [[Transcendentalism]], an early 19th-century [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Protestant]] movement, which was rooted in English and German [[Romanticism]], the Biblical criticism of [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] and [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]], the [[skepticism]] of [[David Hume|Hume]],<ref group=web name="Stanford-Transcendentlism">{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendentalism/ |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Transcendentalism'' |publisher=Plato.stanford.edu |access-date=2014-01-04 |archive-date=2010-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100711124255/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendentalism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Neoplatonism]].{{sfn|Remes|2014|p=202}}{{sfn|Versluis|2014|p=35}}
The Transcendentalists emphasized an intuitive, experiential approach to religion.<ref group=web name="Lewis">{{cite web|author=Jone Johnson Lewis |url=http://www.transcendentalists.com/what.htm |title=What is Transcendentalism? |publisher=Transcendentalists.com |access-date=2014-01-04|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627121243/http://www.transcendentalists.com/what.htm|archive-date=2014-06-27}}</ref> Following Schleiermacher,{{sfn|Sharf|1995}} an individual's intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth.<ref group=web name="Lewis" /> In the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking.<ref group=web name="Lewis" /> They also endorsed [[Universalism|universalist]] and [[Unitarianism|Unitarianist]] ideas, leading to [[Unitarian Universalism]], the idea that there must be truth in other religions as well since a loving God would redeem all living beings, not just Christians.<ref group=web name=" Lewis" /><ref group=web name="Andrews">{{cite web |url=http://archive.uua.org/re/other/andrews.html |title=Barry Andrews, ''The Roots Of Unitarian Universalist Spirituality In New England Transcendentalism '' |publisher=Archive.uua.org |date=1999-03-12 |access-date=2014-01-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054734/http://archive.uua.org/re/other/andrews.html |archive-date=2013-09-21 }}</ref>

====Theosophy, anthroposophy, and the perennial philosophy====
{{See also|Western esotericism}}

A major influence on modern spirituality was the [[Theosophical Society]], which searched for 'secret teachings' in Asian religions.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} It has been influential on modernist streams in several Asian religions, notably [[Neo-Vedanta]], the revival of [[Theravada Buddhism]], and [[Buddhist modernism]], which have taken over modern western notions of [[Religious experience|personal experience]] and [[universalism]] and integrated them in their religious concepts.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} A second, related influence was [[Anthroposophy]], whose founder, [[Rudolf Steiner]], was particularly interested in developing a genuine Western spirituality, and in the ways that such a spirituality could transform practical institutions such as [[Waldorf education|education]], [[biodynamic agriculture|agriculture]], and [[anthroposophical medicine|medicine]].<ref>{{cite book|last=McDermott|first=Robert|title=The Essential Steiner|year=2007|publisher=Lindisfarne|isbn=978-1-58420-051-2}}</ref><ref>''William James and Rudolf Steiner'', Robert A. McDermott, 1991, in ReVision, vol. 13 no. 4
[http://www.ciis.edu/Documents/Academic%20Departments/PCC/McDermott_William%20James%20and%20Rudolf%20Steiner.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923203445/http://www.ciis.edu/Documents/Academic%20Departments/PCC/McDermott_William%20James%20and%20Rudolf%20Steiner.pdf|date=2015-09-23}}</ref> More independently, the [[spiritual science]] of [[Martinus Thomsen|Martinus]] was an influence, especially in Scandinavia.<ref>Ole Therkelsen: Martinus, Darwin and Intelligent design. A new Theory of Evolution, p. 7</ref>

The influence of Asian traditions on Western modern spirituality was also furthered by the [[perennial philosophy]], whose main proponent [[Aldous Huxley]] was deeply influenced by [[Swami Vivekananda|Swami Vivekananda's]] [[Neo-Vedanta]] and universalism,{{sfn|Roy|2003}} and the spread of social welfare, education and mass travel after [[World War II]].

====Neo-Vedanta====
{{main|Neo-Vedanta}}

An important influence on western spirituality was [[Neo-Vedanta]], also called ''neo-Hinduism''{{sfn|King|2002|p=93}} and ''Hindu Universalism'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Video: Gurus, Women, and Yoga: The Spiritual World of Hindu Universalism |url=https://cswr.hds.harvard.edu/news/2019/09/23/gurus-women-yoga |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=cswr.hds.harvard.edu |date=23 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref> a modern interpretation of [[Hinduism]] which developed in response to western [[colonialism]] and [[orientalism]]. It aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of Hinduism"{{sfn|Yelle|2012|p=338}} with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine.{{sfn|King|2002|p=135}} Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} Unitarianism, and the idea of Universalism, was brought to India by missionaries, and had a major influence on neo-Hinduism via [[Ram Mohan Roy]]'s [[Brahmo Samaj]] and [[Brahmoism]]. Roy attempted to modernise and reform Hinduism from the idea of Universalism.{{sfn|King|2002}} This universalism was further popularised, and brought back to the West as neo-Vedanta, by [[Swami Vivekananda]].{{sfn|King|2002}}

====Carl Jung====
[[Carl Jung]] placed a strong emphasis on the occult and spirituality. In his 1928 work "The Spiritual Problem of Modern Man," Jung wrote, "[T]he various forms of religion no longer appear to come from within, from the psyche; they seem more like items from the inventory of the outside world." Jung believed that something was missing in modern man, a sense of the mystical or the spiritual.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Schneider | first1=Stanley | last2=Berke | first2=Joseph H. | title=The Oceanic Feeling, Mysticism and Kabbalah: Freud's Historical Roots | journal=The Psychoanalytic Review | date=2008 | volume=95 | issue=1 | pages=131–156 | doi=10.1521/prev.2008.95.1.131 | pmid=18315469 | url=https://doi.org/10.1521/prev.2008.95.1.131 }}</ref>

===="Spiritual but not religious"====
{{main|Spiritual but not religious}}
After the Second World War, spirituality and theistic religion became increasingly disconnected,{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=361}} and spirituality became more oriented on subjective experience, instead of "attempts to place the self within a broader ontological context".{{sfn|Saucier|Skrzypinska|2006|p=1259}} A new discourse developed, in which (humanistic) psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions and eastern religions are being blended, to reach the [[True self and false self|true self]] by [[self-disclosure]], free expression, and meditation.{{sfn|Houtman|Aupers|2007}}

The distinction between the spiritual and the religious became more common in the popular mind during the late 20th century with the rise of [[secularism]] and the advent of the [[New Age]] movement.  Authors such as Chris Griscom and [[Shirley MacLaine]] explored it in numerous ways in their books. [[Paul Heelas]] noted the development within New Age circles of what he called "seminar spirituality":<ref>Paul Heelas, ''The New Age Movement: The Celebration of the Self and the Sacralization of Modernity''. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996, p. 60. Cited in [[Anthony Giddens]]: ''Sociology''. Cambridge: Polity, 2001, p. 554.</ref> structured offerings complementing [[consumerism|consumer]] choice with spiritual options.

Among other factors, declining membership of organized religions and the growth of secularism in the [[Western culture|western world]] have given rise to this broader view of spirituality.<ref>Michael Hogan (2010). ''The Culture of Our Thinking in Relation to Spirituality''. Nova Science Publishers: New York.</ref> The term "spiritual" is now frequently used in contexts in which the term "religious" was formerly employed.{{sfn|Gorsuch|Miller|1999}} Both theists and atheists have criticized this development.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hollywood|first1=Amy|title=Spiritual but Not Religious: The Vital Interplay between Submission and Freedom|journal=Harvard Divinity Bulletin|date=Winter–Spring 2010|volume=38|issue=1 and 2|url=https://bulletin.hds.harvard.edu/spiritual-but-not-religious/|access-date=17 March 2021|publisher=Harvard Divinity School|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416001604/https://bulletin.hds.harvard.edu/spiritual-but-not-religious/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=David |first=Rabbi |url=https://ideas.time.com/2013/03/21/viewpoint-the-problem-with-being-spiritual-but-not-religious/ |title=Viewpoint: The Limitations of Being 'Spiritual but Not Religious' |publisher=TIME Ideas |access-date=2014-01-04 |date=2013-03-21 |archive-date=2013-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131210050546/http://ideas.time.com/2013/03/21/viewpoint-the-problem-with-being-spiritual-but-not-religious/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Traditional spirituality==

===Abrahamic faiths===

====Judaism====
Spirituality in [[Judaism]] ({{langx|he|רוחניות|ruhniyut}})<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lam|first=Label|url=https://torah.org/torah-portion/dvartorah-5783-shlach/|title=The Utmost Importance: Parshas Shlach|date=2023-06-16|website=Torah.org|access-date=2024-09-24}}</ref> may involve practices of [[Jewish ethics]], [[Jewish prayer]], [[Jewish meditation]], [[Shabbat]] and [[Jewish holidays|holiday]] observance, [[Torah study]], [[Kashrut|dietary laws]], [[Repentance in Judaism|teshuvah]], and other practices.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Green |first=Arthur|title=Jewish Spirituality|volume=1, 2}}</ref>{{sfn|Sonsino|2002|p={{page needed|date=January 2022}}}}<ref group=web>{{Cite web|title=What Are Jewish Spiritual Practices?|website=Institute for Jewish Spirituality|url=https://www.jewishspirituality.org/about/what-are-jewish-spiritual-practices/|access-date=2021-11-25|archive-date=2021-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622084559/https://www.jewishspirituality.org/about/what-are-jewish-spiritual-practices/|url-status=live}}</ref> It may involve practices ordained by [[halakha]]h or other practices.<ref name=":1" /> Common to all of these experiences is that they are done communally.<ref>Wolpe, David.  ''Why Be Jewish''.  p. 17.</ref>

[[Kabbalah]] (literally "receiving") is an [[esoteric]] method, discipline and school of thought of Judaism. Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings meant to explain the relationship between an unchanging, eternal and mysterious [[Ein Sof]] (no end) and the mortal and finite universe (his creation). Interpretations of Kabbalistic spirituality are found within [[Hasidic Judaism]], a branch of [[Orthodox Judaism]] founded in 18th-century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel [[Baal Shem Tov]]. Hasidism often emphasizes the [[Divine immanence|Immanent]] Divine presence and focuses on emotion, [[devekut|fervour]], and the figure of the [[Tzadik]]. This movement included an elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine [[Panentheism]].<ref>{{Cite book|author1-link=David Biale|last1=Biale|first1=David|title=Hasidism: A New History|last2=Assaf|first2=David|last3=Brown|first3=Benjamin|last4=Gellman|first4=Uriel |last5=Heilman |first5=Samuel|last6=Rosman|first6=Moshe|last7=Sagiv|first7=Gadi|last8=Wodziński|first8=Marcin|date=2020-04-14|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-20244-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0j63DwAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Garb|first=Jonathan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OrjwDwAAQBAJ|title=A History of Kabbalah: From the Early Modern Period to the Present Day|date=2020-07-23|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-88297-2}}</ref>

The [[Musar movement]] is a Jewish spiritual movement that has focused on developing character traits such as [[faith]], [[humility]], and [[Jewish theology of love|love]].  The Musar movement, first founded in the 19th century by [[Israel Salanter]] and developed in the 21st century by [[Alan Morinis]] and [[Ira F. Stone]], has encouraged spiritual practices of Jewish meditation, Jewish prayer, [[Jewish ethics]], [[tzedakah]], teshuvah, and the study of [[Musar literature|musar (ethical) literature]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Claussen|first=Geoffrey|date=2012|title=The Practice of Musar|journal=Conservative Judaism|volume=63|issue=2|pages=3–26|doi=10.1353/coj.2012.0002|s2cid=161479970|url=https://www.academia.edu/1502958|access-date=2019-05-20|archive-date=2021-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024132900/https://www.academia.edu/1502958|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Reform Judaism]] and [[Conservative Judaism]] have often emphasized the spirituality of [[Jewish ethics]] and [[tikkun olam]],{{sfn|Dorff|2018|p=49}}{{sfn|Kaplan|2018|p={{page needed|date=January 2022}}}} [[Jewish feminism|feminist spirituality]],{{sfn|Dorff|2018|pp=49, 151}}{{sfn|Kaplan|2013|p=53}} Jewish prayer,{{sfn|Dorff|2018|p=69–70}}{{sfn|Sonsino|2002|pp=72–92}} Torah study,{{sfn|Dorff|2018|p=91}}{{sfn|Sonsino|2002|pp=56–59}} ritual,{{sfn|Kaplan|2013|p=50}}{{sfn|Sonsino|2002|pp=112–129}} and musar.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Claussen|first=Geoffrey|title=The American Jewish Revival of Musar|url=https://www.academia.edu/1138592|journal=The Hedgehog Review|date=January 2010|access-date=2021-11-23|archive-date=2022-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012063815/https://www.academia.edu/1138592|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Christianity====
{{Main|Catholic spirituality|Christian mysticism}}
{{more citations needed section|date=May 2024}}
[[File:Risen Christ appears to Mary.jpg|thumb|Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism.]]
Christian spirituality is the spiritual practice of living out a personal faith. [[Pope Francis]] offered several ways in which the calling of Christian spirituality can be considered:
*"Christian spirituality proposes an alternative understanding of the [[quality of life]], and encourages a prophetic and contemplative lifestyle, one capable of deep enjoyment free of the obsession with consumption";
*"Christian spirituality proposes a growth marked by moderation and the capacity to be [[contentment|happy]] with little."<ref name=ls>Pope Francis, [https://www.vatican.va/content/dam/francesco/pdf/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si_en.pdf Laudato si'], published 24 May 2015, accessed 20 May 2024</ref>{{rp|Paragraph 222}}
*[[Work (human activity)|Work]], with an understanding of its meaning, and relaxation are both important dimensions of Christian spirituality.<ref name=ls />{{rp|Paragraph 237}}

The terminology of the [[Catholic Church]] refers to an [[Faith in Christianity#Roman Catholicism|act of faith]] (''fides qua creditur'') following the acceptance of [[Credo|faith]] (''fides quae creditur''). Although all Catholics are expected to pray together at [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], there are many different forms of spirituality and private prayer that have developed over the centuries. Each of the major [[religious order (Catholic)|religious order]]s of the Catholic Church and other [[laity|lay]] groupings have their own unique spirituality&nbsp;– its own way of approaching God in prayer and in living out the [[Gospel]].

Christian mysticism refers to the development of [[mysticism|mystical practices and theory]] within [[Christianity]]. It has often been connected to [[mystical theology]], especially in the Catholic and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] traditions. The attributes and means by which Christian mysticism is studied and practiced are varied and range from [[Religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] visions of the soul's [[Bridal theology|mystical union with God]] to simple prayerful [[contemplation]] of Holy Scripture (i.e., ''[[Lectio Divina]]'').

[[Progressive Christianity]] is a contemporary movement which seeks to remove the supernatural claims of the faith and replace them with a post-critical understanding of biblical spirituality based on historical and scientific research. It focuses on the lived experience of spirituality over historical dogmatic claims, and accepts that the faith is both true and a human construction, and that spiritual experiences are psychologically and neurally real and useful.

====Islam====
An inner spiritual struggle and an outer physical struggle are two commonly accepted meanings of the Arabic word ''[[jihad]]'':.{{sfn|Morgan|2010|p=87}} The "greater jihad" is the inner struggle by a believer to fulfill his religious duties and fight against one's [[nafs|ego]].{{sfn|Morgan|2010|p=87}}<ref group=web name=BBCjihad>{{cite web|title=Jihad|work=Religions|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_1.shtml|access-date=20 February 2012|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006140845/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/beliefs/jihad_1.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> This non-violent meaning is stressed by both Muslim and non-Muslim authors.<ref>[http://rissc.jo/index.php/english-publications.html Jihad and the Islamic Law of War] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818180319/http://rissc.jo/index.php/english-publications.html |date=August 18, 2013 }}</ref><ref>Rudolph Peters, ''Islam and Colonialism. The doctrine of Jihad in Modern History'' (Mouton Publishers, 1979), p. 118</ref>

[[Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi]], an 11th-century Islamic scholar, referenced a statement by the [[Sahaba|companion of Muhammad]], [[Jabir ibn Abd-Allah]]:
{{blockquote|The Prophet ... returned from one of his battles, and thereupon told us, 'You have arrived with an excellent arrival, you have come from the Lesser Jihad to the Greater Jihad&nbsp;– the striving of a servant (of [[Allah]]) against his desires (holy war)."<ref group=web name=BBCjihad/><ref>[[Fayd al-Qadir]] vol. 4, p. 511</ref>{{refn|group=note|This reference gave rise to the distinguishing of two forms of jihad: "greater" and "lesser". Some Islamic scholars dispute the authenticity of this reference and consider the meaning of jihad as a holy war to be more important.<ref group=web name=BBCjihad/>}}}}

=====Sufism=====
{{Main|Sufism}}
The best known form of Islamic mystic spirituality is the [[Sufi]] tradition (famous through [[Rumi]] and [[Hafiz Shirazi|Hafiz]]) in which a [[Sheikh]] or ''[[Pir (Sufism)|pir]]'' transmits spiritual discipline to students.<ref>
Azeemi, K.S., "Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation". Houston: Plato, 2005. ({{ISBN|0-9758875-4-8}}), p. xi</ref>

Sufism or {{transliteration|ar|DIN|taṣawwuf}} ({{langx|ar|تصوّف}}) is defined by its adherents as the inner, [[Islamic mysticism|mystical]] dimension of [[Islam]].<ref name="Godlas">Alan Godlas, University of Georgia, ''Sufism's Many Paths'', 2000, [http://www.uga.edu/islam/Sufism.html University of Georgia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016144645/http://www.uga.edu/islam/Sufism.html |date=2011-10-16 }}</ref><ref>Nuh Ha Mim Keller, "How would you respond to the claim that Sufism is Bid'a?", 1995. Fatwa accessible at: [http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/sufism.htm Masud.co.uk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081231121059/http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/sufism.htm |date=2008-12-31 }}</ref><ref>Zubair Fattani, "The meaning of Tasawwuf", Islamic Academy. [http://www.islamicacademy.org/html/Articles/English/Tasawwuf.htm Islamicacademy.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828093853/http://www.islamicacademy.org/html/Articles/English/Tasawwuf.htm |date=2008-08-28 }}</ref> A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a ''{{transliteration|ar|DIN|ṣūfī}}'' ({{lang|fa|صُوفِيّ}}). Sufis believe they are practicing [[ihsan]] (perfection of worship) as revealed by [[Gabriel]] to [[Muhammad]],
{{blockquote|Worship and serve [[Allah]] as you are seeing Him and while you see Him not yet truly He sees you.}}

Sufis consider themselves as the original true proponents of this pure original form of Islam. They are strong adherents to the principal of tolerance, peace and against any form of violence. The Sufi have suffered severe persecution by more rigid and fundamentalist groups such as the [[Wahhabi]] and [[Salafi movement]]. In 1843 the [[Senussi]] Sufi were forced to flee Mecca and Medina and head to Sudan and Libya.<ref name="FirstDynasty">{{cite book| last= Hawting| first= Gerald R.| author-link=G. R. Hawting | title= The first dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750
| publisher= [[Routledge]]| year= 2000| isbn= 978-0-415-24073-4}} See Google [https://books.google.com/books?id=-wFp_Gv8GDYC&q=Umayyad+Caliphate+661+750 book search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424141131/https://books.google.com/books?id=-wFp_Gv8GDYC&q=Umayyad%20Caliphate%20661%20750 |date=2023-04-24 }}.</ref>

Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God".<ref>Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson&nbsp;– "The Principles of Sufism". Amal Press. 2008.</ref> Alternatively, in the words of the [[Darqawa|Darqawi]] Sufi teacher [[Ahmad ibn Ajiba]], "a science through which one can know how to travel into the [[Divine presence|presence of the Divine]], purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits".<ref>An English translation of [[Ahmad ibn Ajiba]]'s biography has been published by Fons Vitae.</ref>

===Indian religions===

==== Jainism ====
[[Jainism]], traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient [[Indian religion]]. The three main pillars of Jainism are [[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahiṃsā]] (non-violence), [[anekāntavāda]] (non-absolutism), and [[aparigraha]] (non-attachment). Jains take five main vows: [[ahiṃsā]] (non-violence), [[satya]] (truth), [[Achourya|asteya]] (not stealing), [[brahmacharya]] (sexual continence), and [[aparigraha]] (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. [[Parasparopagraho Jīvānām|Parasparopagraho jīvānām]] (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto and the [[Ṇamōkāra mantra]] is its most common and basic prayer.

Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or [[Tirthankara]]s, with the first in the current time cycle being [[Rishabhadeva]], whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago; the twenty-third tirthankara [[Parshvanatha]], whom historians date to 9th century BCE; and the twenty-fourth tirthankara, [[Mahāvīra|Mahavira]] around 600&nbsp;BCE. Jainism is considered to be an eternal [[dharma]] with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the [[Jain cosmology|cosmology]].

====Buddhism====
{{Main|Buddhism}}
Buddhist practices are known as [[Bhavana]], which literally means "development" or "cultivating"<ref>[[Matthieu Ricard]] has said this in a talk.</ref> or "producing"<ref name="PED">{{cite web|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:3558.pali |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120711062331/http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.2:1:3558.pali |archive-date=2012-07-11 |title=Rhys Davids & Stede (1921–25), p. 503, entry for "Bhāvanā," retrieved 9 December 2008 from University Chicago |publisher=Dsal.uchicago.edu |access-date=2014-01-04 }}</ref><ref name="MWD">[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/MWScanpdf/mw0755-bhAvodaya.pdf Monier-Williams (1899), p. 755, see "Bhāvana" and "Bhāvanā," retrieved 9 December 2008 from University of Cologne] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304063707/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/MWScanpdf/mw0755-bhAvodaya.pdf |date=4 March 2009 }} (PDF)</ref> in the sense of "calling into existence".{{sfn|Nyanatiloka|1980|p=67}} It is an important concept in Buddhist [[Praxis (process)|praxis]] (''Patipatti''). The word ''bhavana'' normally appears in conjunction with another word forming a compound phrase such as ''citta-bhavana'' (the development or cultivation of the heart/mind) or ''metta-bhavana'' (the development/cultivation of loving kindness). When used on its own ''bhavana'' signifies 'spiritual cultivation' generally.

Various [[Buddhist paths to liberation]] developed throughout the ages. Best-known is the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], but others include [[Bhūmi (Buddhism)|the Bodhisattva Path]] and [[Lamrim]].

====Hinduism====
Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophets nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, henotheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, or atheistic.<ref>See:
* [[Julius J. Lipner]], Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-415-45677-7}}, p. 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu.";
* Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, {{ISBN|978-0-12-369503-1}}, Academic Press, 2008;
* MK Gandhi, [http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf The Essence of Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724045756/http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf |date=2015-07-24 }}, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see p. 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</ref> Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as ksaitrajña ({{Langx|sa|क्षैत्रज्ञ}}<ref>Jim Funderburk and Peter Scharf (2012) ''Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', [http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html क्षैत्रज्ञ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912063425/http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html |date=2016-09-12 }}; Quote: "क्षैत्रज्ञ [ kṣaitrajña ] [ kṣaitrajña ] n. (fr. [ kṣetra-jñá ] g. [ yuvādi ], spirituality, nature of the soul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W."</ref>). It defines spiritual practice as one's journey towards [[moksha]], awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, Ultimate reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content.<ref>See the following two in Ewert Cousins series on World Spirituality:
* Bhavasar and Kiem, Spirituality and Health, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), {{ISBN|0-8245-0755-X}}, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 319–37;
* John Arapura, Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the Upanishads, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989), {{ISBN|0-8245-0755-X}}, Crossroads Publishing New York, pp. 64–85</ref><ref name=gf>Gavin Flood, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-17893-9}}, see Article on ''Wisdom and Knowledge'', pp. 881–84</ref>

=====Four paths=====
{{Main|Hinduism}}
{{multiple image
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 | image1= Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg
 | alt1= Jñāna marga
 | caption1= Jñāna marga
 | image2= Russian Hare Krishnas singing on the street.jpg
 | alt2= Bhakti marga
 | caption2= Bhakti marga
 | image3= People of Varanasi 006.jpg
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 }}
Traditionally, Hinduism identifies three ''mārga'' (ways)<ref>John Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing New York, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|See also [[Bhagavad Gita]] (The Celestial Song), Chapters 2:56–57, 12, 13:1–28}} of spiritual practice,<ref>D. Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Cultural Psychology, in [[Anthony J. Marsella]] (Series Editor), International and Cultural Psychology, Springer New York, {{ISBN|978-1-4419-8109-7}}, pp. 93–140</ref> namely [[Jnana|Jñāna]] (ज्ञान), the way of knowledge; [[Bhakti]], the way of devotion; and [[Karma yoga]], the way of selfless action. In the 19th century [[Vivekananda]], in his [[neo-Vedanta]] synthesis of Hinduism, added [[Rāja yoga]], the way of contemplation and meditation, as a fourth way, calling all of them "yoga".<ref>{{cite book | last=De Michelis | first=Elizabeth | author-link=Elizabeth De Michelis | year=2005 | title=A History of Modern Yoga: Patanjali and Western Esotericism | publisher=Continuum | isbn=978-0-8264-8772-8}}{{page needed|date=January 2022}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|[[Georg Feuerstein]]: "Yoga is not easy to define. In most general terms, the Sanskrit word yoga stands for spiritual discipline in Hinduism, Jainism, and certain schools of Buddhism. (...). Yoga is the equivalent of Christian mysticism, Moslem Sufism, or the Jewish Kabbalah. A spiritual practitioner is known as a yogin (if male) or a yogini (if female)."{{sfn|Feuerstein|2003|p=3}}}}

Jñāna marga is a path often assisted by a ''guru'' (teacher) in one's spiritual practice.{{sfn|Feuerstein|2003|loc="Chapter 55"}} Bhakti marga is a path of faith and devotion to deity or deities; the spiritual practice often includes chanting, singing and music – such as in ''[[kirtan]]s'' – in front of idols, or images of one or more deity, or a devotional symbol of the holy.<ref>Jean Varenne (1976), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|0-226-85116-8}}, pp. 97–130</ref> Karma marga is the path of one's work, where diligent practical work or ''vartta'' ({{Langx|sa|वार्त्ता}}, profession) becomes in itself a spiritual practice, and work in daily life is perfected as a form of spiritual liberation and not for its material rewards.<ref>See discussion of Hinduism and karma yoga in two different professions in these journal articles:
* {{cite journal|ref=none |last1=McCormick |first1=Donald W. |year=1994 |title=Spirituality and Management |journal=Journal of Managerial Psychology |volume=9 |issue=6| pages=5–8 |doi=10.1108/02683949410070142}};
* {{cite journal|ref=none |last1=Macrae |first1=Janet |year=1995 |title=Nightingale's spiritual philosophy and its significance for modern nursing |journal=Journal of Nursing Scholarship |volume=27 |issue=1| pages=8–10 |doi=10.1111/j.1547-5069.1995.tb00806.x| pmid=7721325}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|
[[Klaus Klostermaier]] discusses examples from Bhagavata Purana, another ancient Hindu scripture, where a forest worker discovers observing mother nature is a spiritual practice, to wisdom and liberating knowledge. The Purana suggests that "true knowledge of nature" leads to "true knowledge of Self and God." It illustrates 24 gurus that nature provides. For example, earth teaches steadfastness and the wisdom that all things while pursuing their own activities, do nothing but follow the divine laws that are universally established; another wisdom from earth is her example of accepting the good and bad from everyone. Another guru, the honeybee teaches that one must make effort to gain knowledge, a willingness and flexibility to examine, pick and collect essence from different scriptures and sources. And so on. Nature is a mirror image of spirit, perceptive awareness of nature can be spirituality.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Klaus Klostermaier]] |chapter=Spirituality and Nature |title=Hindu Spirituality |editor=Ewert Cousins |year=1989 |isbn=0-8245-0755-X |publisher=Crossroads Publishing |place=New York |pages=319–337}}</ref>}} Rāja marga is the path of cultivating necessary virtues, self-discipline, ''[[Tapas (Sanskrit)|tapas]]'' (meditation), contemplation and self-reflection sometimes with isolation and renunciation of the world, to a pinnacle state called ''[[samadhi|samādhi]]''.<ref>Vivekananda, S. (1980), Raja Yoga, Ramakrishna Vivekanada Center, {{ISBN|978-0-911206-23-4}}</ref><ref>Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, {{ISBN|0-7486-0954-7}}, pp. 69–71</ref> This state of ''samādhi'' has been compared to peak experience.<ref>See:
* {{cite journal|ref=none |last1=Harung |first1=Harald |year=2012 |title=Illustrations of Peak Experiences during Optimal Performance in World-class Performers Integrating Eastern and Western Insights |journal=Journal of Human Values |volume=18 |issue=1| pages=33–52 |doi=10.1177/097168581101800104| s2cid=143106405}}
* {{cite journal|ref=none |last1=Levin |first1=Jeff |year=2010 |title=Religion and mental health: Theory and research |journal=International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies |volume=7 |issue=2| pages=102–15|doi=10.1002/aps.240 }};
* {{cite journal|ref=none |last1=Meyer-Dinkgräfe |first1=Daniel |year=2011 |title=Opera and spirituality |journal=Performance and Spirituality |volume=2 |issue=1| pages=38–59}}</ref>

There is a rigorous debate in Indian literature on relative merits of these theoretical spiritual practices. For example, [[Chandogya Upanishad|Chandogyopanishad]] suggests that those who engage in ritualistic offerings to gods and priests will fail in their spiritual practice, while those who engage in ''tapas'' will succeed; [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad]] suggests that a successful spiritual practice requires a longing for truth, but warns of becoming 'false ascetic' who go through the mechanics of spiritual practice without meditating on the nature of Self and universal Truths.<ref name=crp>See:
* CR Prasad, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-17893-9}}, see Article on ''Brahman'', pp. 724–29
* David Carpenter, Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Editor: Knut Jacobsen (2010), Volume II, Brill, {{ISBN|978-90-04-17893-9}}, see Article on ''Tapas'', pp. 865–69</ref> In the practice of Hinduism, suggest modern era scholars such as [[Vivekananda]], the choice between the paths is up to the individual and a person's proclivities.<ref name=gf/><ref>Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, SUNY Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-7081-7}}, pp. 119–260</ref> Other scholars<ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2000), Hatha-Yoga: Its context, theory and practice, Motilal Banarsidass Publications, {{ISBN|81-208-1706-0}}, pp. 97–98; Quote: "When, for example, in the Bhagavad-Gita Lord Krsna speaks of jnana-, bhakti- and karma-yoga, he is not talking about three entirely separate ways of carrying out one's spiritual practice, but, rather, about three aspects of the ideal life".</ref> suggest that these Hindu spiritual practices are not mutually exclusive, but overlapping. These four paths of spirituality are also known in Hinduism outside India, such as in [[Balinese Hinduism]], where it is called ''Chatur Marga'' (literally: four paths).<ref>Murdana, I. Ketut (2008), Balinese Arts and Culture: A flash understanding of Concept and Behavior, Mudra – Jurnal Seni Budaya, Indonesia; Volume 22, p. 5</ref>

=====Schools and spirituality=====
Different schools of Hinduism encourage different spiritual practices. In [[Tantra#Hinduism|Tantric]] school for example, the spiritual practice has been referred to as ''[[sādhanā]]''. It involves initiation into the school, undergoing rituals, and achieving moksha liberation by experiencing union of cosmic polarities.<ref>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-43878-0}}</ref> The [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] school emphasizes bhakti yoga as spiritual practice.<ref>Rochford, E.B. (1985), Hare Krishna in America, Rutgers University Press; {{ISBN|978-0-8135-1114-6}}, p. 12</ref> In [[Advaita Vedanta]] school, the spiritual practice emphasizes jñāna yoga in stages: samnyasa (cultivate virtues), sravana (hear, study), manana (reflect) and dhyana (nididhyasana, contemplate).<ref>See:
* Ramakrishna Puligandla (1985), Jñâna-Yoga – The Way of Knowledge (An Analytical Interpretation), University Press of America New York, {{ISBN|0-8191-4531-9}};
* Fort, A.O. (1998), Jīvanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|0-7914-3903-8}};
* Richard King (1999), Indian philosophy: An introduction to Hindu and Buddhist thought, Edinburgh University Press, {{ISBN|0-7486-0954-7}}, p. 223;
* Sawai, Y. (1987), The Nature of Faith in the Śaṅkaran Vedānta Tradition, Numen, 34(1), pp. 18–44</ref>

====Sikhism====
{{Main|Sikhism}}
[[File:Raja Fateh Singh Ahluwalia of Kapurthala.jpg|thumb|An 18th century [[Sikh]] [[Sikh raj|Raja]]]]

Sikhism considers spiritual life and secular life to be intertwined:<ref name="Kamala">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTfKwGV6mBkC&q=The+Socially+Involved+Renunciate+-+Guru+Nanaks+Discourse+to+Nath+Yogi%27s |title=The Socially Involved Renunciate – Guru Nanaks Discourse to Nath Yogi's | publisher=State University of New York Press |author1=Nayar, Kamal Elizabeth  |author2=Sandhu, Jaswinder Singh  |name-list-style=amp | year=2007 | page=106|isbn=978-0-7914-7950-6 }}</ref> "In the Sikh Weltanschauung&nbsp;... the temporal world is part of the Infinite Reality and partakes of its characteristics."<ref name="Nikky">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UUWIEfAY-mMC&q=Hindu+spirituality%3A+Postclassical+and+modern | title=Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |author1=Kaur Singh |author2=Nikky Guninder | year=2004 | page=530 | isbn=978-81-208-1937-5}}</ref> Guru Nanak described living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" as being higher than a purely contemplative life.<ref name="Marwha">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ROtEr_QdB3sC&q=Colors+of+Truth%3A+Religion%2C+Self+and+Emotions+-+Perspectives+of+Hinduism | title=Colors of Truth, Religion Self and Emotions | publisher=Concept Publishing Company | author=Marwha, Sonali Bhatt | year=2006 | location=New Delhi | page=205 | isbn=978-81-8069-268-0}}</ref>

The 6th Sikh Guru [[Guru Hargobind]] re-affirmed that the political/temporal (Miri) and spiritual (Piri) realms are mutually coexistent.<ref name="Marty">{{cite book | title=Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance | series=The Fundamentalism project |volume=3 | publisher=University of Chicago Press |editor1=Marty E. Martin |editor2=R. Scott Appleby |name-list-style=amp | year=1993 | page=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalismss00mart/page/278 278] | isbn=978-0-226-50884-9 | url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalismss00mart | url-access=registration}}</ref>  According to the 9th Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadhur, the ideal Sikh should have both [[Shakti]] (power that resides in the temporal), and [[Bhakti]] (spiritual meditative qualities). This was developed into the concept of the Saint Soldier by the 10th Sikh Guru, Gobind Singh.<ref name="Gandhi">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qw7-kUkHA_0C&q=History+of+Sikh+Gurus+Retold%3A+1606+-1708&pg=PA305 | title=History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606–708 | publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors | author=Singh Gandhi, Surjit | date=2008 | pages=676–677 | isbn=978-81-269-0857-8}}</ref>

According to [[Guru Nanak]], the goal is to attain the "attendant balance of separation-fusion, self-other, action-inaction, attachment-detachment, in the course of daily life",<ref name="Mandair">{{cite book | title=Religion and the Specter of the West – Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality and the Politics of Translation | author=Mandair, Arvind-Pal Singh | date=October 22, 2009 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzeCy_zL0Q8C&q=Religion+and+the+Specter+of+the+West%3A+Sikhism%2C+India%2C+Postcoloniality | pages=372– | publisher=University of Columbia | isbn=978-0-231-14724-8}}</ref> the polar opposite to a self-centered existence.<ref name="Mandair" /> Nanak talks further about the [[Ik Onkar|one God]] or akal (timelessness) that permeates all life<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yIMYO-7NurwC&q=Philosophy+of+Sikhism%3A+Reality+and+Its+Manifestations | title=Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations | publisher=South Asia Books | author=Singh, Nirbhai | date=1990 | location=New Delhi | pages=111–112}}</ref>).<ref name="Kalsi">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YOI1nB_zTyAC&q=Sikhism+Sewa+Singh+Kalsi | title=Sikhism | publisher=Chelsea House Publishers |author1=Singh Kalsi |author2=Sewa Singh | year=2005 | page=49 | isbn=978-0-7910-8098-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hayer|first=Tara|title="The Sikh Impact: Economic History of Sikhs in Canada" Volume 1|year=1988 |publisher=Indo-Canadian Publishers|location=Surrey, Canada|page=14}}{{verify source|date=January 2022|reason=did not find this author, title, or publisher in WorldCat or Google}}</ref> and which must be seen with 'the inward eye', or the 'heart', of a human being.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lebron|first=Robyn|title=Searching for Spiritual Unity...can There be Common Ground?: A Basic Internet Guide to Forty World Religions & Spiritual Practices |year=2012|publisher=CrossBooks|isbn=978-1-4627-1261-8|page=399}}</ref>

In [[Sikhism]] there is no [[dogma]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Nikky-Guninder|title=The Feminine Principle in the Sikh Vision of the Transcendent|year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43287-0|page=172}}</ref> [[priest]]s, [[monastic]]s or [[yogi]]s.

===African spirituality===
{{Main|Traditional African religion}}
In some African contexts,{{which|date= November 2018}} spirituality is considered a belief system that guides the welfare of society and the people therein, and eradicates sources of unhappiness occasioned by evil.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2015/10/the-spirituality-of-africa/|title=The spirituality of Africa|date=2015-10-06|website=Harvard Gazette|access-date=2020-02-04|archive-date=2019-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190619145926/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2015/10/the-spirituality-of-africa/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In traditional society prior to colonization and extensive introduction to Christianity or Islam, religion was the strongest element in society influencing the thinking and actions of the people.  Hence spirituality was a sub-domain of religion.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mbiti |first1=John S. |title=African religions & philosophy |year=1990 |publisher=Heinemann |location=Oxford |isbn=0-435-89591-5 |edition=2nd rev. and enl.}}</ref> Despite the rapid social, economic and political changes of the last century, traditional religion remains the essential background for many African people. And that religion is a communal given, not an individual choice. Religion gives all of life its meaning and provides ground for action. Each person is "a living creed of his religion". There is no concern for spiritual matters apart from ones physical and communal life. Life continues after death but remains focused on pragmatic family and community matters.

==Contemporary spirituality==
{{See also|New Age}}

The term ''spiritual'' has frequently become used in contexts in which the term ''religious'' was formerly employed.{{sfn|Gorsuch|Miller|1999}} Contemporary spirituality is also called "post-traditional spirituality" and "[[New Age]] spirituality".{{sfn|Otterloo|Aupers|Houtman|2012|pp=239–240}} Hanegraaf makes a distinction between two "New Age" movements: New Age in a restricted sense, which originated primarily in mid-twentieth century England and had its roots in [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]] and [[Anthroposophy]], and "New Age" in a general sense, which emerged in the later 1970s:
{{blockquote|when increasing numbers of people ... began to perceive a broad similarity between a wide variety of "alternative ideas" and pursuits, and started to think of them as part of one "movement".{{sfn|Hanegraaff|1996|p=97}}}}

Those who speak of spirituality outside of religion often define themselves as ''[[spiritual but not religious]]'', and generally believe in the existence of different "spiritual paths", emphasizing the importance of finding one's own individual path to spirituality. According to one 2005 poll, about 24% of the United States population identifies itself as "spiritual but not religious".<ref group=web>{{Cite web | url= http://www.beliefnet.com/News/2005/08/Newsweekbeliefnet-Poll-Results.aspx#spiritrel | title= NewsweekBeliefnet Poll Results | access-date= 2009-06-05 | archive-date= 2018-01-04 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180104140422/http://www.beliefnet.com/news/2005/08/newsweekbeliefnet-poll-results.aspx#spiritrel | url-status= live }}</ref>

Lockwood draws attention to the variety of spiritual experience in the contemporary [[Western culture|West]]:

<blockquote>
The new Western spiritual landscape, characterised by [[consumerism]] and [[choice]] abundance, is scattered with novel religious manifestations based in psychology and the [[Human Potential Movement]], each offering participants a pathway to the Self.<ref>{{cite journal
 |last1        = Lockwood
 |first1       = Renee D.
 |title        = Pilgrimages to the Self: Exploring the Topography of Western Consumer Spirituality through 'the Journey'
 |url          = https://www.academia.edu/3789930
 |journal      = Literature and Aesthetics
 |date         = June 2012
 |volume       = 22
 |issue        = 1
 |page         = 108
 |access-date  = 19 September 2019
 |quote        = The new Western spiritual landscape, characterised by consumerism and choice abundance, is scattered with novel religious manifestations based in psychology and the Human Potential Movement, each offering participants a pathway to the Self.
 |archive-date = 12 October 2022
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20221012063819/https://www.academia.edu/3789930
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref>
</blockquote>

Those who speak of spirituality within religion also recognise the need for spirituality to take on a contemporary form: thus, for example, [[Pope Francis]] referred to and reflected on "contemporary devotion" in his [[encyclical letter]] ''[[Dilexit nos]]'' issued in 2024.<ref>Pope Francis, [https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/20241024-enciclica-dilexit-nos.pdf Dilexit nos], paragraph 91, published on 24 October 2024, accessed on 11 January 2025</ref>

===Characteristics===
Modern spirituality centers on the [[worldview|"deepest values and meanings by which people live"]].<ref name=Sheldrake>Philip Sheldrake, ''A Brief History of Spirituality'', Wiley-Blackwell 2007 pp. 1–2</ref> It often embraces the idea of an ultimate or an alleged immaterial [[reality]].<ref>Ewert Cousins, preface to Antoine Faivre and Jacob Needleman, ''Modern Esoteric Spirituality'', Crossroad Publishing 1992.</ref> It envisions an [[Involution (philosophy)|inner path]] enabling a person to discover the [[essence]] of his or her [[being]].

Not all modern notions of spirituality embrace transcendental ideas. [[Secular spirituality]] emphasizes [[humanistic]] ideas on [[moral character]] (qualities such as love, [[compassion]], patience, tolerance, forgiveness, contentment, responsibility, harmony, and a concern for others).<ref name=Dalai/>{{rp|22}} These are aspects of [[life]] and [[human experience]] which go beyond a purely materialist view of the world without necessarily accepting belief in a supernatural reality or any divine being. Nevertheless, many humanists (e.g. [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]) who clearly value the non-material, communal, and virtuous aspects of life reject this usage of the term "spirituality" as being overly-broad (i.e. it effectively amounts to saying "everything and anything that is good and virtuous is ''necessarily'' spiritual").{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2011}} In 1930 Russell, a self-described agnostic renowned as an atheist, wrote "... one's ego is no very large part of the world. The man who can centre his thoughts and hopes upon something transcending self can find a certain peace in the ordinary troubles of life which is impossible to the pure egoist."<ref>{{cite book
 | last1 = Russell
 | first1 = Bertrand
 | author-link1 = Bertrand Russell
 | year = 1930
 | title = The Conquest of Happiness
 | publisher = Lulu.com
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3i6MCgAAQBAJ
 | publication-date = 2018
 | isbn = 978-1-329-52220-6
 | access-date = 19 September 2019
 | quote = The man who can centre his thoughts and hopes upon something transcending self can find a certain peace in the ordinary troubles of life which is impossible to the pure egoist.
 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
Similarly, Aristotle&nbsp;– one of the first known Western thinkers to demonstrate that morality, virtue and goodness can be derived without appealing to supernatural forces&nbsp;– argued that "men create Gods in their own image" (not the other way around). Moreover, theistic and atheistic critics alike dismiss the need for the "secular spirituality" label on the basis that it appears to be nothing more than [[obscurantism]] in that:{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}
* the term "spirit" is commonly taken as denoting the existence of unseen / otherworldly / life-giving forces; and
* words such as "morality", "[[philanthropy]]" and "[[humanism]]" already efficiently and succinctly describe the prosocial-orientation and civility that the phrase "secular spirituality" is meant to convey but without risking confusion that one is referring to something supernatural.

Although personal well-being, both physical and [[Emotional well-being|psychological]], is said{{by whom|date=September 2019}} to be an important aspect of modern spirituality, this does not imply that spirituality is ''essential'' to achieving happiness (e.g. [http://pcl.missouri.edu/jeff/sites/pcl.missouri.edu.jeff/files/Diener.pdf see] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013205140/http://pcl.missouri.edu/jeff/sites/pcl.missouri.edu.jeff/files/Diener.pdf |date=2015-10-13 }}). Free-thinkers who reject notions that the [[numinous]] or non-material is important to living well can be just as happy as more spiritually-oriented individuals ([https://web.archive.org/web/20171023010658/http://www.scienceonreligion.org/index.php/news-research/research-updates/306-does-spirituality-help-well-being-or-do-we-just-need-to-be-good-to-each-other see])<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Maisel | first1 = Eric
 | author-link1 = Eric Maisel | year = 2009 | title = The Atheist's Way: Living Well Without Gods | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mICS5hMZgSAC | location = Novato, California | publisher = New World Library | publication-date = 2010 | isbn = 978-1-57731-842-2 | access-date = 19 September 2019}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=September 2019}}

Contemporary proponents of spirituality may suggest that spirituality develops [[inner peace]] and forms a foundation for [[happiness]]. For example, [[meditation]] and similar practices are suggested to help the practitioner cultivate a personal [[introspection|inner life]] and character.<ref>{{cite book|last= Wilkinson|first= Tony|title= The lost art of being happy: spirituality for sceptics|year= 2007|publisher= Findhorn Press|isbn= 978-1-84409-116-4}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date= June 2012}} <ref>{{cite book|last= Browner|first= Matthieu Ricard; translated by Jesse|title= Happiness: A guide to developing life's most important skill.|year= 2003|publisher= Little Brown|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-316-16725-3|edition= 1st pbk.}}</ref> Ellison and Fan (2008) assert that spirituality ''causes'' a wide array of positive health outcomes, including "morale, happiness, and life satisfaction".<ref>{{cite journal | title = Daily Spiritual Experiences and Psychological Well-Being among US Adults | journal = Social Indicators Research | date = Sep 2008 | first = Christopher G. | last = Ellison |author2= Daisy Fan  | volume = 88 | issue = 2 | pages = 247–71 | jstor = 27734699 | doi =10.1007/s11205-007-9187-2| s2cid = 144712754 }}</ref> However, Schuurmans-Stekhoven (2013) actively attempted to replicate this research and found more "mixed" results.{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2013}}{{request quotation|date=September 2019}} Nevertheless, spirituality has played a central role in some [[self-help]] movements such as [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]:

{{blockquote| if an alcoholic failed to perfect and enlarge his spiritual life through work and self-sacrifice for others, he could not survive the certain trials and low spots ahead<ref name="Anonymous2009">{{cite book|author= Anonymous|title= Alcoholics Anonymous: By the Anonymous Press|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=C7gY3Sc-9joC|access-date= 5 March 2013|year= 2009|publisher= The Anonymous Press|isbn= 978-1-892959-16-4|pages= 14–15}}</ref>}}

Such spiritually-informed treatment approaches have been challenged as [[pseudoscience]].<ref>
Compare:
{{cite book | editor1-last = Ross | editor1-first = Colin A. | editor1-link = Colin A. Ross | editor2-last = Pam | editor2-first = Alvin. | editor2-link = Alvin Pam | title = Pseudoscience in biological psychiatry: blaming the body | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Qv3aAAAAMAAJ | series = Wiley Series in General and Clinical Psychiatry | volume = 10 | publisher = Wiley & Sons | date = 1995 | page = 96 | isbn = 978-0-471-00776-0
 | access-date = 19 September 2019 | quote = This doctrine [that alcoholism is a disease] has been adopted throughout the chemical dependency field including Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), despite the fact that it has no scientific foundation and is logically incorrect.}}</ref>

===Spiritual experience===
{{Main|Religious experience}}
Spiritual experiences play a central role in modern spirituality.{{sfn|Sharf|1995}} Both western and Asian authors have popularised this notion.{{sfn|Hori|1999|p= 47}}{{sfn|Rambachan| 1994}} Important early-20th century Western writers who studied the phenomenon of spirituality, and their works, include [[William James]], ''[[The Varieties of Religious Experience]]'' (1902) and [[Rudolph Otto]], especially ''[[The Idea of the Holy]]'' (1917)

James' notions of  "spiritual experience" had a further influence on the modernist streams in Asian traditions, making them even further recognisable for a western audience.{{sfn|Sharf|1995}}

William James popularized the use of the term "religious experience" in his ''The Varieties of Religious Experience''.{{sfn|Hori|1999|p=47}} He has also influenced the understanding of mysticism as a distinctive experience which allegedly grants knowledge.<ref group=web name="Stanford">{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mysticism/ |last= Gellman |first= Jerome |title= Mysticism |editor= Edward N. Zalta|encyclopedia= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition= Summer 2011 |access-date= 2014-01-04 | quote = Under the influence of William James' ''The Varieties of Religious Experience'', philosophical interest in mysticism has been heavy in distinctive, allegedly knowledge-granting 'mystical experiences.' }}</ref>

[[Wayne Proudfoot]] traces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" further back to the German theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] (1768–1834), who argued that religion is based on a ''feeling'' of [[the Infinite|the infinite]]. Schleiermacher used the idea of "religious experience" to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular critique. Many scholars of religion, of whom William James was the most influential, adopted the concept.{{sfn|Sharf|2000|p=271}}

Major Asian influences on contemporary spirituality have included [[Swami Vivekananda]]{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=191}} (1863–1902) and [[D. T. Suzuki]]{{sfn|Sharf|1995}} (1870–1966). Vivekananda popularised a modern [[Religious syncretism|syncretic]] Hinduism{{sfn|Sinari|2000}}{{sfn|Rambachan|1994}} in which an emphasis on personal experience replaced the authority of scriptures.{{sfn|Rambachan|1994}}{{sfn|Comans|1993}} Suzuki had a major influence on the popularisation of [[Zen in the United States|Zen in the west]] and popularized the idea of [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]] as insight into a timeless, transcendent reality.<ref group=web>{{cite web |url= http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf |title= Robert H. Sharf, ''Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited'' |access-date= 2014-01-04 |archive-date= 2019-02-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190202090252/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/CriticalZen/whose%20zen_sharf.pdf |url-status= live }}</ref><ref group=web>{{cite web |url= http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Chan_in_China.html |title= Hu Shih: Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism in China. Its History and Method |publisher= Thezensite.com |access-date= 2014-01-04 |archive-date= 2020-02-17 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200217144149/http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/HistoricalZen/Chan_in_China.html |url-status= live }}</ref>{{sfn|McMahan| 2008}} Other influences came through [[Paul Brunton]]'s ''A Search in Secret India'' (1934),<ref>{{cite web| url = https://archive.org/details/ASearchInSecretIndia| title = ''A Search in Secret India''}}</ref> which introduced [[Ramana Maharshi]] (1879–1950) and [[Meher Baba]] (1894–1969) to a western audience.

Spiritual experiences can include being connected to a larger reality, yielding a more comprehensive [[self]]; joining with other individuals or the [[human]] [[community]]; with [[nature]] or the [[cosmos]]; or with the [[Divinity|divine]] realm.<ref>Margaret A. Burkhardt and Mary Gail Nagai-Jacobson, ''Spirituality: living our connectedness'', Delmar Cengage Learning, p. xiii</ref>

===Spiritual practices===
{{Main|Spiritual practice}}
Kees Waaijman discerns four forms of spiritual practices:{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|pp=644–645}}
# Somatic practices, especially deprivation and diminishment. Deprivation aims to purify the body. Diminishment concerns the repulsement of ego-oriented impulses. Examples include fasting and poverty.{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|pp=644–645}}
# Psychological practices, for example meditation.{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=645}}
# Social practices. Examples include the practice of obedience and communal ownership, reforming ego-orientedness into other-orientedness.{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=645}}
# Spiritual. All practices aim at purifying ego-centeredness, and direct the abilities at the divine reality.{{sfn|Waaijman|2000|p=645}}

Spiritual practices may include [[meditation]], [[mindfulness]], [[prayer]], the contemplation of [[sacred text]]s, [[ethic]]al development,<ref name=Dalai>
Dalai Lama, ''Ethics for the New Millennium'', NY: Riverhead Books, 1999.
</ref>
and spiritual retreats in a convent. Love and/or compassion are often{{quantify|date= December 2015}} described{{by whom|date=September 2019}} as the mainstay of spiritual development.<ref name=Dalai/>

Within spirituality is also found "a common emphasis on the value of thoughtfulness, tolerance for breadth and practices and beliefs, and appreciation for the insights of other religious communities, as well as other sources of authority within the social sciences".<ref>{{cite journal| title = The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Mental and Physical Health | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | date = Feb 2001 | first = Kevin S. | last = Seybold |author2= Peter C. Hill  | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 21–24
| doi= 10.1111/1467-8721.00106| s2cid = 144109851 }}</ref>

==Scientific research==

===Health and well-being===
{{Main|Religion and health}}

Various studies (most  originating from North America) have reported a positive [[correlation]] between spirituality and mental well-being in both healthy people and those encountering a range of physical illnesses or psychological disorders.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Joshanloo|first1=Mohsen|title=Investigation of the Contribution of Spirituality and Religiousness to Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being in Iranian Young Adults|journal=Journal of Happiness Studies|date=4 December 2010|volume=12|issue=6|pages=915–30|doi=10.1007/s10902-010-9236-4|s2cid=143848163}}</ref><ref>Fehring, R.J., Miller, J.F., Shaw, C. (1997). Spiritual well-being, religiosity, hope, depression, and other mood states in elderly people coping with cancer 24. Oncology Nursing Forum. pp. 663–71.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Nelson | first1= C.J. | last2= Rosenfeld | first2= B. | last3= Breitbart | first3= W. | last4= Galietta | first4= M. | year= 2002 | title= Spirituality, religion, and depression in the terminally ill | journal= Psychosomatics | volume= 43 | issue= 3| pages= 213–20 | doi=10.1176/appi.psy.43.3.213 | pmid= 12075036 | doi-access= free }}</ref>{{sfn|Koenig|2008}} Although spiritual individuals tend to be optimistic,{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2019}} report greater social support,<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Salsman | first1= J.M. | last2= Brown | first2= T.L. | last3= Brechting | first3= E.H. | last4= Carlson | first4= C.R. | year= 2005 | title= The link between religion and spirituality and psychological adjustment: The mediating role of optimism and social support | journal= Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume= 31 | issue= 4| pages= 522–35 | doi=10.1177/0146167204271563| pmid= 15743986 | s2cid= 34780785 }}</ref> and experience higher intrinsic [[Meaning of life|meaning in life]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Park | first1= C | year= 2005 | title= Religion as a meaning-making framework in coping with life stress | journal= Journal of Social Issues | volume= 61 | issue= 4| pages= 707–29 | doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00428.x}}</ref> strength, and [[inner peace]],<ref>Hill, P.C. (1995). Affect theory and religious experience. In R.W. Hood, Jr (Ed.) Handbook of religious experience (pp.) Birmingham AL, Religious Education Press.</ref> whether the correlation represents a causal link remains contentious. Both supporters and opponents of this claim agree that past statistical findings are difficult to interpret, in large part because of the ongoing disagreement over how spirituality should be defined and measured.{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2013}} There is also evidence that an agreeable/positive temperament and/or a tendency toward sociability (which all correlate with spirituality) might actually be the key psychological features that predispose people to subsequently adopt a spiritual orientation and that these characteristics, not spiritually ''per se'', add to well-being. There is also some suggestion that the benefits associated with spirituality and religiosity might arise from being a member of a close-knit community. Social bonds available via secular sources (i.e.,  not unique to spirituality or faith-based groups) might just as effectively raise well-being. In sum, spirituality may not be the "active ingredient" (i.e., past association with psychological well-being measures might reflect a reverse causation or effects from other variables that correlate with spirituality),{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2011}}{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2013a}}<ref>Emmons, R.A. (2005). Emotion and religion. In [[Raymound Paloutzian|R.F. Paloutzian]], & C.L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 235–52). New York: Guilford Press.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Saroglou | first1= V. | last2= Buxant | first2= C. | last3= Tilquin | first3= J. | year= 2008 | title= Positive emotions as leading to religion and spirituality | journal= Journal of Positive Psychology | volume= 3 | issue= 3| pages= 165–73 | doi=10.1080/17439760801998737| s2cid= 145374566 }}</ref>{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2010}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Saroglou | first1= V | year= 2010 | title= Religiousness as a cultural adaptation of basic traits: A five-factor model perspective | journal= Personality and Social Psychology Review | volume= 14 | issue= 1| pages= 108–25 | doi=10.1177/1088868309352322| pmid= 20023209 | s2cid= 206682563 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Saroglou | first1= V | year= 2002 | title= Religion and the five factors of personality: A meta-analytic review | journal= Personality and Individual Differences | volume= 32 | issue= 1| pages= 15–25 | doi=10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00233-6}}</ref> and that the effects of agreeableness, conscientiousness, or virtue&nbsp;– personality traits common in many non-spiritual people yet known to be slightly more common among the spiritual&nbsp;– may better account for spirituality's apparent correlation with mental health and social support.{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2011}}<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.ibcsr.org/index.php/institute-research-portals/spirituality-and-health-causation-project/554-does-spirituality-help-well-being-or-do-we-just-need-to-be-good-to-each-other| title = independent review| access-date = 2014-07-14| archive-date = 2014-07-14| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140714123547/http://www.ibcsr.org/index.php/institute-research-portals/spirituality-and-health-causation-project/554-does-spirituality-help-well-being-or-do-we-just-need-to-be-good-to-each-other| url-status = live}}</ref>{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2017}}<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Gebauer | first1= J. | last2= Bleidorn | first2= W. | last3= Gosling | first3= S. | last4= Rentfrow | first4= P. | last5= Lamb | first5= M. | last6= Potter | first6= J. | year= 2014 | title= Cross-cultural variations in Big Five relationships with religiosity: A sociocultural motives perspective | journal= Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume= 107 | issue= 6 | pages= 1064–91 | doi= 10.1037/a0037683 | pmid= 25180757 | url= https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/247004 | access-date= 2019-12-09 | archive-date= 2020-07-14 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200714174030/https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/247004 | url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Löckenhoff |first1=C.E. |author1-link= Corinna Löckenhoff |last2=Ironson |first2=G.H. |last3=O'Cleirigh |first3=C. |last4=Costa |first4=P.T. |year=2009 |title=Five-Factor Model Personality Traits, Spirituality/Religiousness, and Mental Health Among People Living With HIV |journal=Journal of Personality |volume=77 |issue=5| pages=1411–1436 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00587.x |pmc=2739880 |pmid=19686457}}</ref>

===Intercessionary prayer===
Masters and Spielmans<ref>{{Cite journal | doi= 10.1007/s10865-007-9106-7 | last1= Masters | first1= K.S. | last2= Spielmans | first2= G.I | year= 2007 | title= Prayer and health: review, meta-analysis, and research agenda | journal= Journal of Behavioral Medicine | volume= 30 | issue= 4| pages= 329–38 | pmid= 17487575 | citeseerx= 10.1.1.462.3003 | s2cid= 3621477 }}</ref> conducted a [[meta-analysis]] of all the available and reputable research examining the effects of distant [[Intercession|intercessory]] prayer.  They found no discernible health effects from being prayed for by others. In fact, one large and scientifically rigorous study by [[Herbert Benson]] and colleagues<ref>{{Cite journal | doi= 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.05.028 | pmid= 16569567 | last1= Benson |display-authors=etal | year= 2006 | title= Study of the Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory Prayer (STEP) in cardiac bypass patients: A multicenter randomized trial of uncertainty and certainty of receiving intercessory prayer. | journal= American Heart Journal | volume= 151 | issue= 4 | pages= 934–42 }}</ref> revealed that intercessory prayer had no effect on recovery from cardiac arrest, but patients told people were praying for them actually had an ''increased risk'' of medical complications.

====Spiritual care in health care professions====
{{Main|Spiritual care in health care professions}}

In the health-care professions there is growing{{quantify|date=July 2017}} interest in "spiritual care", to complement the medical-technical approaches and to improve the outcomes of medical treatments.{{sfn|Koenig|King|Carson|2012}}{{sfn|Puchalski|Vitillo|Hull|Relle|2014}} Puchalski et al. argue for "[[compassion]]ate systems of care" in a spiritual context.

===Spiritual experiences===
[[Neuroscientist]]s have examined brain functioning during reported spiritual experiences<ref>Alper, Matthew, ''The "God" Part of the Brain: A Scientific Interpretation of Human Spirituality and God'' Sourcebooks, Inc., 2008 {{ISBN|1-4022-1452-9|978-1-4022-1452-3}}</ref><ref>Talan, Jamie ''Science Probes Spirituality'' February/March 2006: Scientific American Mind. [http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=FE043ADA-2B35-221B-65500BA1D8EBA2F7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231010456/http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=Products.ViewIssuePreview&ARTICLEID_CHAR=FE043ADA-2B35-221B-65500BA1D8EBA2F7|date=2010-12-31}}</ref> finding that certain neurotransmitters and specific areas of the brain are involved.<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Kurup | first1= R.K. | last2= Kurup | first2= P.A. | year= 2003 | title= Hypothalamic digoxin, hemispheric chemical digoxin, and spirituality | journal= International Journal of Neuroscience | volume= 113 | issue= 3| pages= 383–93 | doi=10.1080/00207450390162155| pmid= 12803140 | s2cid= 23851931 }}</ref><ref>Necini, P., & Grant, K.A. (2010). Psychobiology of drug-induced religious experience: From the brain 'locus of religion' to cognitive unbinding. Substance Use & Misuse, 45(13), 2130–51.</ref><ref>Joseph, R. (2001). The limbic system and the soul: Evolution and the neuroanatomy of religious experience, Zygon, 36(1), 105–36.</ref><ref>D'Aquili, E.G., & Newberg, A.B. (1998) The neuropsychological basis of religions, or Why God won't go away. Zygon, 33(2), 187–201</ref>  Moreover, experimenters have also successfully induced spiritual experiences in individuals by administering [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive agents]] known to elicit euphoria and perceptual distortions.<ref>Griffiths, R.R., Richards, W.A., McCann, U., Jesse, R. (2006). Psilocybin can occasion mystical type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance Psychopharmacology, 187:268–83</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Drevets | first1= W.C. | last2= Gautier | first2= C. | last3= Price | first3= J.C. | last4= Kupfer | first4= D.J. | last5= Kinahan | first5= P.E. | last6= Grace | first6= A.A. | last7= Price | first7= J.L. | last8= Mathis | first8= C.A. | year= 2001 | title= Amphetamine-induced dopamine release in human ventral striatum correlates with euphoria | journal= Biological Psychiatry | volume= 49 | issue= 2| pages= 81–96 | doi=10.1016/s0006-3223(00)01038-6| pmid= 11164755 | s2cid= 16090732 }}</ref> Conversely, religiosity and spirituality can also be ''dampened'' by electromagnetic stimulation of the brain.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.016|pmid=25697502|title=Excitatory stimulation of the right inferior parietal cortex lessens implicit religiousness/Spirituality |journal=Neuropsychologia|volume=70 |pages=71–79|year=2015|last1=Crescentini|first1=Cristiano|last2=Di Bucchianico|first2=Marilena|last3=Fabbro |first3=Franco|last4=Urgesi|first4=Cosimo|s2cid=20251662}}</ref> These results have motivated some leading theorists to speculate that spirituality may be a benign subtype of [[psychosis]]{{sfn|Schuurmans-Stekhoven|2013a}}<ref group=web>{{cite web |author=Tom Rees |date=June 5, 2013 |title=Does hallucinations + happiness = spirituality? |website=Epiphenom |url=http://www.patheos.com/blogs/epiphenom/2013/06/does-hallucinations-happiness.html |access-date=June 12, 2015 |archive-date=June 13, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613233257/http://www.patheos.com/blogs/epiphenom/2013/06/does-hallucinations-happiness.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Claridge, G. (2010) Spiritual experience: Healthy psychoticism? In Clarke, I. (Ed), Psychosis and spirituality: Consolidating the new paradigm (pp. 75–86). Chester: Wiley-Blackwell.</ref><ref name="Cottam, S. 2011">{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/13546805.2010.548543|pmid=21390926 |title=Does religious belief enable positive interpretation of auditory hallucinations? A comparison of religious voice hearers with and without psychosis|journal=Cognitive Neuropsychiatry|volume=16|issue=5 |pages=403–421|year=2011|last1=Cottam|first1=S.|last2=Paul |first2=S. N.|last3=Doughty|first3=O. J. |last4=Carpenter|first4=L.|last5=Al-Mousawi|first5=A.|last6=Karvounis|first6=S.|last7=Done|first7=D. J.|s2cid=21362892}}</ref><ref name="Davies, M.F. 2001">{{cite journal | last1= Davies | first1= M.F. | last2= Griffin | first2= M. | last3= Vice | first3= S. | year= 2001 | title= Affective reactions to auditory hallucinations in psychotic, evangelical and control groups | url= http://research.gold.ac.uk/63/1/BJCP_2001.pdf | journal= British Journal of Clinical Psychology | volume= 40 | issue= 4 | pages= 361–70 | doi= 10.1348/014466501163850 | pmid= 11760613 | access-date= 2018-12-17 | archive-date= 2018-12-18 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181218011108/http://research.gold.ac.uk/63/1/BJCP_2001.pdf | url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1= Thalbourne | first1= M.A. | last2= Delin | first2= P.S. | year= 1994 | title= A common thread underlying belief in the paranormal, creative personality, mystical experience and psychopathology | journal= Journal of Parapsychology | volume= 58 | pages= 3–38 }}</ref> – benign in the sense that the same aberrant sensory perceptions that those suffering clinical psychoses evaluate as distressingly incongruent and inexplicable are instead interpreted by spiritual individuals as positive (personal and meaningful transcendent experiences).<ref name="Cottam, S. 2011"/><ref name="Davies, M.F. 2001"/>

===Measurement===
Considerable debate persists about&nbsp;– among other factors&nbsp;– spirituality's relation to religion, the number and content of its dimensions, its relation to concepts of well-being, and its universality.<ref name="MAC">{{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=Douglas A. |last2=Friedman |first2=Harris L. |last3=Brewczynski |first3=Jacek |last4=Holland |first4=Daniel |last5=Salagame |first5=Kiran Kumar K. |last6=Mohan |first6=K. Krishna |last7=Gubrij |first7=Zuzana Ondriasova |last8=Cheong |first8=Hye Wook |last9=Sueur |first9=Cédric |title=Spirituality as a Scientific Construct: Testing Its Universality across Cultures and Languages |journal=PLOS ONE |date=3 March 2015 |volume=10 |issue=3 |article-number=e0117701 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0117701|pmid=25734921 |pmc=4348483 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1017701M |doi-access=free }}</ref> A number of research groups have developed instruments which attempt to measure spirituality quantitatively, including unidimensional (e.g. the Character Strength Inventory—Spirituality <ref>Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J.B. (2014). "Measuring Spirituality as Personal Belief in Supernatural Forces: Is the Character Strength Inventory-Spirituality subscale a brief, reliable and valid measure?". Implicit Religion. 17 (2): 211–222. doi:10.1558/imre.v17i2.211.</ref> and the Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale) and multi-dimensional (e.g. Spiritual Transcendence Scale (STS) and the Brief Multidimensional Measure of Religiousness/Spirituality (BMMRS)) scales. MacDonald et al. gave an "Expressions of Spirituality Inventory" (ESI-R) measuring five dimensions of spirituality to over 4000 persons across eight countries. The study results and interpretation highlighted the complexity and challenges of measurement of spirituality cross-culturally.<ref name="MAC"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|Religion}}
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
* [[Western esotericism|Esotericism]]
* [[Glossary of spirituality terms]]
* [[Ietsism]]
* [[Interspirituality]]
* [[Kardecist spiritism]]
* [[Multiple religious belonging]]
* [[Outline of spirituality]]
* [[Reason]]
* [[Relationship between religion and science]]
* [[Sacred–profane dichotomy]]
* [[Self-actualization]]
* [[Spiritual activism]]
* [[Spiritual intelligence]]
* [[Sublime (philosophy)]]
* [[Thelema]]
* [[True Will]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note|30em}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==

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* {{cite journal | last=Schuurmans-Stekhoven | first=J.B. | year=2019 | title=Conviction, character and coping: religiosity and personality are both uniquely associated with optimism and positive reappraising |journal=Mental Health, Religion & Culture | pages=1–17}}
* {{cite journal | last=Sharf | first=Robert H. | title=Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience | journal=NUMEN | volume=42 | issue=3 | year=1995 | pages=228–283 | doi=10.1163/1568527952598549 | hdl=2027.42/43810 | hdl-access=free | url=http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1995,%20Buddhist%20Modernism.pdf | access-date=2013-02-10 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412103407/http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1995,%20Buddhist%20Modernism.pdf | archive-date=2019-04-12 }}
* {{cite journal | last=Sharf | first=Robert H. | year=2000 | title=The Rhetoric of Experience and the Study of Religion | journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies | volume=7 | issue=11–12 | pages=267–287 | url=http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1998,%20Religious%20Experience.pdf | access-date=2013-01-13 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513104227/http://buddhiststudies.berkeley.edu/people/faculty/sharf/documents/Sharf1998,%20Religious%20Experience.pdf | archive-date=2013-05-13 }}
* {{cite book | last=Sheldrake | first=Philip | year=2007 | title=A Brief History of Spirituality | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell}}
* {{cite book | last=Sinari | first=Ramakant | year=2000 | chapter=Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy |editor=Chattopadhyana |title=History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization |volume=II | place=Delhi | publisher=Centre for Studies in Civilizations}}
* {{cite book | last1= Snyder | first1= C.R. | author-link= C. R. Snyder | last2= Lopez | first2= Shane J. |year=2007 | title= Positive Psychology  | publisher= Sage Publications, Inc. | isbn=978-0-7619-2633-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sonsino|first=Rifat|year=2002|title=Six Jewish Spiritual Paths: A Rationalist Looks at Spirituality}}
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* {{cite book | last=Versluis | first=Arthur | year=2014 | title=American Gurus: From Transcendentalism to New Age Religion | publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book | last=Waaijman | first=Kees | year=2000 | title=Spiritualiteit. Vormen, grondslagen, methoden | place= Kampen/Gent | publisher=Kok/Carmelitana}}
* {{cite book | last=Waaijman | first=Kees | year=2002 | title=Spirituality: Forms, Foundations, Methods | publisher=Peeters Publishers}}
* {{cite journal | last1=Wong | first1=Yuk-Lin Renita | last2=Vinsky | first2=Jana | year=2009 | title=Speaking from the Margins: A Critical Reflection on the 'Spiritual-but-not-Religious' Discourse in Social Work | journal=British Journal of Social Work |volume=39 | issue=7 |pages=1343–1359 | doi=10.1093/bjsw/bcn032}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Yelle |first=Robert A. |date=December 2012 |title=Comparative Religion as Cultural Combat: Occidentalism and Relativism in Rajiv Malhotra's ''Being Different'' |journal=[[International Journal of Hindu Studies]] |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=335–348 |doi=10.1007/s11407-012-9133-z |s2cid=144950049}}
{{refend}}

===Web-sources===
{{Reflist|group=web}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Comans |first=Michael |year=2000 |title=The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda |place=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Carrette |first1=J. R. |last2=King |first2=R. |year=2011 |title=Selling spirituality: The silent takeover of religion |place=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-30209-8 |oclc=774046317 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Downey |first=Michael |title=Understanding Christian Spirituality |place=New York |publisher=Paulist Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8091-3680-3 |oclc=1203470053 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Eck |first=D. L. |year=2009 |title=A new religious America: How a "Christian country" has now become the world's most religiously diverse nation |place=New York |publisher=Harper One |isbn=978-0-06-062159-9 |oclc=642935048 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=James |first=William |author-link=William James |year=2018 |orig-date=1902 |title=[[The Varieties of Religious Experience]] |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-82663-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kapuscinski |first1=Afton N. |last2=Masters |first2=Kevin S. |author2-link=Kevin Masters (psychologist) |date=2010 |title=The current status of measures of spirituality: A critical review of scale development. |journal=[[Psychology of Religion and Spirituality]] |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=191–205 |doi=10.1037/a0020498 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Oman |first=Doug |year=2013 |chapter=Defining Religion and Spirituality |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8UyRrM2bVQ8C&pg=PA23 |editor-last1=Paloutzian |editor-first1=Raymond F. |editor-last2=Park |editor-first2=Crystal L. |title=Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality |publisher=Guilford |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4625-1006-1 |pages=23–47 |edition=2nd |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Schmidt |first=L. E. |year=2012 |title=Restless souls: The making of American spirituality |place=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-27367-2 |oclc=901470818 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schneiders |first1=Sandra M. |author-link1=Sandra M. Schneiders |title=Spirituality in the Academy |journal=[[Theological Studies (journal)|Theological Studies]] |date=1989 |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=676–97 |doi=10.1177/004056398905000403 |s2cid=55194754 |issn=0040-5639 |oclc=556989066 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Schneiders |first1=Sandra M. |title=Spirituality as an Academic Discipline: Reflections from Experience |journal=Christian Spirituality Bulletin |date=1993 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=10–15 |issn=1082-9008 |oclc=31697474 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Sheldrake |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Sheldrake |year=1998 |title=Spirituality and history: Questions of interpretation and method |publisher=[[Orbis Books]] |location=[[Maryknoll]], NY |isbn=978-1-57075-203-2 |oclc=796958914 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Spretnak |first=Charlene |author-link=Charlene Spretnak |title=The Spiritual Dynamic in Modern Art: Art History Reconsidered, 1800 to the Present |year=1986 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-35003-9 |oclc=951518757 |ref=none}}

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[[Category:Spirituality| ]]
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[[Category:Metaphysics of religion]]
[[Category:Epistemology of religion]]