View source for Srivijaya

{{Short description|Empire based on Sumatra (c. 671–1025 AD)}}
{{about|the empire|the airline|Sriwijaya Air}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}}
{{for|the Rashtrakuta Poet|Sri vijaya}}
{{Infobox Former Country
| conventional_long_name = Srivijaya
| common_name            = Srivijaya
| native_name            = ''Kadatuan Śrīvijaya''
| p1                     = Kantoli
| s1                     = Melayu Kingdom
| year_start             = {{Circa|671}}
| date_event1            = 
| year_end               = 1025
| date_start             = 
| event_start            = Dapunta Hyang's expedition and expansion ([[Kedukan Bukit inscription]])
| event1                 = 
| event_end              = [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]]
| image_coat             = 
| symbol_type            = 
| image_map              = Srivijaya Empire.svg
| image_map_caption      = The maximum extent of Srivijaya around the 8th to the 11th century with a series of Srivijayan expeditions and conquest
| image_map2             = File:Srivijayan Expansion.gif
| image_map2_caption     = Map of the expansion of the Srivijaya empire, beginning in [[Palembang]] in the 7th century, then extending to most of [[Sumatra]], then expanding to [[Java]], [[Riau Islands]], [[Bangka Belitung]], [[Singapore]], [[Malay Peninsula]] (also known as: Kra Peninsula), [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]], South [[Vietnam]], [[Kalimantan]], [[Sarawak]], [[Brunei]], [[Sabah]], and ended as the Kingdom of [[Dharmasraya]] in [[Jambi]] in the 13th century.
| capital                = [[Palembang]]<ref name=":02" />{{rp|295}}
| common_languages       = [[History of the Malay language#Old Malay|Old Malay]] and [[Sanskrit]]
| government_type        = Monarchy, [[Mandala (political model)|mandala]] state
| title_leader           = Maharaja
| leader1                = [[Sri Jayanasa of Srivijaya|Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa]]
| year_leader1           = Circa 683 AD
| leader2                = [[Dharmasetu]]
| year_leader2           = Circa 775
| leader3                = [[Samaratungga]]
| year_leader3           = Circa 792
| leader4                = [[Balaputra]]
| year_leader4           = Circa 835
| leader5                = Sri [[Cudamani Warmadewa]]
| year_leader5           = Circa 988
| currency               = [[Early Nusantara coins]]
| stat_year1             = 1200 est.
| stat_area1             = 1200000
| ref_area1              = <ref name="Turchin223">{{Cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D |date=December 2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=223 |issn=1076-156X |doi=10.5195/JWSR.2006.369|doi-access=free }}</ref>
| religion               = [[Buddhism]]<br>[[Hinduism]]
}}
{{History of Indonesia}}
{{History of Singapore}}
{{History of Malaysia}}
{{History of Thailand}}
'''Srivijaya''' ({{langx|id|Sriwijaya}}),<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|131}} also spelled '''Sri Vijaya''' or '''Sriwijaya''',<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42720174 | jstor=42720174 | title=Sri Vijaya and Madjapahit | last1=Rausa-Gomez | first1=Lourdes | journal=Philippine Studies | date=20 January 1967 | volume=15 | issue=1 | pages=63–107 | doi=10.13185/2244-1638.2335 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43733093 | jstor=43733093 | title=Śrī Vijaya | last1=Sastri | first1=K. A. Nilakanta | journal=Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient | date=20 January 2024 | volume=40 | issue=2 | pages=239–313 }}</ref> was a [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]] [[thalassocracy|thalassocratic]]<ref name="Kulke"/> [[empire]] based on the island of [[Sumatra]] (in modern-day [[Indonesia]]) that influenced much of [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name="end">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|pages=171|isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref> Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of [[Buddhism]] from the 7th to 11th century AD. Srivijaya was the first polity to dominate much of western [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. Due to its location, Srivijaya developed complex technology using maritime resources. In addition, its economy became progressively reliant on [[Maritime Silk Road|the booming trade in the region]], thus transforming it into a [[luxury good|prestige goods]]-based economy.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=History of Humanity|last1=Laet|first1=Sigfried J. de|last2=Herrmann|first2=Joachim|publisher=Routledge|year=1994}}</ref>

The earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A [[Tang dynasty]] [[Chinese people|Chinese]] [[Bhikkhu|monk]], [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]], wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for six months.<ref>{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=122}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Zain|first=Sabri|title=Sejarah Melayu, Buddhist Empires|url=http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/hindu.htm }}</ref> The earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the [[Kedukan Bukit inscription]] found near [[Palembang]], [[Sumatra]], dated 16 June 682.<ref>{{cite book |last=Peter Bellwood |author2=James J. Fox |author3=[[Darrell Tryon]] |editor-first1=Peter |editor-first2=James J. |editor-first3=Darrell |editor-last1=Bellwood |editor-last2=Fox |editor-last3=Tryon |title=The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives |year=1995 |doi=10.22459/A.09.2006 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-0-7315-2132-6 |url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile_devices/ch15s05.html}}</ref> Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a [[hegemony|hegemon]] in [[Southeast Asia]]. It was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]], [[Khom Empire|Khom]] or Khmer Empire and [[Champa]]. Srivijaya's main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with [[China]] which lasted from the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] to the [[Song dynasty]]. Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist [[Pala Empire|Pala]] of [[Bengal]], as well as with the Islamic [[Caliphate]] in the [[Middle East]].

Srivijaya is widely recognized as a powerful maritime kingdom in Southeast Asia. New research shows that while it had significant land-based elements, Srivijaya leveraged its maritime fleet not only for logistical support but also as a primary tool to project power across strategic waterways, such as the [[Strait of Malacca]]. In response to the ever-changing dynamics of Asia’s maritime economy, the kingdom developed sophisticated naval strategies to maintain its position as a regional trade hub. These strategies involved regulating trade routes and attracting merchant ships to their ports through strict control. As threats grew, Srivijaya’s fleet also transformed into an effective offensive force, used to protect trade interests while ensuring their dominance in the region.<ref>{{Cite web |editor-last=Thwin |editor-first=Maitrii Aung |title=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies {{!}} Cambridge Core |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-southeast-asian-studies |access-date=2024-12-13 |publisher= |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SRIVIJAYAN CIVILIZATION : The Awakening of a Maritime Kingdom |url=https://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/27041/1/INTERNATIONAL%20SEMINAR.pdf |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=Repositori Kemdikbud |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

The kingdom may have disintegrated after 1025 CE following [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|several major raids]] launched by the [[Chola Empire]] upon their ports.<ref name=":6" />{{rp|110}} Chinese sources continued to refer a polity named [[Sanfoqi]] thought to be Srivijaya for a few centuries, but some historians argued that Srivijaya would no longer be the appropriate name for the overlord's centre after 1025, when Sanfoqi referred to Jambi.<ref name=":02"/> After Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that [[French people|French]] historian [[George Cœdès]], of the [[French School of the Far East]], formally postulated its existence.<ref name="MUNOZ 117"/>
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1020s]]

== Etymology ==
''Srivijaya'' is a [[Sanskrit]]-derived name: श्रीविजय, ''Śrīvijaya''. ''Śrī''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://learnsanskrit.cc/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=sri&direct=au|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|last=Glashoff|first=Klaus|website=learnsanskrit.cc|access-date=2021-09-18}}</ref> means "fortunate", "prosperous", or "happy" and also has some association with the divine, at least in [[Hinduism]]. ''Vijaya''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://learnsanskrit.cc/index.php?mode=3&script=hk&tran_input=vijaya&direct=au|title=Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit|last=Glashoff|first=Klaus|website=learnsanskrit.cc|access-date=2021-09-18}}</ref> means "victorious" or "excellence".<ref name="MUNOZ 117">{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=117}}</ref> Thus, the combined word ''Srivijaya'' means "shining victory",<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/2007/06/07/srivijaya-a-primer-part-1/|title=Srivijaya: A primer – Part 1 {{!}} SEAArch – Southeast Asian Archaeology|date=2007-06-07|work=SEAArch – Southeast Asian Archaeology|access-date=2018-10-04|language=en-GB}}</ref> "splendid triumph", "prosperous victor", "radiance of excellence" or simply "glorious". 

Early 20th-century historians who studied the inscriptions of [[Sumatra]] and the neighboring islands thought that the term "Srivijaya" referred to a king's name. In 1913, [[Johan Hendrik Caspar Kern|H. Kern]] was the first [[Epigraphy|epigraphist]] that identified the name "Srivijaya" written in a 7th-century [[Kota Kapur inscription]] (discovered in 1892). However, at that time he believed that it referred to a king named "Vijaya", with "[[Sri]]" as an honorific title for a king or ruler.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/munas/prasasti-kota-kapur-dan-nama-kedatuan-sriwijaya/|title=Prasasti Kota Kapur dan nama Kedatuan Sriwijaya|last=MNI|date=2017-11-21|website=Museum Nasional|language=id|access-date=2019-09-01}}</ref>

The [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]] manuscript of [[Carita Parahyangan]], composed around the late 16th century in [[West Java]], mentioned the name "Sang Sri Wijaya". The manuscript describes princely hero that rose to be a king named [[Sanjaya of Mataram|Sanjaya]] that—after he secured his rule in [[Java]]—was involved in battle with the [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] and [[Keling]] against their king Sang Sri Wijaya.{{efn|group=lower-roman|1=[[Carita Parahyangan]] Canto XI: ''Ti inya Rahiyang Sanjaya nyabrang ka désa Malayu. Diprang di Kemir, éléh Rahiyangtang Gana. Diprang deui ka Keling, éléh Sang Sriwijaya.''}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Téks Carita Parahyangan|url=https://docs.google.com/document/preview?hgd=1&id=1yEQp083nAHM3zJ-Z3yZPU0hjN19whZmVBVABrI2btP8&usp=embed_facebook|access-date=2021-12-06|website=Google Docs|language=en}}</ref>

Subsequently, after studying local stone inscriptions, manuscripts and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] historical accounts, historians concluded that the term "Srivijaya" was in reference to a [[polity]] or [[Monarchy|kingdom]]. The main concern is to define Srivijaya's amorphous statehood as a [[thalassocracy]], which dominated a confederation of semi autonomous harbour cities in Maritime Southeast Asia.<ref name="Kulke">{{Cite journal|last=Kulke|first=Hermann|date=2016|title=Śrīvijaya Revisited: Reflections on State Formation of a Southeast Asian Thalassocracy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26435122|journal=Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient|volume=102|pages=45–96|doi=10.3406/befeo.2016.6231 |jstor=26435122 |issn=0336-1519|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Historiography==
[[File:Talang Tuo Inscription.jpg|thumb|left|[[Talang Tuwo inscription]], discovered in [[Bukit Seguntang]] area, tells the establishment of the sacred Śrīksetra park.]]

Little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains.<ref>{{cite book | last =Taylor | title =Indonesia| pages = 29}}</ref> There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in [[Indonesia]] and [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]; its forgotten past has been resurrected by foreign scholars. Contemporary Indonesians, even those from the area of [[Palembang]] (around where the kingdom was based), had not heard of Srivijaya until the 1920s when the [[French people|French]] scholar, [[George Cœdès]], published his discoveries and interpretations in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Indonesian language]] newspapers.<ref name="TAYLOR_26">{{cite book |last=Taylor|first=Jean Gelman|title=Indonesia: Peoples and Histories|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2003 |location= New Haven and London|url=https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean|url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean/page/8 8–9]|isbn= 0-300-10518-5}}</ref> Cœdès noted that the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] references to ''[[Sanfoqi]]'', previously read as ''Sribhoja'' or ''Sribogha'', and the inscriptions in [[Malay language|Old Malay]] refer to the same empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Krom|first=N.J.|chapter= Het Hindoe-tijdperk |title= Geschiedenis van Nederlandsch Indië|editor= F.W. Stapel|publisher=N.V. U.M. Joost van den Vondel|year=1938 |location= Amsterdam|pages= vol. I p. 149|no-pp=true }}</ref>

The Srivijayan historiography is based on two main sources: the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] historical accounts and the Southeast Asian stone inscriptions that have been discovered and deciphered in the region. The [[Buddhist]] monk [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]]'s account is especially important in describing Srivijaya, when he visited the kingdom in 671 for six months. The 7th-century ''siddhayatra'' inscriptions discovered in [[Palembang]] and [[Bangka Island]] are also vital primary historical sources. Also, regional accounts that some might be preserved and retold as tales and legends, such as the [[Zabag kingdom|Legend of the Maharaja of Zabaj and the Khmer King]] also provide a glimpse of the kingdom. Some Indian and [[Arabic]] accounts also vaguely describe the riches of the king of [[Zabag (ancient territory)|Zabag]]. It's likely that the Zabag-Khmer story was based on Javanese overlordship over Cambodia.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|269, 302}}

The historical records of Srivijaya were reconstructed from a number of stone inscriptions, most of them written in [[Malay language|Old Malay]] using [[Pallava script]], such as the [[Kedukan Bukit inscription|Kedukan Bukit]], [[Talang Tuwo inscription|Talang Tuwo]], [[Telaga Batu inscription|Telaga Batu]] and [[Kota Kapur inscription|Kota Kapur]] inscriptions.<ref name="Coedes">{{cite book |last=Coedès |first=George |url=http://hdl.handle.net/1885/115188 |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |others=trans.Susan Brown Cowing |year=1968 |hdl=1885/115188 |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1 |editor=Walter F. Vella |author-link=George Coedès}}</ref>{{rp|82–83}} Srivijaya became a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Java's [[Majapahit]] in the east. In the 20th century, both empires were referred to by nationalistic intellectuals to argue for an [[Indonesian people|Indonesian]] identity within a united Indonesian state that had existed prior to the colonial state of the [[Dutch East Indies]].<ref name="TAYLOR_26"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Sriwijaya : history, religion & language of on early Malay polity / collected studies by George Coedes and Lovis-Charles Damais; edited, Pierre-Ives Manguin and Tan Sri Dato Mubin Sheppard, OPAC Perpustakaan Nasional RI. |url=https://opac.perpusnas.go.id/DetailOpac.aspx?id=641227 |access-date=2022-08-05 |website=opac.perpusnas.go.id}}</ref>

Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples. The Chinese called it ''[[Sanfotsi]]'', ''[[Sanfotsi|Sanfoqi]]'' or ''Che-li-fo-che'' (''Shilifoshi''), and there was an even older kingdom of [[Kantoli]], which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya.<ref name="MUNOZ 114">{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=114}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=102}}</ref> The [[Arab people|Arabs]] called it ''[[Zabag Kingdom|Zabag]]'' or ''Sribuza'' and the [[Khmer people|Khmer]] called it ''Melayu''.<ref name="MUNOZ 114" /> While the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] called them ''[[Suvarnabhumi]]'', ''[[Suvarnadvipa]]'', ''Melayu'', or ''Malayu''. This is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult.<ref name="MUNOZ 114" /> While some of these names are strongly reminiscent of the name of [[Java]], there is a distinct possibility that they may have been referring to [[Sumatra]] instead.<ref>{{cite book |last= Krom |first= N.J. |title= Het oude Java en zijn kunst |edition =2nd| year= 1943|publisher= Erven F. Bohn N.V. |location= Haarlem |pages= 12}}</ref>

==Capital==
===Palembang===
According to the [[Kedukan Bukit inscription]], dated 605 Saka (683), Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of today's [[Palembang]], on the banks of the [[Musi River (Indonesia)|Musi River]]. It mentions that [[Sri Jayanasa of Srivijaya|Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa]] came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion. The [[Palembang]] theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin. [[Soekmono]], on the other hand, argues that [[Palembang]] was not the capital of Srivijaya and suggests that the [[Kampar River]] system in [[Riau]] where the [[Muara Takus]] temple is located as Minanga Tamwan.<ref name="Soekmono">{{cite book |author1=Drs. R. Soekmono | title= ''Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2''| edition= 2nd | publisher = Penerbit Kanisius | year= 1973 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Ua_L2i3HgOIC |location =Yogyakarta| page=38|isbn=9789794132906|language=id}}</ref> However, a recent study suggests that Minanga Tamwan is located by the upper [[Komering River]] in modern Minanga village, Cempaka district, [[East Ogan Komering Ulu Regency]], South Sumatra.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-01-08 |title=Masa Klasik Hindu-Buddha: Nama Desa Disebut dalam Prasasti |url=https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/bpcbjambi/masa-klasik-hindu-buddha-nama-desa-disebut-dalam-prasasti/ |access-date=2024-06-03 |publisher=Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Jambi |language=id}}</ref> Komering River is a tributary of the Musi River, with its [[confluence]] located in Palembang.

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Houtvlotten met woningen erop die de rivier Moesi afzakken Palembang Zuid-Sumatra TMnr 10007707.jpg|thumb|left|[[Floating house]]s in [[Musi River (Indonesia)|Musi River]] bank near Palembang in 1917. The Srivijayan capital was probably formed from a collection of floating houses like this.<ref>Het sultanaat Palembang 1811 – 1825, M.O. Wolders, Kon. Inst. voor taal-, land- en volkenkunde, Den Haag 1975</ref>]]

Other than the Kedukan Bukit inscription and other Srivijayan inscriptions, immediately to the west of modern Palembang city, a quantity of artefacts have been revealed through archaeological surveys commenced since the 20th century. Artefacts unearthed include large amounts of Chinese ceramics and Indian rouletted ware remains, also the ruins of stupa at the foot of [[Bukit Seguntang]]. Furthermore, a significant number of Hindu-Buddhist statuary has been recovered from the Musi River basin. These discoveries reinforce the suggestion that Palembang was the centre of Srivijaya.<ref name="Britannica-Srivijaya-Palembang">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia|title=Indonesia – The Malay kingdom of Srivijaya-Palembang|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref> Nevertheless, Palembang left little archaeological traces of ancient urban settlement. This is probably because of the nature of Palembang's environment — a low-lying plain which is frequently flooded by the Musi River. Experts suggests that the ancient Palembang settlement was formed as a collection of [[floating house]]s made from [[thatching|thatched materials]], such as wood, [[bamboo]] and straw. [[Zhao Rukuo]]'s 13th century Chinese account ''[[Zhu Fan Zhi]]'' confirmed this; "The residents of ''[[Sanfotsi|Sanfo-tsi]]'' (Srivijaya) live scattered outside the city on the water, within rafts lined with reeds." It was probably that only [[Kedatuan]] (king's court) and religious structures were built on land, while the people live in floating houses along the Musi River.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sumayku |first=Reynold |date=2013-09-17 |title=Konsep Mendesa di Ibu Kota Kerajaan Sriwijaya |url=https://sains.kompas.com/read/xml/2013/09/17/2047497/Konsep.Mendesa.di.Ibu.Kota.Kerajaan.Sriwijaya |access-date=2024-06-05 |publisher=KOMPAS.com |language=id}}</ref>

Palembang and its relevance to the early Malay state were controversial in terms of its evidence build-up through the archaeological record. Strong historical evidence found in Chinese sources, speaking of city-like settlements as early as 700 AD, and later [[Arabs|Arab]] travelers, who visited the region during the 10th and 11th centuries, held written proof, named the kingdom of Srivijaya. As far as early state-like polities in the [[Malay Archipelago]], the geographical location of modern Palembang was a possible candidate for the 1st-millennium kingdom settlement like Srivijaya as it is the best described and most secure in historical context, its prestige was apparent in wealth and urban characteristics, and the most unique, which no other 1st-millennium kingdom held, was its location in junction to three major rivers, the Musi River, the [[Komering River]], and the [[Ogan River]]. The historical evidence was contrasted in 1975 with publications by Bennet Bronson and Jan Wisseman. Findings at certain major excavation sites, such as Geding Suro, Penyaringan Air Bersih, Sarang Wati, and Bukit Seguntang, conducted in the region played major roles in the negative evidence of the 1st-millennium kingdom in the same region. It was noted that the region contained no locatable settlements earlier than the middle of the second millennium.

Lack of evidence of southern settlements in the archaeological record comes from the disinterest in the archeologist and the unclear physical visibility of the settlements themselves. Archeology of the 1920s and 1930s focused more on art and epigraphy found in the regions. Some northern urban settlements were sited due to some overlap in fitting the sinocentric model of city-state urban centres. An approach to differentiate between urban settlements in the southern regions from the northern ones of [[Southeast Asia]] was initiated by a proposition for an alternative model. Excavations showed failed signs of a complex urban centre under the lens of a sinocentric model, leading to parameters of a new proposed model. Parameters for such a model of a city-like settlement included isolation in relevance to its hinterland. No hinterland makes low archaeological visibility. The settlement must also have access to both easy transportation and major interregional trade routes, crucial in a region with few resources. Access to the former and later played a major role in the creation of an extreme economic surplus in the absence of an exploited hinterland. The urban centre must be able to organize politically without the need for ceremonial foci such as temples, monuments and inscriptions. Lastly, habitations must be impermanent, being highly probable in the region Palembang and of southern Southeast Asia. Such a model was proposed to challenge city concepts of ancient urban centres in [[Southeast Asia]] and basic postulates themselves such as regions found in the south, like Palembang, based their achievements in correlation with urbanization.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Bronson|first1=Bennet|last2=Wisseman|first2=Jan|date=17 April 1975|title=Palembang as Srivijaya The Lateness of Early Cities in Southern Southeast Asia|journal=Asian Perspectives|volume=19|issue=2|pages=220–239}}</ref>

[[File:Srivijaya Archaeological Park Palembang Indonesia.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Srivijaya Archaeological Park]] (green) located southwest from the centre of [[Palembang]]. The site forms an axis connecting [[Bukit Seguntang]] and [[Musi River (Indonesia)|Musi River]].]]

Due to the contradicting pattern found in southern regions, like Palembang, in 1977 Bennet Bronson developed a speculative model for a better understanding of coastal-oriented states in Insular Southeast Asia, such as insular and [[Peninsular Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], and western [[Indonesia]]. Its main focus was the relationship of political, economic and geographical systems. The general political and economic pattern of the region seems irrelevant to other parts of the world of their time, but in correlation with their maritime trade network, it produced high levels of socio-economic complexity. He concluded, from his earlier publications in 1974 that state development in this region developed much differently than the rest of early Southeast Asia. Bronson's model was based on the dendritic patterns of a drainage basin where its opening leads out to sea. Being that historical evidence places the capital in Palembang, and in junction of three rivers, the Musi River, the Komering River, and the Ogan River, such model can be applied. For the system to function appropriately, several constraints are required. The inability for terrestrial transportation results in movements of all goods through water routes, lining up economical patterns with the dendritic patterns formed by the streams. The second being the overseas centre is economically superior to the ports found at the mouth of the rivers, having a higher population and a more productive and technologically advanced economy. Lastly, constraints on the land work against and do not develop urban settlements.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bronson|first=Bennet|editor-first1=Karl |editor-last1=Hutterer |date=1977|title=Exchange at the Upstream and Downstream Ends: Notes toward Functional Model of the Coastal State in Southeast Asia|journal=Economic Exchange and Social Interaction in Southeast Asia|pages=39–52 |doi=10.3998/mpub.19412 |jstor=10.3998/mpub.19412|isbn=9780472901722 |url=https://www.doabooks.org/doab?func=search&query=rid:48495 }}</ref>

An aerial photograph taken in 1984 near Palembang (in what is now [[Srivijaya Archaeological Park]]) revealed the remnants of ancient man-made canals, moats, ponds, and artificial islands, suggesting the location of Srivijaya's urban centre. Several artefacts such as fragments of inscriptions, Buddhist statues, beads, pottery and Chinese ceramics were found, confirming that the area had once been densely populated.<ref name="Dinas Pendidikan Provinsi Sumatera Selatan">Ahmad Rapanie, Cahyo Sulistianingsih, Ribuan Nata, "Kerajaan Sriwijaya, Beberapa Situs dan Temuannya", Museum Negeri Sumatera Selatan, Dinas Pendidikan Provinsi Sumatera Selatan.</ref> By 1993, Pierre-Yves Manguin had shown that the centre of Srivijaya was along the Musi River between Bukit Seguntang and Sabokingking (situated in what is now [[Palembang]], [[South Sumatra]], Indonesia).<ref name="MUNOZ 117" /> Palembang is called in {{zh|c=巨港|p=Jù gǎng|l=Giant Harbour}}, this is probably a testament of its history as a once a great port.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

In 2021 a number of treasures were found in the shallows and riverbed of the Musi River by local fishermen during a dive.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Media Dunia Heboh atas Temuan Harta Karun Swarnadwipa Kerajaan Sriwijaya di Dasar Sungai Musi|url=https://www.kompas.tv/article/224817/media-dunia-heboh-atas-temuan-harta-karun-swarnadwipa-kerajaan-sriwijaya-di-dasar-sungai-musi|access-date=2021-11-11|website=KOMPAS.tv|language=id}}</ref> The treasures included coins of various periods, gold jewelries, Buddhist statues, gems, colourful beads, and Chinese ceramic fragments. However, these troves were immediately lost as local treasure hunters sold them to international antiquities dealers before archaeologists could properly study them.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-22|title=Have Sumatran fishing crews found the fabled Island of Gold?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/22/have-sumatran-fishing-crews-found-the-fabled-island-of-gold|access-date=2021-11-11|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> These discoveries led to the treasure rush in the Musi River in 2021, where locals formed groups of treasure divers operating in parts of the Musi River in and around Palembang.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-11-08|title=Berburu Harta Karun Sungai Musi|url=https://interaktif.kompas.id/baca/berburu-harta-karun-sungai-musi/|access-date=2021-11-11|website=Tutur Visual Kompas.id|language=id}}</ref> These troves seem to confirm that Palembang was indeed the commercial centre of Srivijaya.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

===Jambi===
[[File:Candi Muaro Jambi dengan langit biru.jpg|thumb|right|[[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds|Muaro Jambi]] Buddhist temple compound, a possible location of Srivijaya's religious centre]]
Some scholars argue that the centre of Srivijaya was located in [[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds|Muaro Jambi]], and not Palembang.<ref name="Leyten">{{Cite journal |last=Leyten |first=J. |title=Muaro Jambi, The Capital of Srivijaya, According to the writings of I-Tsing, Chau Ju-kua and recent studies and archaeological findings | date = April 2017 |url=https://www.academia.edu/34273392|website=academia.edu}}</ref> In 2013, archaeological research led by the [[University of Indonesia]] discovered several religious and habitation sites at the [[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds]], suggesting that the initial centre of Srivijaya was located in the [[Muaro Jambi Regency]], Jambi on the [[Batang Hari River]], rather than on the originally-proposed Musi River.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://koran-jakarta.com/index.php/detail/view01/124087/hl |title=Peneliti UI Temukan Bukti Kerajaan Sriwijaya di Jambi |language=id |date=15 July 2013 |last1=Jakarta |first1=Koran }}</ref> The archaeological site includes eight excavated temple sanctuaries and covers about 12 square kilometers, and stretches 7.5 kilometers along the Batang Hari River, while 80 mounds (''menapos'') of temple ruins, are not yet restored.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lovejambi.com/wisata-unik-di-candi-muaro-jambi.html|title=Muaro Jambi Temple: The Legacy of Ancient Jambi|date=25 September 2011|access-date=3 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130630104221/http://lovejambi.com/wisata-unik-di-candi-muaro-jambi.html|archive-date=30 June 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="Temple">{{cite web|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/11/25/muarajambi-temple-jambi-s-monumental-mystery.html |title=Muarajambi Temple: Jambi's monumental mystery |author=Syofiardi Bachyul Jb |date=November 25, 2014}}</ref> The Muaro Jambi archaeological site was [[Mahayana]]-[[Vajrayana]] [[Buddhist]] in nature, which suggests that the site served as a Buddhist learning centre, connected to the 10th century Buddhist scholar [[Dharmakīrtiśrī|Suvarṇadvipi Dharmakīrti]]. Chinese sources also mentioned that Srivijaya hosted thousands of Buddhist [[Bhikku|monks]].

Compared to Palembang, Muaro Jambi has richer archaeological sites, i.e. multiple red brick temples and building structures along the Batang Hari river whilst Pelembang has no comparable temples or building structures. The proponents of the theory that Muaro Jambi was Srivijaya's capital point out that the descriptions written by [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]] and [[Zhao Rukuo]], the description of [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|Srivijaya realms by the Cholas]] and archaeological findings, suggest that Srivijaya's capital fits Muaro Jambi's environment better than the marshy Palembang.<ref name="Leyten"/> The study also compares the environment, geographical location, and the economic wealth of both cities; arguing that Jambi, located on the mouth of the Batang Hari River basin with its connection to Minangkabau hinterland was the centre of gold trade in the area, that described as the fabulous wealth of Srivijaya.<ref name="Leyten"/>

===Central Java===
In the second half of the eighth century, the Srivijayan mandala seems to have been ruled by the Sailendra dynasty of Central Java. Several Arabic sources mentioned that Zabag (the Javanese Sailendra dynasty) ruled over Sribuza (Srivijaya), Kalah (a place in the Malay Peninsula, probably Kedah), and Ramni (a place in Sumatra, probably [[Lambri]]). However, it's unknown whether Srivijaya's capital moved to Java or Srivijaya simply became a subordinate of Java.<ref name=":7">{{cite web |last=Zakharov |first=Anton A |date=August 2012 |title=The Śailendras Reconsidered |url=https://iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps12.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101014301/http://nsc.iseas.edu.sg/documents/working_papers/nscwps012.pdf |archive-date=November 1, 2013 |access-date=2013-10-30 |website=nsc.iseas.edu.sg |publisher=The Nalanda-Srivijaya Centre Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |location=Singapore}}</ref>{{rp|20–23}}<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Nugroho |first=Irawan Djoko |title=Majapahit Peradaban Maritim |publisher=Suluh Nuswantara Bakti |year=2011 |isbn=978-602-9346-00-8}}</ref>{{Rp|page=8–10, 30–31}}

===Other places===
Another theory suggests that Dapunta Hyang came from the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, and that the [[Chaiya district]] in [[Surat Thani province]], [[Thailand]], was the centre of Srivijaya.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www7.plala.or.jp/seareview/newpage6Sri2011Chaiya.html |title=Śrīvijaya―towards ChaiyaーThe History of Srivijaya |author=Takashi Suzuki |date=25 December 2012 |access-date =6 March 2013 }}</ref> The Srivijayan Period is referred to as the time when Srivijaya ruled over present-day southern Thailand. In the region of Chaiya, there is clear evidence of Srivijayan influence seen in artwork inspired by [[Mahayana Buddhism]]. Because of the large amount of remains, such as the Ligor stele, found in this region, some scholars have attempted to prove that Chaiya was the capital.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia|last1=Chihara|first1=Daigorol|last2=Giebel|first2=Rolf W.|publisher=Brill|year=1996}}</ref> This period was also a time for art. The Buddhist art of the Srivijayan Kingdom was believed to have borrowed from Indian styles like that of the Dvaravati school of art.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Thai Art with Indian Influences|last=Jermsawatdi|first=Promsak|publisher=Abhinav Publications|year=1979}}</ref> Some scholars believe that ''Chaiya'' probably comes from ''Srivijaya''. It was a regional capital in Srivijaya. Some [[Thai people|Thai]] historians argue it was the capital of Srivijaya itself,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_062_1m_ChandChirayuRajani_ReviewArticleBackgroundToSriVijaya.pdf |title= Background To The Sri Vijaya Story-Part |author=Chand Chirayu Rajani |journal=Journal of the Siam Society |volume=62 |year=1974 |pages=174–211 }}</ref> but this is generally discounted.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

==History==
{{see also|History of Srivijaya}}
===Formation and growth===

====Siddhayatra====
[[File:Prasasti Kedukan Bukit 3.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Kedukan Bukit inscription]] displayed in the [[National Museum of Indonesia]]]]

Around 500 CE, the roots of the Srivijayan empire began to develop around present-day [[Palembang]], [[Sumatra]]. The [[Kedukan Bukit inscription]] (683)—considered to be the oldest inscription related to Srivijaya,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sadzali |first=Asyhadi |date=2019-04-30 |title=Hulu ke Hilir: Jaringan dan Sistem Perniagaan Sungai Kerajaan Srivijaya |url=https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/paradigma/vol9/iss1/5 |journal=Paradigma: Jurnal Kajian Budaya |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=61 |doi=10.17510/paradigma.v9i1.276 |issn=2503-0868|doi-access=free }}</ref> discovered on the banks of the Tatang River near the [[Sriwijaya Kingdom Archaeological Park|Karanganyar site]], states about the "glorious Srivijaya",{{efn|group=lower-roman|1=[[Kedukan Bukit inscription]] 10th line: ''Śrīvijaya jaya siddhayātra subhikṣa nityakāla'' (... Glorious Sriwijaya! prosperity and riches...)}} a ''[[Kedatuan|kadatuan]]'' (kingdom or polity) which was founded by [[Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa]] and his retinue. He had embarked on a sacred ''siddhayatra''{{efn|group=lower-roman|1=According to [[George Cœdès|Coedès]], ''siddhayatra'' refers to some "magic potion". An alternative translation, however, is possible: [[Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder|Zoetmulder]]'s ''Dictionary of Old Javanese'' (1995) renders it as "a prosperous journey".}} journey and led 20,000 troops and 312 people in boats with 1,312 foot soldiers from Minanga Tamwan to [[Jambi]] and [[Palembang]]. Many of these armed forces gathered under Srivijayan rule would have been the sea people, referred to generally as the ''[[orang laut]]''. In establishing its power, Srivijaya had first to consolidate its position in Southeast Sumatra, which at that time consisted of multiple [[kadatuan|quasi-independent polities]] ruled by local [[Datuk|Datu]]s (chieftain).<ref name="UNESCO Silk Roads Programme">{{Cite journal|title=Port and polity of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (5th – 14th Centuries A.D.)|author=Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abd Rahman|url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/port_and_polity_of_the_malay_peninsula_and_sumatra.pdf|journal=International Seminar Harbour Cities Along the Silk Roads}}</ref>{{rp|4}}

From the [[Old Malay]] inscriptions, it is known that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa launched a maritime conquest in 684 with 20,000 men in the ''siddhayatra'' journey to acquire wealth, power, and 'magical powers'.<ref>Farrington, Karen.''Historical Atlas of Empires''. New York: Checkmark Books, 2002. 101. Print</ref> Under the leadership of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, the [[Melayu Kingdom]] became the first kingdom to be integrated into Srivijaya. This possibly occurred in the 680s. [[Melayu Kingdom|Melayu]], also known as [[Melayu Kingdom|Jambi]], was rich in gold and was held in high esteem at the time. Srivijaya recognised that the submission of [[Melayu Kingdom|Melayu]] would increase its own prestige.<ref>{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=124}}</ref>

The empire was organised in three main zones: the estuarine capital region centred on [[Palembang]], the [[Musi River (Indonesia)|Musi River]] basin which served as a hinterland, and estuarine areas capable of forming rival power centres. The areas upstream of the [[Musi River (Indonesia)|Musi River]] were rich in various commodities valuable to [[Chinese people|Chinese]] traders.<ref>{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=113}}</ref> The capital was administered directly by the ruler, while the hinterland remained under local [[Datuk|datu]]s or [[tribal chief]]s, who were organised into a network of alliances with the Srivijaya [[maharaja]] or king. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with rival river systems such as the [[Batang Hari River]], centred in [[Jambi]].

The [[Telaga Batu inscription]], discovered in Sabokingking, eastern [[Palembang]], is also a ''siddhayatra'' inscription, from the 7th century. This inscription was very likely used in a ceremonial ''sumpah'' (allegiance ritual). The top of the stone is adorned with seven [[nāga]] heads, and on the lower portion there is a water spout to channel liquid that was likely poured over the stone during a ritual. The ritual included a curse upon those who commit treason against Kadatuan Srivijaya.

The [[Talang Tuwo inscription]] is also a ''siddhayatra'' inscription. Discovered in [[Bukit Seguntang|Seguntang Hill]], western [[Palembang]], this inscription describes the establishment of the ''Śrīksetra'' garden endowed by King Jayanasa of Srivijaya for the well-being of all creatures.<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|82–83}} It is likely that the [[Bukit Seguntang|Seguntang Hill]] site was the location of the ''Śrīksetra'' garden.

====Regional conquests====
According to the [[Kota Kapur inscription]] discovered on [[Bangka Island]], the empire conquered most of southern [[Sumatra]] and the neighbouring island of [[Bangka Island|Bangka]] as far as Palas Pasemah in [[Lampung]]. Also, according to the inscriptions, Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa launched a military campaign against [[Java]] in the late 7th century, a period which coincided with the decline of [[Tarumanagara]] in [[West Java]] and the [[Kalingga Kingdom|Kalingga]] in [[Central Java]]. The empire thus grew to control trade on the [[Strait of Malacca]], the western side of [[Java Sea]], and possibly the [[Gulf of Thailand]].<ref name="Naval Melaka Straits">{{Cite journal |last=Heng |first=Derek |date=October 2013 |title=State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500–1500 CE |url=https://archive.org/details/naval-strategies-in-the-melaka-straits-c.-500-1500-ce/page/380/mode/2up |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=380–399 |doi=10.1017/S0022463413000362 |s2cid=161550066}}</ref>{{rp|pp=390-391}}

[[Chinese language|Chinese]] records dating to the late 7th century mention two [[Sumatra]]n kingdoms and three other kingdoms on [[Java]] as being part of Srivijaya. By the end of the 8th century, many [[West Java|western Java]]nese kingdoms, such as Tarumanagara and [[Kalingga Kingdom|Kalingga]], were within the Srivijayan sphere of influence.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}

===Golden age===
[[File:Avalokiteçvara, Malayu Srivijaya style.jpg|upright|thumb|left|The golden [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]]-Srivijayan [[Avalokiteśvara]] [[Bodhisattva]] in Rataukapastuo, [[Muarabulian]], [[Jambi]], [[Indonesia]]]]

The 7th-century [[Sojomerto inscription]] mentions that an [[Old Malay]]-speaking Shivaist family led by Dapunta Selendra had established themselves in the Batang area of the northern coast of [[Central Java]]. He was possibly the progenitor of the [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra]] family. By the early 8th century, an influential [[Buddhist]] family related to Srivijaya, the [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra family]] of Javanese ancestry,<ref name="MUNOZ 132">{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=132}}</ref> dominated [[Central Java]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=125}}</ref>

====Conquest of the Malay Peninsula====
{{main|Srivijayan conquest of Kedah}}
[[File:Malay Kingdoms en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Malay polities in [[Sumatra]] and [[Malay Peninsula]]. By the turn of the 8th century the states in [[Sumatra]] and [[Malay Peninsula]] were under Srivijayan domination.]]

During the 7th century, [[Langkasuka]] on the [[Malay Peninsula]] became part of Srivijaya.<ref>{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=130}}</ref> Soon after this, [[Pan Pan (kingdom)|Pan Pan]] and [[Tambralinga]], north of Langkasuka, came under Srivijayan influence. These kingdoms on the peninsula were major trading nations that transported goods across the [[Kra Isthmus]].

The [[Ligor inscription]] in Vat Sema Muang says that Maharaja [[Dharmasetu]] of Srivijaya ordered the construction of three sanctuaries dedicated to the Bodhisattvas [[Padmapani]], [[Vajrapani]], and [[Buddha]] in the northern [[Malay Peninsula]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|pages=130–131|isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref>

====Sailendra dynasty rule====
{{main|Sailendra|Mataram Kingdom}}

The Sailendras of [[Java]] established a relationship with the [[Sumatra]]n Srivijayan lineage, and then further established their rule and authority in the [[Mataram kingdom]] of [[Central Java]]. It is unknown what the exact nature of their relationship was, with Arab sources mentioning that Zabag (Java) ruled over Sribuza (Srivijaya), Kalah (a place in the Malay peninsula, probably Kedah), and Ramni (a place in Sumatra, probably [[Lambri]]).<ref name=":7" />{{rp|20–23}}<ref name=":13" />{{Rp|page=8–10, 30–31}}

In [[Java]], [[Dharanindra]]'s successor was [[Samaragrawira]] (r. 800–819), mentioned in the [[Nalanda inscription]] (dated 860) as the father of [[Balaputradewa]], and the son of ''Śailendravamsatilaka'' (the jewel of the Śailendra family) with the stylised name ''Śrīviravairimathana'' (the slayer of a heroic enemy), which refers to Dharanindra.<ref name= Coedes />{{rp|92}} Unlike his predecessor, the expansive and warlike Dharanindra, Samaragrawira seems to have been a pacifist, enjoying the peaceful prosperity of interior [[Java]] in the [[Kedu Plain]] and being more interested in completing the [[Borobudur]] project. It was in these years, at the beginning of the 9th century, that the Khmer prince [[Jayavarman II]] was appointed governor of [[Indrapura (Khmer)|Indrapura]] in the [[Mekong Delta]] under [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendran]] rule. This decision was later proven to be a mistake, as Jayavarman II revolted, moved his capital further inland north from [[Tonle Sap]] to [[Mahendraparvata]], severing the link to Srivijaya and proclaimed [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] independent from [[Java]] in 802.{{efn|group=lower-roman|1=Some academics, such as Charles Higham and Michael Vickery, disputed Coedès' assumption that Jayavarman II lived in Java for some time. They asserted that people living in Cambodian regions near the former territory of Champa used the Khmer word ''chvea'', which normally refers to the Indonesian island of Java, for the Cham. Jayavarman II, moreover, started his career in a town in the east of Cambodia, a region near Champa, cf. Charles Higham, ''The Civilization of Angkor'' (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London 2001, p. 56). Arlo Griffiths, however, refuted these theories and convincingly demonstrated that Java in the inscriptions both in the continent of Southeast Asia and in the Indonesian and Malaysian archipelago refer to the Indonesian island of Java, see his article 'The Problem of the Ancient Name Java and the Role of Satyavarman in Southeast Asian International Relations around the Turn of the Ninth Century CE' (''Archipel'' 85/1 (2013), p. 43-81).}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Griffiths |first=Arlo |year=2013 |title=The Problem of the Ancient Name Java and the Role of Satyavarman in Southeast Asian International Relations around the Turn of the Ninth Century CE |journal=Archipel |language=en |volume=85/1 |pages=43–81 |doi=10.3406/arch.2013.4384 |issn=0044-8613|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01958103/file/arch_0044-8613_2013_num_85_1_4384.pdf }}</ref> Samaragrawira was mentioned as the king of Java that married Tārā, daughter of [[Dharmasetu]].<ref name= Coedes />{{rp|108}} He was mentioned by his other name Rakai Warak in the [[Mantyasih inscription]].

Earlier historians, such as N. J. Krom and Cœdes, tend to equate Samaragrawira and [[Samaratungga]] as the same person.<ref name= Coedes />{{rp|92}} However, later historians such as Slamet Muljana equate Samaratungga with Rakai Garung, mentioned in the Mantyasih inscription as the 5th monarch of the [[Mataram kingdom]]. This would mean that Samaratungga was the successor of Samaragrawira.

Dewi Tara, the daughter of Dharmasetu, married Samaratunga, a member of the Sailendra family who assumed the throne of Srivijaya around 792.<ref>{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|pages=175|isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref> By the 8th century, the Srivijayan court was virtually located in [[Java]], as the Sailendras monarch rose to become the [[Maharaja]] of Srivijaya.

After Dharmasetu, [[Samaratungga]] became the next [[Maharaja]] of Srivijaya. He reigned from 792 to 835. Unlike the expansionist Dharmasetu, [[Samaratungga]] did not indulge in military expansion but preferred to strengthen the Srivijayan hold on [[Java]]. He personally oversaw the construction of the grand monument of [[Borobudur]]; a massive stone [[mandala]], which was completed in 825, during his reign.<ref>{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=143}}</ref> According to Cœdès, "In the second half of the ninth century Java and Sumatra were united under the rule of a [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra]] reigning in [[Java]]... its center at [[Palembang]]."<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|92}} [[Samaratungga]], like Samaragrawira, seems to have been influenced by peaceful [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhist]] beliefs and strove to become a peaceful and benevolent ruler. His successor was Princess [[Pramodhawardhani]] who was betrothed to Shivaite [[Rakai Pikatan]], son of the influential Rakai Patapan, a landlord in [[Central Java]]. The political move that seemed to be an effort to secure peace and Sailendran rule on [[Java]] by reconciling the [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhist]] with Shivaist [[Hindu]]s.

====Return to Palembang====
[[File:123 Dwarapala (39095909642).jpg|thumb|378x378px|A guardian ([[dvarapala]]) statue from Muaro Jambi.]]
Prince [[Balaputra]], however, opposed the rule of Pikatan and Pramodhawardhani in [[Central Java]]. The relations between [[Balaputra]] and Pramodhawardhani are interpreted differently by some historians. An older theory according to Bosch and De Casparis holds that [[Balaputra]] was the son of [[Samaratungga]], which means he was the younger brother of Pramodhawardhani. Later historians such as Muljana, argued that [[Balaputra]] was the son of Samaragrawira and the younger brother of [[Samaratungga]], which would make him the uncle of Pramodhawardhani.<ref name="Srivijaya21">{{cite book | author=Muljana, Slamet | title=Sriwijaya | publisher=Yogyakarta: LKiS |year=2006 | page=21 | language=id | isbn=979-8451-62-7}}</ref>

It is not known whether Balaputra was expelled from [[Central Java]] because of a succession dispute with Pikatan, or already ruled in [[Sumatra]]. Either way, it seems that Balaputra eventually ruled the [[Sumatra]]n branch of [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra dynasty]] and was enthroned in the Srivijayan capital of [[Palembang]]. Historians have argued that this was because Balaputra's mother Tara, the queen consort of King Samaragrawira, was the princess of Srivijaya, making Balaputra the heir of the Srivijayan throne. Balaputra the Maharaja of Srivijaya later stated his claim as the rightful heir of the [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra dynasty]] from [[Java]], as proclaimed in the [[Nalanda inscription]] dated 860.<ref name= Coedes />{{rp|108}}

After a trade disruption at [[Guangzhou|Canton]] between 820 and 850, the ruler of [[Melayu Kingdom|Jambi]] (Melayu Kingdom) was able to assert enough independence to send missions to [[China]] in 853 and 871.<ref name ="Kurnia-Sholihat">{{Cite book|last1=Kurnia|first1=Nia|last2=Irfan|first2=Sholihat|title=Kerajaan Sriwijaya: pusat pemerintahan dan perkembangannya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0j5xAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Girimukti Pasaka|year=1983|location=Jakarta|language=id}}</ref>{{rp|95}} The [[Melayu Kingdom]]'s independence coincided with the troubled times when the [[Sailendra]]n [[Balaputradewa]] was expelled from [[Java]] and later seized the throne of Srivijaya. The new maharaja was able to dispatch a tributary mission to [[China]] by 902. Two years after that, the weakening [[Tang dynasty]] conferred a title on a Srivijayan envoy.

In the first half of the 10th century, between the fall of [[Tang dynasty]] and the rise of [[Song dynasty|Song]], there was brisk trading between the overseas world with the [[Fujian]] kingdom of [[Min (Ten Kingdoms)|Min]] and the rich [[Guangdong]] kingdom of Nan Han. Srivijaya undoubtedly benefited from this. Sometime around 903, the [[Muslim]] writer [[Ibn Rustah]] was so impressed with the wealth of the Srivijayan ruler that he declared that one would not hear of a king who was richer, stronger or had more revenue. The main urban centres of Srivijaya were then at [[Palembang]] (especially the [[Srivijaya archaeological park|Karanganyar site]] near [[Bukit Seguntang|Seguntang Hill]] area), [[Muara Jambi]] and [[Kedah]].

====War against Java====
{{main|Mataram–Srivijayan wars}}
[[File:032 Avadana Level 1, Ship and Crew.jpg|thumb|Ancient [[Borobudur ship|Javanese vessel]] depicted in [[Borobudur]]]]

In the 10th century, the rivalry between Sumatran Srivijaya and the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] [[Mataram kingdom]] became more intense and hostile. The animosity was probably caused by Srivijaya's effort to reclaim the Sailendra lands in Java or by Mataram's aspiration to challenge Srivijaya domination in the region. In [[East Java]], the [[Anjukladang inscription]] dated 937 mentions an infiltration attack from [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] — which refers to a Srivijayan attack upon the Mataram Kingdom of [[East Java]]. The villagers of Anjuk Ladang were awarded for their service and merit in assisting the king's army, under the leadership of [[Mpu Sindok]], in repelling invading Malayu (Sumatra) forces; subsequently, a ''jayastambha'' (victory monument) was erected in their honor.

In 990, King [[Dharmawangsa]] of Java launched a naval invasion against Srivijaya and attempted to capture the capital [[Palembang]]. The news of the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] invasion of Srivijaya was recorded in Chinese [[Song dynasty|Song]] period sources. In 988, a Srivijayan envoy was sent to the Chinese court in [[Guangzhou]]. After sojourning for about two years in [[China]], the envoy learned that his country had been attacked by [[Java]] which made him unable to return home. In 992 an envoy from Java arrived in the Chinese court and explained that their country was involved in continuous war with Srivijaya. In 999 the Srivijayan envoy sailed from China to [[Champa]] in an attempt to return home, however, he received no news about the condition of his country. The Srivijayan envoy then sailed back to China and appealed to the Chinese Emperor for the protection of Srivijaya against [[Javanese people|Javanese]] invaders.<ref name="Kulkeb">{{cite book | title = Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia, Volume 1 of Nalanda-Sriwijaya series |editor=Hermann Kulke |editor2=K Kesavapany |editor3=Vijay Sakhuja |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |location=Singapore |year=2009 |isbn=9789812309372 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2swhCXJVRzwC}}</ref>{{rp|229}}

Dharmawangsa's invasion led the [[Maharaja]] of Srivijaya, Sri [[Cudamani Warmadewa]], to seek protection from China. Warmadewa was known as an able and astute ruler, with shrewd diplomatic skills. In the midst of the crisis brought by the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] invasion, he secured Chinese political support by appeasing the Chinese Emperor. In 1003, a [[Song dynasty|Song]] historical record reported that the envoy of ''San-fo-qi'' was dispatched by the king ''Shi-li-zhu-luo-wu-ni-fo-ma-tiao-hua'' (Sri Cudamani Warmadewa). The Srivijayan envoy told the Chinese court that in their country a Buddhist temple had been erected to pray for the long life of Chinese Emperor, and asked the emperor to give the name and the bell for this temple which was built in his honor. Rejoiced, the Chinese Emperor named the temple ''Ch'eng-t'en-wan-shou'' ('ten thousand years of receiving blessing from heaven, which is China) and a bell was immediately cast and sent to Srivijaya to be installed in the temple.<ref name="Kulkeb"/>{{rp|6}}

In 1006, Srivijaya's alliance proved its resilience by successfully repelling the Javanese invasion. This attack opened the eyes of Srivijayan Maharaja to the threat of the Javanese Mataram Kingdom, so he laid a plan to destroy his Javanese rival. Srivijaya assisted Haji (king) Wurawari of Lwaram to revolt, which led to the attack and destruction of the Mataram palace. This sudden and unexpected attack took place during the wedding ceremony of Dharmawangsa's daughter, which left the court unprepared and shocked. With the death of Dharmawangsa and the fall of the Mataram capital, Srivijaya contributed to the collapse of Mataram kingdom, leaving [[East Java|Eastern Java]] in further unrest, violence and, ultimately, desolation for several years to come.<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|130,132,141,144}}

===Decline===
====Chola invasion====
{{see also|Chola invasion of Srivijaya}}
[[File:Candi Gumpung Muarojambi.jpg|left|thumb|Candi Gumpung, a Buddhist temple at the [[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds]] of the [[Melayu Kingdom]], later integrated as one of Srivijaya's important urban centre]]The factors in the decline of Srivijaya were foreign piracy and raids that disrupted trade and security in the region. [[Rajendra Chola]], the [[Chola]] king from [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[South India]], [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya]] in 1025.<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|142–143}} His navy sailed swiftly to Sumatra using monsoon winds, made a stealth attack and raided Srivijaya's 14 ports. The strike took Srivijaya by surprise and unprepared; they first ransacked the capital city of Palembang and then swiftly moved on to other ports including [[Kedah|Kadaram]] (modern Kedah).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-22|title=The Chola raid on Srivijaya as a geostrategic manoeuvre|url=https://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/2020/12/22/the-chola-raid-on-srivijaya-as-a-geostrategic-manoeuvre/|access-date=2020-12-29|website=SEAArch – Southeast Asian Archaeology|language=en-GB}}</ref>

The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both [[piracy]] and foreign trade. At times, the Chola's seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOfjaW7C3AsC&q=Chola+piracy&pg=PA367 |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History |author=Craig A. Lockard |date=27 December 2006  |publisher=Cengage Learning |page=367 |isbn=0618386114 |access-date=23 April 2012}}</ref> An inscription of King Rajendra states that he had captured the King of Kadaram, [[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]], son of Mara Vijayatunggavarman, and plundered many treasures including the ''Vidhyadara-torana,'' the jewelled 'war gate' of Srivijaya adorned with great splendour.

According to the 15th-century ''[[Malay Annals]]'', [[Rajendra Chola I]] after the successful naval raid in 1025 married Onang Kiu, the daughter of Vijayottunggavarman.<ref name="Buddhism, Diplomacy p.226" /><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71</ref> This invasion forced Srivijaya to make peace with the [[Java]]nese kingdom of [[Kahuripan]]. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of Vijayottunggavarman, who managed to escape the destruction of Palembang, and came to the court of King [[Airlangga]] in [[East Java]]. She also became the queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and, in 1035, Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated to his queen consort.<ref name="Munoz">{{cite book |last=Munoz|first=Paul Michel|title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula|publisher=Editions Didier Millet|year=2006|location=Singapore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ&q=Early+Kingdoms+of+the+Indonesian+Archipelago+and+the+Malay+Peninsula |isbn= 981-4155-67-5}}</ref>{{rp|163}}

The Cholas continued a series of raids and conquests against parts of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula for the next 20 years. The expedition of [[Rajendra Chola I]] had such a lasting impression on the Malay people of the period that his name is even mentioned (as ''Raja Chulan'') in the ''[[Malay Annals]]''.<ref name="Buddhism, Diplomacy p.226" /><ref>History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000–1800 by Geoffrey C. Gunn p.43</ref><ref>Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800 by [[John N. Miksic]] p.147</ref><ref>Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.71</ref> Even today the Chola rule is remembered in [[Malaysia]] as many [[Malaysians|Malaysian]] princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, such as the Raja of [[Perak]], [[Raja Chulan]].<ref>Aryatarangini, the Saga of the Indo-Aryans, by A. Kalyanaraman p.158</ref><ref>India and Malaya Through the Ages: by S. Durai Raja Singam</ref><ref name="Singapore">{{cite book | title= The History of Singapore | author=Jean Abshire | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AHF59oExO80C&pg=PA13 | page=17 | publisher=ABC-CLIO, 2011 | date=21 March 2011 | isbn=9780313377433 | access-date=25 July 2014 }}</ref>

[[File:Chaiya Wat Kaew.jpg|right|thumb|Ruins of the Wat Kaew in Chaiya, dating from Srivijayan times]]

Rajendra Chola's overseas expeditions against Srivijaya were unique in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. The reasons for the naval expeditions are uncertain as the sources do not state its exact causes. Nilakanta Sastri suggests that the attacks were probably caused by Srivijaya's attempts to throw obstacles in the way of Chola's trade with the East or, more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra Chola to extend his military victories to well known countries to gain prestige.<ref name="Kulke" /> The new research however, suggests that the attack was a pre-emptive strike with a commercial motive. Rajendra Chola's naval strike was a [[Geostrategy|geostrategic]] manoeuvre.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Mandira|last=Nayar|date=27 December 2020|title=Lord of the ocean|url=https://www.theweek.in/theweek/cover/2020/12/17/lord-of-the-ocean.html|access-date=2020-12-29|website=The Week|language=en}}</ref>

The raids gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]], which were based on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. With the passing of time, the regional trading centre shifted from the old Srivijayan capital of Palembang to another trade centre on the island of Sumatra, [[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds|Jambi]], which was the centre of [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]].<ref name="Singapore" />

====Under the Cholas====
''Sanfoqi'' sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would refer to Malayu-Jambi, not Srivijaya-Palembang.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|398, 405}} No Srivijayan envoys arrived in China between 1028 and 1077. This indicates that the ''[[Mandala (political model)|mandala]]'' of Srivijaya has faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya collapsed in 1025.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Miksic|first=John M.|year=2013|title=Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800|publisher=NUS Press|isbn=9789971695583|author1-link=John N. Miksic}}</ref>{{rp|110}} In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still mentioned "Sanfoqi", but this term probably refers to the [[Malayu (kingdom)|Malayu]]-Jambi kingdom, evidenced by the Chinese record of ''Sanfoqi Zhanbei guo'' (Jambi country of Sanfoqi). The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word "Sriwijaya" or "Srivijaya" comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last1=Miksic|first1=John N.|last2=Goh|first2=Geok Yian|date=2017|title=Ancient Southeast Asia|location=London|publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{rp|397, 398, 405}}

Chola control over Srivijaya lasted for several decades. Chinese chronicles mentioned ''Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo'' which means "Chola country of Sanfoqi", likely refer to Kedah. ''Sanfoqi Zhu-nian guo'' sent missions to China in 1077, 1079, 1082, 1088, and 1090. It is possible that the Cholas installed a crown prince in the Tamil-dominated area of the Malacca Strait.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|398, 399, 405}}

There is also evidence to suggest that [[Kulottunga Chola]], the maternal grandson of emperor Rajendra Chola I, in his youth (1063) was in Srivijaya,<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|148}} restoring order and maintaining Chola influence in that area. Virarajendra Chola states in his inscription, dated in the 7th year of his reign, that he conquered Kadaram (Kedah) and gave it back to its king who came and worshiped his feet.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Journal of the Siam Society, Volume 63|author=Siam Society|publisher=s.n., 1975|page=252}}</ref> These expeditions were led by Kulottunga to help the [[Sailendra]] king who had sought the help of Virarajendra Chola.<ref>{{cite book|title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=K Kesavapany|author3=Vijay Sakhuja|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009 – History|page=305}}</ref> An inscription of Canton mentions Ti-hua-kialo as the ruler of Srivijaya. According to historians, this ruler is the same as the Chola ruler Ti-hua-kialo (identified with Kulottunga) mentioned in the Song annals and who sent an embassy to China. According to Tan Yeok Song, the editor of the Srivijayan inscription of Canton, Kulottunga stayed in Kadaram (Kedah) after the naval expedition of 1067 AD and reinstalled its king before returning to South India and ascending the throne.<ref name="suvarnadipa">{{cite book|title=Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia|author1=Hermann Kulke|author2=K Kesavapany|author3=Vijay Sakhuja|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2009 – History|pages=11–12}}</ref>

Tamil colonization of the Malacca Strait seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. Tamil influence can be found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity rather than commerce. Chola's grip on northern Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula receded in the 12th century — the Tamil poem ''Kalingatupparani'' of ca. 1120 CE mentioned Kulottungga's destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared from Indian sources.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|398, 399}}

====Successor state Malayu Dharmasraya====
{{see also|Melayu Kingdom|Dharmasraya}}
After the fall of Shailendra dynasty in Sumatra in the 11th century, and a period of Chola involvements in the region, there are no clear records which can explain the period ensuing the fall of Srivijaya. Almost 150 years later, a new dynasty emerged in the region replacing the Sailendras. They were the [[Mauli dynasty]] that ruled the [[Melayu Kingdom]] in [[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds|Jambi]] by the [[Batang Hari River|Batang Hari river valley]].<ref name="Muljana" /> This late 12th century Malayu [[Dharmasraya]] kingdom can be considered as the successor of Srivijaya. The oldest inscription bearing the name of Maharaja Mauli is the [[Grahi inscription]] dated 1183.

==Government and economy==

===Political administration===
[[File:Telaga Batu inscription.JPG|thumb|left|[[Telaga Batu inscription]] adorned with seven [[nāga]] heads on top, and a waterspout on the lower part to channel the water probably poured during a ceremonial allegiance ritual]]

The 7th century [[Telaga Batu inscription]], discovered in Sabokingking, Palembang, testifies to the complexity and stratified titles of the Srivijayan state officials. These titles are mentioned: ''rājaputra'' (princes, lit: sons of king), ''kumārāmātya'' (ministers), ''bhūpati'' (regional rulers), ''senāpati'' (generals), ''nāyaka'' (local community leaders), ''pratyaya'' (nobles), ''hāji pratyaya'' (lesser kings), ''dandanayaka'' (judges), ''tuhā an vatak'' (workers inspectors), ''vuruh'' (workers), ''addhyāksi nījavarna'' (lower supervisors), ''vāsīkarana'' (blacksmiths/weapon makers), ''cātabhata'' (soldiers), ''adhikarana'' (officials), ''kāyastha'' (store workers), ''sthāpaka'' (artisans), ''puhāvam'' (ship captains), ''vaniyāga'' (traders), ''marsī hāji'' (king's servants), ''hulun hāji'' (king's slaves).<ref>Casparis, J.G., (1956), ''Prasasti Indonesia II: Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th Century A.D.'', Dinas Purbakala Republik Indonesia, Bandung: Masa Baru.</ref>

During its formation, the empire was organised in three main zones — the estuarine capital region centred on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as hinterland and source of valuable goods, and rival estuarine areas capable of forming rival power centres. These rival estuarine areas, through raids and conquests, were held under Srivijayan power, such as the Batanghari estuarine ([[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu]] in Jambi). Several strategic ports also included places like [[Bangka Island]] (Kota Kapur), ports and kingdoms in Java (highly possible [[Tarumanagara]] and [[Kalingga]]), [[Kedah]] and [[Chaiya]] in Malay peninsula, and [[Lamuri]] and [[Pannai]] in northern Sumatra. There are also reports mentioning the Java-Srivijayan raids on Southern Cambodia (Mekong estuarine) and ports of [[Champa]].

After its expansion to the neighbouring states, the Srivijayan empire was formed as a collection of several [[Kedatuan|Kadatuan]]s (local principalities), which swore allegiance to the central ruling powerful Kadatuan ruled by the Srivijayan Maharaja. The political relations and system relating to its realms is described as a [[Mandala (Southeast Asian political model)|mandala model]], typical of that of classical Southeast Asian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. It could be described as federation of kingdoms or vassalised polity under a centre of domination, namely the central Kadatuan Srivijaya. The polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing further administrative integration.<ref>{{Cite web
| url = http://epublications.bond.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=cewces_papers&sei-redir=1&referer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.co.id%2Furl%3Fsa%3Dt%26rct%3Dj%26q%3Dmandala%2520srivijaya%2520political%2520federation%26source%3Dweb%26cd%3D11%26ved%3D0CBgQFjAAOAo%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fepublications.bond.edu.au%252Fcgi%252Fviewcontent.cgi%253Farticle%253D1007%2526context%253Dcewces_papers%26ei%3DxrfkTu3fKdDQrQfpmuCSCA%26usg%3DAFQjCNHApSYyFUfMf3LtiD2a95urqw-X5w%26sig2%3DSrOqXV_mGyJ6xCRIIOpJQA#search=%22mandala%20srivijaya%20political%20federation%22
| title = Mandala: from sacred origins to sovereign affairs in traditional Southeast Asia
| access-date = 11 December 2011
| last = Dellios
| first = Rosita
| date = 1 January 2003
| publisher = Bond University Australia
}}</ref>

The relations between the central kadatuan and its member (subscribers) kadatuans were dynamic. As such, the status would shift over generations. Minor trading ports throughout the region were controlled by local vassal rulers in place on behalf of the king. They also presided over harvesting resources from their respective regions for export. A portion of their revenue was required to be paid to the king.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kee-Long|first=So|date=1998|title=Dissolving Hegemony or Changing Trade Pattern? Images of Srivijaya in the Chinese Sources of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries|jstor=20072047|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|volume=29|issue=2|pages=295–308|doi=10.1017/s0022463400007451|s2cid=159891823 }}</ref> They were not allowed to infringe upon international trade relations, but the temptation of keeping more money to themselves eventually led foreign traders and local rulers to conduct illicit trading relations of their own.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Wolters|first=O. W.|date=1966|title=A Note on the Capital of Śrīvijaya during the Eleventh Century|jstor=1522654|journal=Artibus Asiae. Supplementum|volume=23|pages=225–239|doi=10.2307/1522654}}</ref> Other sources claim that the Champa invasion had weakened the central government significantly, forcing vassals to keep the international trade revenue for themselves.<ref name=":0" />

In addition to coercive methods through raids and conquests and being bound by ''pasumpahan'' (oath of allegiance), the royalties of each kadatuan often formed alliances through dynastic marriages. For example, a previously suzerained kadatuan over time might rise in prestige and power, so that eventually its ruler could lay claim to be the maharaja of the central kadatuan. The relationship between Srivijayan in Sumatra (descendants of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa) and Sailendras in Java exemplified this political dynamic.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

===Economy===

==== Trade agreements and commerce ====
[[File:Buddhist Expansion.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism|Expansion of Buddhism]] 
starting in the 5th century BCE from [[northern India]] to the rest of [[Asia]], which followed both inland and maritime trade routes of the [[Silk Road]]. Srivijaya once served as a centre of Buddhist learning and expansion. The overland and maritime "Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author-last=Acri |author-first=Andrea |date=20 December 2018 |title=Maritime Buddhism |url=https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.638 |isbn=9780199340378 |doi-access=free |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219153342/https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-638 |archive-date=19 February 2019 |url-status=live |access-date=30 May 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref>]]The main goal of Srivijayan foreign economic relations was to secure a lucrative trade agreement to serve the large Chinese market, that spanned from the [[Tang dynasty]] to the [[Song dynasty]]. In order to participate in this trade agreement, Srivijaya was involved in a tributary relation with China, in which they sent several envoys and embassies to secure the Chinese court's favour. By 1178, a Srivijayan mission to China highlighted Srivijaya's role as an intermediary to acquire Bornean products, such as plum flower-shaped Borneo camphor planks.<ref name="New Perspectives">{{Cite book |last1=Aung-Thwin |first1=Michael Arthur |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvWrAgAAQBAJ&q=Srivijaya+in+Borneo&pg=PA61 |title=New Perspectives on the History and Historiography of Southeast Asia: Continuing Explorations |last2=Hall |first2=Kenneth R. |date=2011-05-13 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-81964-3 |language=en}}</ref>[[File:MUS Koin perak Kerajaan Sriwijaya; 3.jpg|thumb|1 masa, silver coin of Srivijaya, circa 7th – 10th century]]

In the world of commerce, Srivijaya rose rapidly to be a far-flung empire controlling the two passages between India and China, namely the [[Sunda Strait]] from Palembang and the [[Malacca Strait]] from Kedah. Arab accounts state that the empire of the Srivijayan Maharaja was so vast that the swiftest vessel would not have been able to travel around all its islands in two years. The islands that the accounts referred to produced camphor, aloes, sandal-wood, spices like [[clove]]s, [[nutmeg]]s, [[cardamom]] and [[cubeb]]s, as well as ivory, gold and tin, all of which made the wealth of the Maharaja equal to any king in [[Medieval India]].<ref name="Poesponegoro">Marwati Djoened Poesponegoro, [[Nugroho Notosusanto]], (1992), ''Sejarah nasional Indonesia: Jaman kuna'', PT Balai Pustaka, {{ISBN|979-407-408-X}}</ref>

==== Riverine system model ====
Besides interregional trade agreements, the Srivijayan economy is also theorized to have adopted a "riverine system model", where dominance of a river-system and river-mouth centres guaranteed the kingdom's control of the flow of goods from the hinterland region upstream of the river; as well as control on trade within the Straits of Malacca and international trade routes going through the strait. Srivijaya's victory on its dominance of river-mouths centres on the Sumatra, Malaya and western Java coasts ensured Palembang's control over the region. This was accomplished through its system of: 'oath of allegiances' to local elites; its efforts on redistributions of wealth; and alliances made with local ''datus'' (chieftains) rather than on direct coercion.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=Kenneth R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC |title=A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-7425-6762-7 |pages=22–24 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Items of trade and barter system ====
The port of Srivijaya served as an important [[entrepôt]] in which valuable commodities from the region and beyond were collected, traded and shipped. [[Rice]], [[cotton]], [[indigo]] and [[silver]] from Java; [[aloe]]s, [[resin]], [[camphor]], [[ivory]], rhino horns, [[tin]] and [[gold]] from Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula; [[rattan]], rare [[timber]], camphor, [[Gemstone|gems]] and precious stones from Borneo; exotic birds and rare animals, [[iron]], [[sappan]], [[sandalwood]], and rare spices including [[clove]] and [[nutmeg]] from the [[Eastern Indonesia]]n archipelago; various spices of Southeast Asia and India including [[Black pepper|pepper]], [[Piper cubeba|cubeb]] and [[cinnamon]]; also Chinese [[ceramics]], [[lacquerware]], [[brocade]], fabrics, silks, and Chinese artwork were among valuable commodities being traded in Srivijayan ports. What goods were actually native to Srivijaya is currently disputed due to the volume of cargo that regularly passed through the region from India, China, and Arabia. Foreign traders stopped to trade their cargo in Srivijaya with other merchants from Southeast Asia and beyond. It was an easy location for traders from different regions to meet as opposed to visiting each other directly. This system of trade has led researchers to conjecture that the actual native products of Srivijaya were far less than what was originally recorded by Chinese and Arabic traders of the time. It may be that cargo sourced from foreign regions accumulated in Srivijaya. The accumulation of particular foreign goods that were easily accessible and in large supply might have given the impression they were products of Srivijaya. This could also work in the opposite direction with some native Srivijayan goods being mistaken as foreign commodities.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Qin |first1=Dashu |last2=Xiang |first2=Kunpeng |date=2011-01-01 |title=Sri Vijaya as the Entrepôt for Circum-Indian Ocean Trade |url=http://journals.openedition.org/oceanindien/1379 |journal=Études Océan Indien |language=fr |issue=46–47 |pages=308–336 |doi=10.4000/oceanindien.1379 |issn=0246-0092 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Ceramics were a major trade commodity between Srivijaya and China with shard artefacts found along the coast of Sumatra and Java. It is assumed that China and Srivijaya may have had an exclusive ceramics trade relationship because particular ceramic shards can only be found at their point of origin, in Guangzhou, or in Indonesia, but nowhere else along the trade route.<ref name=":2" /> There have been some discrepancies with the dating of said artifacts. Ceramic sherds found around the Geding Suro temple complex have been revealed to be much more recent than previously assumed. A statuette found in the same area did align with Srivijayan chronology, but it has been suggested that this is merely a coincidence and the product was actually brought to the region recently.<ref name=":1" />

The currency of the empire was gold and silver coins embossed with the image of the sandalwood flower (of which Srivijaya had a trade monopoly on) and the word "vara," or "glory," in Sanskrit.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Evolution of Money – Srivijaya Money |url=http://www.thaibankmuseum.or.th/eng/museum107.php |access-date=2018-03-24 |website=www.thaibankmuseum.or.th}}</ref> Other items could be used to barter with, such as porcelain, silk, sugar, iron, rice, dried galangal, rhubarb, and camphor.<ref name=":0" /> Some Arabic sources record that the profits acquired from trade ports and levies were converted into gold and hidden by the King in the royal pond.<ref name=":3" />

==== Trade relations with Arabia ====
Other than fostering lucrative trade relations with India and China, Srivijaya also established commerce links with [[Arabia]]. In a highly plausible account, a messenger was sent by Maharaja [[Sri Indravarman]] to deliver a letter to [[Caliph]] [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] in 718. The messenger later returned to Srivijaya with a ''Zanji'' (a black female slave from [[Zanj]]), a gift from the Caliph to the Maharaja. Later, a Chinese chronicle made mention of Sri Indravarman and how the Maharaja of Srivijaya had sent the Chinese Emperor a ''ts'engchi'' (Chinese spelling of the Arabic ''Zanji'') as a gift in 724.<ref name="Azra">{{cite book |last=Azra|first=Azyumardi|author-link=Azyumardi Azra|title=Islam in the Indonesian world: an account of institutional formation|publisher=Mizan Pustaka|year=2006|isbn=979-433-430-8}}</ref>

Arab writers of the 9th and 10th century, in their writings, considered the king of Al-Hind (India and to some extent might include Southeast Asia) as one of the four great kings in the world.<ref name="Ancien Regime p.41">India and Indonesia During the Ancien Regime: Essays by P. J. Marshall, Robert Van Niel: p.41</ref><ref name="Al-Hind p.226">Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the expansion Islam 7th–11th centuries by André Wink p. 226</ref> The reference to the kings of Al-Hind might have also included the kings of Southeast Asia; Sumatra, Java, Burma and Cambodia. They are, invariably, depicted by the Arab writers as extremely powerful and being equipped with vast armies of men, horses and having tens of thousands of elephants.<ref name="Ancien Regime p.41"/><ref name="Al-Hind p.226"/> They were also said to be in possession of vast treasures of gold and silver.<ref name="Ancien Regime p.41"/><ref name="Al-Hind p.226"/> Trading records from the 9th and 10th centuries mention Srivijaya, but do not expand upon regions further east, indicating that Arabic traders were not engaging with other regions in Southeast Asia, serving as further evidence of Srivijaya's important role as a link between the two regions.<ref name=":2" />

===Thalassocratic empire===

For some periods, Srivijaya controlled the transoceanic trade in its central passage in the [[Strait of Malacca]], as part of the [[Maritime Silk Road]]. This has led some historian to argue that the amorphous statehood of Srivijaya, which dominated a confederation of semi autonomous port cities in the Maritime Southeast Asia, was actually a [[Thalassocracy]].<ref name="Kulke"/> However, the true nature of Srivijaya naval development and maritime hegemony is still a subject of studies and disagreements among historians.

Srivijaya benefited from the lucrative maritime trade between China and India as well as trading in products such as [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] [[spice]]s within the [[Malay Archipelago]]. Serving as Southeast Asia's main [[entrepôt]] and gaining trade patronage by the Chinese court, Srivijaya was constantly managing its trade networks and, was always wary of potential rival ports of its neighbouring kingdoms. A majority of the revenue from international trade was used to finance the military which was charged with the responsibility of protecting the ports. Some records even describe the use of iron chains to prevent pirate attacks.<ref name=":0" />

Srivijayan settlers may have colonized some parts of Madagascar. The migration to Madagascar was estimated to have taken place around 830.<ref name="A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar"/>

====7th to 11th centuries====
Previously it was assumed that Srivijaya was a maritime power that could not be separated from ethnicity and society in the Malacca Strait. The assumption that occurs is that the formation of a successful state and hegemony in the strait is directly related to the ability to participate in international maritime activities, which means that a shore-based state like this develops and maintains its power with its navy. However, a survey of the available information shows that such an assumption is incorrect. Data on maritime activity are scanty and mentions of their navy occurs only in incomplete sources. Even the material aspects of Southeast Asian navies were not known until the 15th century, scientific attention generally focused on shipbuilding techniques.{{sfn|Heng|2013|p=381}}

In the Kedukan Bukit inscription (683 AD), it is recorded that only 312 people used boats out of a total force of 20,000 people, which also included 1312 land soldiers. The large number of ground troops shows that Srivijaya's navy only acted as a minor provider of logistical support. In the 8th century, Srivijaya's naval capabilities grew to match the proportion of its army strength, although it only played a role as logistical support.{{sfn|Heng|2013|p=382–384}}

The absence of any terms denoting maritime vessel for general use and military showed that the navy was not a permanent aspect of Srivijaya. Even when neighboring powers in maritime Asia, especially Java during the 10th to 14th centuries, and the [[Chola Empire]] in the 11th century, began to develop their navies, Srivijaya's naval power was relatively weak. For example, ''Songshi'' and ''Wenxian'' ''Tongkao'' note that between 990 and 991, a Srivijayan envoy was unable to return from South China to Palembang because of the ongoing military conflict between Java and Srivijaya. However the Javanese, Arabs from the Middle East, and South Asia were able to maintain diplomatic and economic exchanges with China during this time. The Javanese navy was strong enough to seriously disrupt Srivijaya's communications with China. Despite the naval confrontation between Java and Srivijaya, communication between the coastal governments of the Indian Ocean and China continued during this time, suggesting that the conflict did not always occur on the high seas, but was more likely to be confined to the estuaries and rivers around the Srivijayan capital of Palembang, the mouth of the Musi River and the Bangka Straits.{{sfn|Heng|2013|p=385–386}}

Srivijaya's response to Javanese aggression appeared to be defensive. In his account of ''Sanfoqi'', Zhao Rugua records in ''Zhufanzhi'' (ca. 1225):
<blockquote>In the past, [this state] used an iron chain as a barrier to prepare against other robbing parties (arriving on vessels?). There were opportunities to release (i.e. draw) it by hand. If merchant ships arrive, it has to be released".<ref>Chen Jiarong and Qian Jiang, ''Zhufanzhi zhubu'' [Treatise on the Foreign Barbarians] (Hongkong: Hongkong University Press), p. 47.</ref><ref name=":Chau">{{Cite book |last1=Hirth |first1=Friedrich |last2=Rockhill |first2=William Woodville |title=Chau Ju-Kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, entitled Chu Fan Chï |publisher=Imperial Academy of Sciences |year=1911 |location=St. Petersburg |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023289345/page/n75/mode/2up|pages=60, 62}}</ref></blockquote>

The inability of the Malacca Strait states to respond to maritime threats became very clear in the early 11th century. Between 1017 and 1025, the Chola Empire raided the main Malay ports in the strait and the Gulf of Siam, including Kedah, Malay (Jambi), Lambri, Srivijaya, and Langkasuka, looted the Kedah treasury and captured Srivijayan rulers, a further indication of the incompetence of the Malacca Strait states to defend themselves from naval attacks.{{sfn|Heng|2013|p=385–386}}

Until the 11th century, at least in terms of their military outlook, the kingdom was arguably land-based. Only with the changing international context from the 11th century onwards, marked initially by the Chola attacks, and then with the increasing presence of Chinese merchants directly operating in Southeast Asian waters, coupled with the emergence of new powers on the seafront, did the role and nature of these navies begin to change.{{sfn|Heng|2013|p=387–388}}

==== 12th to 13th centuries ====
After the [[Chola invasion of Srivijaya|Chola attack]], historians believe that Srivijaya may be no longer the appropriate name for the overlord's centre, and epigraphic references to 'Sriwijaya' also ceased after the attack. However, the Chinese term for Srivijaya, namely ''Sanfoqi'', was still used centuries later, but after 1025 the term ''Sanfoqi'' referred to the [[Melayu Kingdom|Malayu Dharmasraya kingdom]] where the [[mandala (political model)|mandala]] was re-centred.<ref name=":02" />{{rp|398, 405}} The new records appeared in the ''Lingwai daida'' (1178 CE), written by Zhou Qufei:
<blockquote>This country (Sanfoqi) has no products, but its people are well trained in warfare. When they put medicine on their body, they can't be hurt. In offensive naval warfare, their attacks are unmatched. Therefore, neighboring countries are aligned with it. If foreign ships passing through the vicinity do not call in this state, [vessels] are sent to teach them a lesson and to kill. Therefore, the state is rich, with rhino horn, elephant [tusks] (ivory), pearls, aromatics and medicines.<ref>Tu Youxiang, ''Zhou Qufei : Lingwai daida'' [Answers from beyond the Southern Mountains] (Shanghai: Yuandong chubanshe, 1996), p. 42.</ref></blockquote>

Similar information about ''Sanfoqi'' is also recorded in ''Zhufanzhi'' (c. 1225), which records:<blockquote>All are excellent in maritime and land warfare. At any time that a mobilisation order is established, chieftains [are the ones who] command [the troops]. All of them prepare and equip [themselves] with soldiers, equipment, and food. Arriving at the enemy, they dare to die (i.e. are not afraid of dying). [Hence it is regarded as] the elder of the various states (i.e. [[Primus inter pares|first amongst equals]])... This state is at the middle of the sea, controlling the choke-point through which the various foreign vessels come and go. In the past, [it] used an iron chain as a barrier... This year (i.e. presently), it is not taut (i.e. not extended) and not used, [lying in a] pile in the water... If merchant ships cross [the vicinity] and do not enter [i.e. call at the port], then ships are dispatched to do battle [with them]. They have to die (i.e. the persons onboard the merchant ships have to be killed). Hence, this state (Sanfoqi) is a great shipping centre.<ref>Chen and Qian, ''Zhufanzhi zhubu'', p. 46.</ref><ref name=":Chau" /></blockquote>

This information may refer to sea and river warfare in particular given the extensive navigation capabilities of the Musi and Batang Hari rivers where the main centres of the kingdoms around the Malacca Strait (Palembang and Jambi) were located. These records show that both the nature of the navy and the role it played in the survival of the government itself, in the late 12th and 13th centuries, became very different.{{sfn|Heng|2013|p=387–388}}

At the same time, the 12th century saw the beginning of the decline of the empires around the Malacca Strait and in the eyes of its foreign partners. [[Kedah Kingdom#Medieval history|Kedah]] fell outside the influence of ''Sanfoqi'' during the 11th century. By the early 13th century, Pahang, Kuala Beranang and Kompei had established direct economic links with the Chinese port of [[Quanzhou]].<ref>Zhao Yanwei, ''Yunlu manchao'' [Writings from the clouds and foothills], 1206, 5: 88.</ref> Jambi became independent from ''Sanfoqi''<nowiki/>'s influence in the early 13th century, while Ligor fell under the influence of [[Tambralinga|Tambralingga]] in the 1230s.<ref>Chen and Qian, ''Zhufanzhi zhubu'', p. 78.</ref>

After Singhasari's attack on ''Malayu'' in 1275, a large number of Malay port-states emerged in the strait, each seeking to engage directly with foreign traders, with varying degrees of success. Therefore, the development of an increasingly proactive naval strategy was not only a reaction to the changing nature of interactions with major trading partners such as China and India, but also as a result of the polities' declining power.{{sfn|Heng|2013|p=393–394}}

==== Ship types ====
Textual record of Srivijayan vessels are very lacking, as [[Old Malay]] epigraphical records rarely mentioned watercraft. The Kedukan Bukit inscription (683 AD) mentioned ''samvau'' (modern Malay: ''[[Sampan]]''). A ship type called ''[[Lancang (ship)|lancang]]'' is identified as a Malay type of ship in later records, but during the Srivijaya era, the ship was mentioned in 2 inscriptions on the northern coast of Bali dated 896 and 923 AD. These inscriptions are written in the Old Balinese language, and not in Old Malay.<ref name=":12">Manguin, Pierre-Yves (2012). Lancaran, Ghurab and Ghali: Mediterranean impact on war vessels in Early Modern Southeast Asia. In G. Wade & L. Tana (Eds.), ''Anthony Reid and the Study of the Southeast Asian Past'' (pp. 146–182). Singapore: ISEAS Publishing.</ref>{{Rp|149–150}}

====Srivijayan exploration====
The core of the Srivijayan realm was concentrated in and around the [[Malacca Strait|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait|Sunda]] straits and in [[Sumatra]], the [[Malay Peninsula]] and [[West Java|Western Java]]. However, between the 9th and the 12th centuries, the influence of Srivijaya seems to have extended far beyond this core. Srivijayan navigators may have reached as far as [[Madagascar]]. The migration to Madagascar was estimated to have taken place around 830 CE. According to an extensive mitochondrial DNA study, native [[Malagasy people]] today can likely trace their heritage back to 30 founding mothers who sailed from [[Indonesia]] 1,200 years ago. [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]] contains loan words from [[Sanskrit]], with all the local linguistic modifications via [[Javanese language|Javanese]] or [[Malay language|Malay]], hinting that [[Madagascar]] may have been colonised by settlers from Srivijaya.<ref name="A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar">{{cite journal |title=A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |author=Murray P. Cox |author2=Michael G. Nelson |author3=Meryanne K. Tumonggor |author4=François-X. Ricaut |author5=Herawati Sudoyo |date=2012 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.0012|pmc=3367776 |pmid=22438500 |volume=279 |issue=1739 |pages=2761–8}}</ref>

==Culture and society==
Srivijaya-Palembang's significance both as a centre for trade and for the practice of Vajrayana Buddhism has been established by Arab and Chinese historical records over several centuries. Srivijaya' own historical documents, inscriptions in Old Malay, are limited to the second half of the 7th century. The inscriptions uncover the hierarchical leadership system, in which the king is served by many other high-status officials.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.britannica.com/place/Srivijaya-empire|title=Srivijaya empire {{!}} historical kingdom, Indonesia|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-03-24|language=en}}</ref> A complex, stratified, cosmopolitan and prosperous society with their tastes in art, literature and culture, with complex set of rituals, influenced by Mahayana Buddhism; blossomed in ancient Srivijayan society. Their complex social order can be seen through studies on inscriptions, foreign accounts, and in bas-reliefs of temples from this period. Their accomplished artistry was evidenced from a number of Srivijayan Mahayana Buddhist statues discovered in the region. The kingdom had developed a complex society; which was characterised by the heterogeneity of their society, inequality of social stratification, and the formation of national administrative institution in their kingdom. Some forms of metallurgy were used as jewelry, coins and as decorative status symbols.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=White|first1=Joyce C.|last2=Hamilton|first2=Elizabeth G.|title=The Transmission of Early Bronze Technology to Thailand: New Perspectives|journal=Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective|pages=805–852}}</ref>

===Art and culture===
{{multiple image
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| caption1          = A 2.77 metres tall statue of Buddha in [[Amaravati art|Amaravati style]], from [[Bukit Seguntang]], Palembang, c. 7th–8th century
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| image2            = Avalokiteshvara Bingin Jungut Srivijaya.JPG
| caption2          = Avalokiteshvara Bingin Jungut, [[Musi Rawas Regency|Musi Rawas]], South Sumatra. Srivijayan art (c. 8th–9th century CE) resemble Central Java [[Sailendra]]n art.
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| caption3          = A bronze [[Maitreya]] statue from Komering, South Sumatra, 9th century Srivijayan art
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Some art was heavily influenced by Buddhism, further spreading religion and ideologies through the trade of art. The [[Buddhist art]] and architecture of Srivijaya was influenced by the Indian art of the [[Gupta Empire]] and [[Pala Empire]]. This is evident in the Indian [[Amaravati art|Amaravati style]] Buddha statue located in Palembang. This statue, dating back to the 7th or 8th century, is evidence of the spread of art, culture, and ideology through trade.<ref>Thai Art with Indian Influences by Promsak Jermsawatdi p.65</ref><ref name=":0" /> According to various historical sources, a complex and cosmopolitan society with a culture deeply influenced by Vajrayana Buddhism, flourished in the Srivijayan capital. The 7th century [[Talang Tuwo inscription]] described Buddhist rituals and blessings at the event of establishing a public park. This inscription allowed historians to understand the practices being held at the time, as well as their importance to the function of Srivijayan society. Talang Tuwo serves as one of the world's oldest inscriptions that talks about the environment, highlighting the centrality of nature in Buddhist religion and Srivijayan society. The [[Kota Kapur inscription]] mentions Srivijayan military dominance against Java.

The [[Old Malay]] language, the predecessor the modern [[Malay language]], had been used since the 7th century in the Malay Archipelago as evident by inscriptions in the coastal areas of the archipelago, such as those discovered in Java. The language was spread by traders and become the ''[[lingua franca]]'' of the archipelago.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://melayuonline.com/ind/article/read/174/sriwijaya-dalam-telaah |title=Sriwijaya dalam Tela'ah |author=rmz |date=5 June 2007 |publisher=Melayu Online |access-date=1 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022105208/http://melayuonline.com/ind/article/read/174/sriwijaya-dalam-telaah |archive-date=22 October 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://melayuonline.com/eng/opinion/read/80/risen-up-maritime-nation |title=Risen Up Maritime Nation! |author=Bambang Budi Utomo |date=23 January 2008 |publisher=Melayu Online |access-date=1 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022091319/http://melayuonline.com/eng/opinion/read/80/risen-up-maritime-nation |archive-date=22 October 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=":0" />

Despite its economic, cultural and military advances, Srivijaya left few archaeological remains in their heartlands in Sumatra. Some Buddhist temples dated from Srivijayan era are found in Sumatra and are [[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds|Muaro Jambi]], [[Candi Muara Takus|Muara Takus]] and [[Bahal temple|Biaro Bahal]].

Some Buddhist sculptures, such as Buddha [[Vairocana]], Boddhisattva [[Avalokiteshvara]] and [[Maitreya]], were discovered at numerous sites in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. These archaeological findings such as the stone statue of Buddha discovered in [[Bukit Seguntang]], Palembang,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epalembang.com/lang/en/travel-tourism/landmarks/bukit-siguntang/|title=Bukit Siguntang « ePalembang|access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref> Avalokiteshvara from Bingin Jungut in Musi Rawas, the bronze Maitreya statue of Komering, all discovered in South Sumatra. In Jambi, a golden statue of Avalokiteshvara was discovered in Rataukapastuo, Muarabulian.<ref>Titik Temu, Jejak Peradaban di Tepi Batanghari, Photograph and artifact exhibition of Muara Jambi Archaeological site, Bentara Budaya Jakarta, 9–11 November 2006</ref> In the Malay Peninsula the bronze statue of Avalokiteshvara of [[Bidor]] was discovered in [[Perak]],<ref>[http://exhibitions.nlb.gov.sg/kaalachakra/art_and_Architecture1.htm KaalaChaKra, Early Indian Influences in Southeast Asia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720113310/http://exhibitions.nlb.gov.sg/kaalachakra/art_and_Architecture1.htm |date=20 July 2011 }}</ref> and Avalokiteshvara of [[Chaiya]] in Southern Thailand.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bridgemanart.com/image/Srivijaya-7th-13th-Century/Avalokitesvara-figure-from-the-Srivijaya-Period-found-in-Chaiya-Thailand-9th-10th-century-bronze/6680daf37df64243a2cf59d12ea94fb0?key=%20Bangkok%20Thailand&thumb=x150&num=15&page=14|title=Bridgeman Images|access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref> The difference in material, supports the spread of Buddhism through trade.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

After the bronze and Iron Age, an influx of bronze tools and jewelry spread throughout the region. The different styles of bangles and beads represent the different regions of origin and their own specific materials and techniques used. Chinese artwork was one of the main items traded in the region, spreading art styles enveloped in ceramics, pottery, fabrics, silk, and artwork.<ref name=":0" />

===Religion===
{{quote box
| quote  = "...Many kings and chieftains in the islands of the Southern Ocean admire and believe (Buddhism), and their hearts are set on accumulating good actions. In the fortified city of Bhoga [Palembang, Srivijaya's capital] Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are bent on learning and good practices. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just as in the Middle Kingdom (Madhya-desa, India); the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to the West in order to hear (lectures) and read (the original), he had better stay here one or two years and practise the proper rules and then proceed to Central India."
| source = — from [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]]'s ''[[A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea]]''.<ref name="Takakusu">{{cite book |author=Junjiro Takakusu |date=1896 |title=A record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago AD 671–695 by I-tsing |url=https://archive.org/stream/recordofbuddhist00ichi#page/n39/mode/2up/search/1000 |publisher= Oxford University Press}}</ref>
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Remnants of Buddhist shrines (stupas) near Palembang and neighboring areas aid researchers in their understanding of the Buddhism within this society. Srivijaya and its kings were instrumental in the spread of [[Buddhism]] as they established it in places they conquered like [[Java]] and [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]].<ref name="Bentley">Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 72.</ref> People making pilgrimages were encouraged to spend time with the monks in the capital city of [[Palembang]] on their journey to [[India]].<ref name="Bentley"/>

Other than Palembang, three Srivijayan archaeological sites in Sumatra are notable for their Buddhist temple density. They are [[Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds|Muaro Jambi]] by the bank of the [[Batang Hari River]] in Jambi province; [[Muara Takus]] stupas in the [[Kampar River]] valley of Riau province; and [[Bahal temple|Biaro Bahal]] temple compound in the [[Barumun River|Barumun]] and [[Pannai]] river valleys, North Sumatra province. It is highly possible that these Buddhist sites served as ''[[sangha]]'' community; the monastic Buddhist learning centres of the region.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

[[File:Candi Tinggi.jpg|thumb|right|Candi Tinggi, one of the temples within Muaro Jambi temple compound]]

In the 5th century AD, the Chinese monk [[Faxian]] visited the region. 250 years later, the monk [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]] stayed in Srivijaya for six months and studied Sanskrit. According to Yijing, within Palembang there were more than 1,000 monks studying for themselves and training traveling scholars who were going from India to China and vice versa. Most of these travelers stayed in Palembang for long periods of time to wait for Monsoon winds to help further their journey.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=W.|first=T.|date=1897|title=Review of A Record of the Buddhist Religion, as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (A. D. 671–695), I-Tsing|jstor=25207848|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland|pages=358–364}}</ref>

A stronghold of [[Vajrayana]] [[Buddhism]], Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on his way to study at [[Nalanda mahavihara|Nalanda University]] in India in 671 and 695, and the 11th century [[Bengal]]i Buddhist scholar [[Atisha]], who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism in [[Tibet]]. Yijing and other monks of his time practiced a pure version of Buddhism although the religion allowed for cultural changes to be made.<ref>Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 73.</ref> He is also given credit for translating Buddhist text which has the most instructions on the discipline of the religion.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Magnin | first1 = Paul | year = 1995 | title = Messengers Of Light: Chinese Buddhist Pilgrims In India | journal = UNESCO Courier | volume = 48 | issue = 5| page = 24 }}</ref> Yijing wrote his memoir of Buddhism whilst in Srivijaya. Travellers to these islands mentioned that gold coins were in use in the coastal areas but not inland. Srivijaya drew in priests from as far away as Korea.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Takakusu |first1=Junjiro |title=A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago |url=https://archive.org/details/recordofbuddhist00ichi/page/n45/mode/2up?view=theater |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1896 |access-date=19 June 2021}}</ref>

A notable Srivijayan and revered Buddhist scholar was [[Dharmakirti]] who taught Buddhist philosophy in Srivijaya and Nalanda. The language diction of many inscriptions found near where Srivijaya once reigned incorporated Indian Tantric conceptions. This evidence makes it clear the relationship of the ruler and the concept of bodhisattva—one who was to become a Buddha. This is the first evidence seen in the archaeological record of a Southeast Asian ruler regarded as a religious leader/figure.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

One thing researchers have found Srivijaya to be lacking is an emphasis in art and architecture. While neighboring regions have evidence of intricate architecture, Palembang lacks Buddhist stupas or sculptures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592|title=Borobudur Temple Compounds|last=Centre|first=UNESCO World Heritage|website=whc.unesco.org|language=en|access-date=2018-03-24}}</ref>

[[Hinduism]] was also practiced in Srivijaya. This is based on the discovery of the [[Bumiayu temple]] ruin, a [[red brick]] Shivaist Hindu temple compound built and used between the 8th and 13th century.<ref name="Kumparan-Bumiayu">{{Cite web|title= Candi Bumiayu, Satu-satunya Komplek Candi Sriwijaya di Sumsel|url=https://kumparan.com/urbanid/foto-candi-bumiayu-satu-satunya-komplek-candi-sriwijaya-di-sumsel-1sTAXagJnN5|date= 18 December 2019|access-date=2021-01-26|website=kumparan|language=id-ID}}</ref> The Bumiayu temple site is located by the banks of the Lematang River, a tributary of the Musi River. This temple compound was probably built by a [[Kedatuan]] within Srivijaya's [[Mandala (political model)|mandala]]. The fact that a Hindu temple was discovered within the area of predominantly Buddhist Srivijaya suggests that Srivijaya's two religious groups coexisted quite harmoniously.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

According to the styles of Shiva and Agastya statues found in Bumiayu temple 1, those Hindu statues are dated from around the 9th to 10th-century. By the 12th to 13th-century it seems that the faith in Bumiayu was shifted from Hinduism to [[Tantric Buddhism]].<ref name="BPCB-Jambi">{{Cite web|first=Bambang|last=Budi Utomo|date=2017-06-22|title=Percandian Bumiayu |url=https://kebudayaan.kemdikbud.go.id/bpcbjambi/percandian-bumiayu/|access-date=2021-01-26|website=Balai Pelestarian Cagar Budaya Jambi|language=id-ID}}</ref>

==Relations with regional powers==
Although historical records and archaeological evidence are scarce, it appears that by the 7th century, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java and much of the Malay Peninsula. Initially, Srivijaya dominated a [[confederation]] of semi-autonomous port cities in the region, through nurturing alliances and gaining fealty among these [[Kadatuan|polities]]. Regarding its status as the central port of the region, it seems that Srivijaya had a unique "ritual policy" in its relations with the dominant powers of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and China.<ref name="Kulke"/>

The oldest accounts of the empire come from Arabic and Chinese traders who noted in their travel logs of the importance of the empire in regional trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=WOLTERS|first=O. W.|title=Studying Śrīvijaya|date=1979|jstor=41492851|journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=52|issue=2 (236)|pages=1–32}}</ref> Its location was instrumental in developing itself as a major port which connected China, the Middle East and Southeast Asia. Control of the [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait]]s meant it controlled both the [[spice trade|spice route]] traffic as well as local trade, charging a toll on passing ships. Serving as an entrepôt for Chinese, Malay, and Indian markets, the port of Palembang, accessible from the coast by way of a river, accumulated great wealth. Instead of traveling the entire distance from the Middle East to China, which would have taken about a year with the assistance of monsoon winds, it was easier to stop at Srivijaya. It took about half a year from either direction to reach Srivijaya which was a far more effective and efficient use of manpower and resources. A round trip from one end to Srivijaya and back would take the same amount of time to go the entire distance one way. This theory has been supported by evidence found in two local shipwrecks. [[Belitung shipwreck|One off the coast of Belitung]], an island east of Sumatra, and another [[Cirebon shipwreck|near Cirebon]], a coastal city on the nearby island of Java. Both ships carried a variety of foreign cargo and, in the case of the Belitung wreck, had foreign origins.<ref name=":2" />

The [[Melayu Kingdom]] was the first rival power centre absorbed into the empire, and thus began the domination of the region through trade and conquest in the 7th through the 9th centuries. The Melayu Kingdom's gold mines in the [[Batang Hari River]] hinterland were a crucial economic resource and may be the origin of the word [[Suvarnabhumi|Suvarnadvipa]], the Sanskrit name for Sumatra. Srivijaya helped spread Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western [[Borneo]]. Its influence waned in the 11th century.

According to ''[[History of Song (book)|Song shi]]'', a [[Song dynasty]] chronicle, ''Sanfoqi'' sent their envoys for the last time in 1178. Then in 1225 [[Zhao Rukuo|Chau Ju-kua]] mentioned that Palembang (Srivijaya) was a vassal kingdom that belonged to ''Sanfoqi''. This means that between 1178 and 1225 the Srivijayan kingdom centred in Palembang was defeated by the Malayu kingdom centred in Jambi. Thus, the seat of the empire moved to [[Muaro Jambi Regency|Muaro Jambi]] in the last centuries of the kingdom existence.<ref name ="Kurnia-Sholihat"/>{{rp|100}}

Srivijaya was then in frequent conflict with, and ultimately subjugated by, the [[Java]]nese kingdoms of [[Singhasari]] and, later, [[Majapahit]].<ref>{{Cite book | last = Spuler | first = Bertold |author2 = F.R.C Bagley  | title = The Muslim world : a historical survey, Part 4 | publisher = Brill Archive | pages = 252 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VNgUAAAAIAAJ | isbn = 9789004061965 | year = 1981 }}</ref> This was not the first time the Srivijayans had a conflict with the Javanese. According to historian Paul Michel Munoz, the Javanese [[Sanjaya dynasty]] was a strong rival of Srivijaya in the 8th century when the Srivijayan capital was located in [[Java]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

The [[Khmer Empire]] might also have been a [[tributary state]] in its early stages. It is mentioned that the Khmer king, [[Jayavarman II]], spent years in the court of Sailendra in Java before returning to Cambodia to rule around 790. Influenced by the Javanese culture of the Sailendran-Srivijayan ''mandala'' (and likely eager to emulate the Javanese model in his court), he proclaimed Cambodian independence from Java and ruled as [[devaraja]], establishing Khmer Empire and starting the [[Angkor]] era.<ref>{{cite book |last=Groslier|first=Bernard Philippe|title=Indochine, Carrefour des Arts|publisher=École française d'Extrême-Orient|year=1961|location=Paris|pages=124}}</ref>

Some historians claim that Chaiya in [[Surat Thani province]] in southern Thailand was, at least temporarily, the capital of Srivijaya, but this claim is widely disputed. However, Chaiya was probably a regional centre of the kingdom.<ref name="Muljana" />

Srivijaya also maintained close relations with the [[Pala Empire]] in [[Bengal]]. The [[Nalanda inscription]], dated 860, records that Maharaja Balaputra dedicated a monastery at the [[Nalanda|Nalanda university]] in Pala.<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|109}} The relation between Srivijaya and the [[Chola dynasty]] of southern India was initially friendly during the reign of [[Raja Raja Chola I]]. In 1006, a Srivijayan Maharaja from the Sailendra dynasty, king [[Maravijayattungavarman]], constructed the [[Chudamani Vihara]] in the port town of [[Nagapattinam]].<ref name="sastri219220">[[#Sastri|Sastri]], pp 219–220</ref> However, during the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]] the relationship deteriorated as the Chola dynasty started to attack Srivijayan cities.<ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref>

The reason for this sudden change in the relationship with the Chola kingdom is not fully known. However, as some historians suggest, that the Khmer king, Suryavarman I of the [[Khmer Empire]], had requested aid from Emperor [[Rajendra Chola I]] of the [[Chola dynasty]] against Tambralinga.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336">Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318–336, Brill Publishers</ref> After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya king, Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336"/><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342">[[R. C. Majumdar]] (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338–342, Artibus Asiae Publishers</ref> This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with Srivijaya. The conflict ended with a victory for the Chola and heavy losses for Srivijaya and the capture of Sangramavijayottungavarman in the Chola raid in 1025.<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|142–143}}<ref name="Kenneth R. Hall 1975 pp. 318-336"/><ref name="C. Majumdar 1961 pp. 338-342"/> During the reign of [[Kulothunga Chola I]], Srivijaya sent an embassy to the Chola dynasty.<ref name="Buddhism, Diplomacy p.226">Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.226</ref><ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p.485</ref>

==Legacy==
[[File:Gadispalembang.jpg|thumb|left|The gilded costume of South Sumatran [[Gending Sriwijaya]] dance.]]

Although Srivijaya left few archaeological remains and was almost forgotten in the collective memory of Maritime Southeast Asia, the rediscovery of this ancient maritime empire by Cœdès in the 1920s raised the notion that it was possible for a widespread political entity to have thrived in Southeast Asia in the past. Modern Indonesian historians have used Srivijaya as a frame of reference of how ancient globalisation, foreign relations and maritime trade, have shaped Asian civilisation.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://kompas.id/baca/opini/2018/09/05/sriwijaya-dan-spirit-asia/|title=Sriwijaya dan Spirit Asia|first=Susanto |last=Zuhdi|date=2018-09-05|work=Kompas.Id|access-date=2018-09-06|language=id}}</ref>

An important legacy of Srivijaya was its language. Unlike some inscriptions of Srivijayan contemporaries – [[Tarumanagara]] and other Javanese polities that use Sanskrit – Srivijayan inscriptions were written in [[Old Malay]]. This has promoted the status of local languages to the same status as Sanskrit; as the language of the elite. [[Sanskrit]] was only known in certain circles such as the [[brahmin]] and [[Kaviraj|kavi]], while Old Malay was a common language in the Srivijayan realm. This linguistic policy probably stemmed from the rather egalitarian nature of Mahayana Buddhism adhered to in Srivijaya, in contrast to the elitist nature of Hinduism. Unlike Hinduism, Mahayana Buddhism did not have emphasize on a [[Caste|caste system]] that limited the use and knowledge of liturgical language to the Brahmin caste.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://historia.id/kuno/articles/revolusi-bahasa-di-sriwijaya-vQX3L|title=Revolusi Bahasa di Sriwijaya|website=Historia – Majalah Sejarah Populer Pertama di Indonesia|date=8 August 2017|language=id|access-date=2019-11-10}}</ref> For centuries, Srivijaya, through its expansion, economic power and military prowess, was responsible for the spread of Old Malay throughout the Malay Archipelago. It was the working language of traders, being used in various ports and marketplaces in the region.<ref>[http://sea.lib.niu.edu/lang/malay.html Southeast Asia Digital Library: About Malay] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20070616131617/http://sea.lib.niu.edu/lang/malay.html |date=16 June 2007 }}</ref>

[[File:Aesan Gede Songket Palembang.jpg|thumbnail|upright|Gilded [[songket]] in Palembang ''Aesan Gede'' wedding costume, South Sumatra.]]
Today, in [[Indonesian art|Indonesian artistic tradition]], [[songket]] weaving art is strongly associated with [[Palembang]],<ref name="Antara-Songket">{{cite web|url=http://beta.antaranews.com/berita/1279268106/the-ancient-sriwijaya-heritage-tampilkan-kemilau-songket-dan-adat-perkawinan-sumsel|title=The Ancient Sriwijaya Heritage" Featuring Glimpse of Songket in Traditional Southern Sumatra Wedding Ceremony|publisher=Antara|date=2010-07-26|access-date=2022-10-21|language=id}}</ref> and to a certain extent West Sumatra and Jambi. This has motivated Indonesian historians to trace the origin of songket and its possible link to Srivijaya. Based on an archaeological study on the [[Bumiayu temple]] complex in [[Penukal Abab Lematang Ilir Regency]], South Sumatra, it can be seen that songket has been known by the people of South Sumatra since the 9th century.<ref name="Retno Purwanti, Sondang Martini Siregar">{{Cite journal|title=Sejarah songket berdasarkan data arkeologi|trans-title=The History of Songket Based on Archaeological Data|journal=Siddhayatra|volume=21|issue=2|year=2016|first1=Retno|last1=Purwanti|first2=Sondang Martini|last2=Siregar|doi=10.24832/siddhayatra.v21i2.22|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |url=http://download.garuda.kemdikbud.go.id/article.php?article=971258&val=14942&title=SEJARAH%20SONGKET%20BERDASARKAN%20DATA%20ARKEOLOGI|language=id}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://southsumatratourism.com/2021/02/18/songket-at-bumiayu-temple-arca/|title=Songket at Bumiayu Temple Arca|date=2021-02-18|access-date=2021-12-21|website=southsumatratourism|first=William|last=Mikha}}</ref> A textile motif known today in Palembang songket as ''lepus'' can be seen on the vest worn by Figure 1 statue at the Bumiayu temple complex, which suggests that the motif that has been around since the 9th century.<ref name="Retno Purwanti, Sondang Martini Siregar"/> This archaeological study has enforced the notion that songket gold thread weaving tradition originated in Srivijaya.<ref name="Antara-Songket"/>

Modern [[Indonesia]]n nationalists have used the name of Srivijaya, along with [[Majapahit]], as a source of pride.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C-IZCcEuX30C&q=Srivijaya+source+of+Indonesia+pride&pg=PA9|title=Strategic Centrality|isbn=9789812301031|access-date=25 August 2015|last1=Smith|first1=Anthony L.|year=2000|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies }}</ref> Srivijaya has become the focus of national pride and regional identity, especially for the people of [[Palembang]], [[South Sumatra]]. For the people of Palembang, Srivijaya has become a source of artistic inspiration for [[Gending Sriwijaya]] song and traditional dance.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

[[File:Taman Purbakala Kerajaan Sriwijaya - Museum Sriwijaya.jpg|thumb|left|The Sriwijaya Museum in [[Srivijaya Archaeological Park]]]]

Srivijaya is a street name in many cities in Indonesia and has become synonymous with Palembang and South Sumatra. [[Srivijaya University]], established in 1960 in Palembang, was named after Srivijaya. Kodam Sriwijaya (a military commando area unit), PT Pupuk Sriwijaya (a fertiliser company), Sriwijaya Post (a Palembang-based newspaper), [[Sriwijaya Air]] (an airline), [[Gelora Sriwijaya Stadium]], and [[Sriwijaya F.C.]] (Palembang football club) were also all named after Srivijaya. On 11 November 2011, during the opening ceremony of [[2011 Southeast Asian Games]] in Gelora Sriwijaya Stadium, Palembang, a colossal dance performance titled "Srivijaya the Golden Peninsula" was performed featuring Palembang traditional dances and a life-sized replica of an ancient ship.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/newmandala/2011/11/16/the-new-golden-peninsula-games/|title=The new Golden Peninsula Games|work=New Mandala|date=16 November 2011|access-date=25 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indonesia.travel/en/news/detail/541/spectacular-opening-of-the-26th-sea-games-in-palembang|title=Wonderful Indonesia – Spectacular Opening of the 26th SEA GAMES in Palembang|access-date=25 August 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114180033/http://www.indonesia.travel/en/news/detail/541/spectacular-opening-of-the-26th-sea-games-in-palembang|archive-date=14 November 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In popular culture, Srivijaya has become the source of inspiration for numbers of fictional feature films, novels and comic books. For example, the 2013 film ''Gending Sriwijaya'', took place three centuries after the fall of Srivijaya, telling a story about court intrigue amidst the efforts to revive the fallen empire.<ref>{{cite web | title = Gending Sriwijaya (2013) | work = Film Indonesia | url = http://filmindonesia.or.id/movie/title/lf-g016-13-949954_gending-sriwijaya#.V7b_Lo9OKAg | language = id }}</ref>

==List of kings==
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" width="75%"
!width="70px"|Date
!width="140px"|Name
!width="140px"|Capital
!width="400px"|Stone inscription or embassies to China and events
|-
|683
|[[Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa]]
|Srivijaya
|[[Kedukan Bukit Inscription|Kedukan Bukit]] (683), [[Talang Tuwo inscription|Talang Tuwo]] (684), and [[Kota Kapur Inscription|Kota Kapur]] (686) inscriptions
Malayu conquest, expedition to ''Bhumi Jawa'' (result unknown)<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|82–83}}
|-
|702
|[[Sri Indravarman]]
Che-li-t'o-lo-pa-mo
|Srivijaya
Shih-li-fo-shih
|Chinese embassies 702, 716 and 724<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|83–84}}
Embassies to Caliph [[Mu'awiya I]] and Caliph [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]]
|-
|728
|[[Rudra Vikrama]]
Liu-t'eng-wei-kung
|Srivijaya
Shih-li-fo-shih
|Chinese embassies 728 and 742<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|84}}
|-
| colspan="4" |'''No information 742–775'''
|-
|775
|[[Dharmasetu]] or Vishnu
|Unknown (under Javanese Sailendra dynasty overlordship)
|[[Nakhon Si Thammarat]] ([[Ligor]]),<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|84}} Vat Sema Muang
|-
|775
|[[Dharanindra]]
|Unknown (under Javanese Sailendra dynasty overlordship)
|[[Ligor]], started to build [[Borobudur]] in 770
Conquered South Cambodia
|-
|782
|[[Samaragrawira]]
|Unknown (under Javanese Sailendra dynasty overlordship)
|[[Ligor]], Arabian text (790), continued the construction of Borobudur
|-
|792
|[[Samaratungga]]
|Unknown (under Javanese Sailendra dynasty overlordship)
|[[Karangtengah inscription]] (824), 802 lost Cambodia, 825 completion of Borobudur
|-
|835
|[[Balaputra]]dewa
|Srivijaya
San-fo-ts'i
|Ousted from Java
[[Nalanda inscription]] (860)
|-
| colspan="4" |'''No information 835–960'''
|-
|960
|Sri Udayadityavarman
Si-li-Hu-ta-hsia-li-tan
Shih-li Wu-yeh
|Srivijaya
San-fo-ts'i
|Chinese embassies 960 and 962<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|131}}
|-
|980
|Haji
Hsia-ch'ih
|Srivijaya
San-fo-ts'i
|Chinese embassies 980 and 983<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|132}}
|-
|988
|Sri [[Cudamani Warmadewa]]
Se-li-chu-la-wu-ni-fu-ma-tian-hwa
|Srivijaya
San-fo-ts'i
|Chinese embassies 988, 992, 1003 and 1004<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|132,141}}
Javanese King [[Dharmawangsa]] attack of Srivijaya, building of a temple for the Chinese Emperor, Tanjore Inscription or Leiden Inscription (1044), building of a temple at [[Nagapattinam]] with revenue from [[Rajaraja Chola I]]
|-
|1006, 1008
|[[Maravijayottungavarman|Sri Maravijayottungavarman]]
Se-li-ma-la-pi
|Srivijaya
San-fo-ts'i
|Constructed the [[Chudamani Vihara]] in [[Nagapattinam]], India in 1006.<ref name="sastri219220"/>
Chinese embassies 1008 and 1016<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|141–142}}
|-
|1017
|[[Haji Sumatrabhumi]]
Ha-ch'i-su-wa-ch'a-p'u
|Srivijaya
San-fo-ts'i
|Chinese embassy 1017
|-
|1025
|[[Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman]]
|Srivijaya
San-fo-ts'i
|[[Chola invasion of Srivijaya]], captured by [[Rajendra Chola]]
[[Tamil inscriptions in Malay world#Tanjore Inscription|Chola inscription]] on the temple of Rajaraja, Tanjore<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|142}}
|-
|1028
|[[Sri Deva]]
Shih-li Tieh-hua
|Srivijaya
San-fo-ts'i
|Chinese embassy 1028<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|142}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XD9dDwAAQBAJ&dq=Sri+Deva+Srivijaya&pg=PA68|title=History of South East Asia|last=Hall|first=D.G.E.|date=1981|publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education|isbn=9781349165216|language=en|page=67-68}}</ref>
|}Source:<ref name="Muljana">{{cite book | author=Muljana, Slamet | title=Sriwijaya | publisher=Yogyakarta: LKiS |year=2006 | isbn=979-8451-62-7}}</ref><ref name="MUNOZ 175">{{cite book |last=Munoz|title=Early Kingdoms |pages=175}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist | group=lower-roman | close}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* D. G. E. Hall, ''A History of South-east Asia''. London: Macmillan, 1955.
* {{cite book |last1=Kitchener |first1=Darrell J. |last2=Kustiarsih |first2=Heny |year=2019 |title=Ceramics from the Musi River, Palembang, Indonesia: Based on a private collection |location=Freemantle |publisher=Australian National Centre of Excellence for Maritime Archaeology |series=Special Publication No. 22 |url=https://museum.wa.gov.au/maritime-archaeology-db/sites/default/files/no._22_ceramics_from_the_musi_river_palembangsmall.pdf |access-date= 3 November 2021}}
* {{cite book | author=Muljana, Slamet | title=Sriwijaya | publisher=Yogyakarta: LKiS |year=2006 | isbn=979-8451-62-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l1ALHtAiibQC}}
* {{cite book | author=Munoz, Paul Michel | title=Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula | publisher=Editions Didier Millet | year=2006 | isbn=981-4155-67-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqwuAQAAIAAJ}}
* D. R. SarDesai. ''Southeast Asia: Past and Present''. Boulder: Westview Press, 1997.
* Stuart-Fox, Martin. ''A Short History of China and Southeast Asia: Tribute, Trade, and Influence''. London: Allen and Unwin, 2003.
* Triastanti, Ani. ''Perdagangan Internasional pada Masa Jawa Kuno; Tinjauan Terhadap Data Tertulis Abad X–XII''. Essay of Faculty of Cultural Studies. Gadjah Mada University of Yogyakarta, 2007.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Srivijaya}}
{{Div col}}
* [http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/562024/Srivijaya-empire Britannica Encyclopedia: Srivijaya empire]
* [http://www.southeastasianarchaeology.com/tag/srivijaya-kingdom/ Articles about Srivijaya Kingdom in Southeast Asian Archaeology.com]
* [http://users.skynet.be/network.indonesia/ni6001.htm Timeline of Indonesia from prehistory to present: click on the period for info] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206153407/http://users.skynet.be/network.indonesia/ni6001.htm |date=6 February 2007 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180208182847/http://melayuonline.com/eng/history/dig/330 Melayu online: Çriwijaya Kingdom]
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/27795095@N04/sets/72157615663081283 Candi Muaro Jambi]
* [http://www7.plala.or.jp/seareview/newpage6Sri2011Chaiya.html Śrīvijaya―towards ChaiyaーThe History of Srivijaya – Takahashi Suzuki]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110502044359/http://www.nationalmuseums.finearts.go.th/thaimuseum_eng/chaiya/main.htm Chaiya National Museum]
{{col div end}}

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