View source for Standard Chinese

{{Short description|Standard form of Mandarin Chinese}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Huayu}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Standard Chinese
| altname          = Standard Mandarin
| nativename       = {{lang|zh|現代標準漢語}}; {{lang|zh|现代标准汉语}}
| states           = [[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Singapore]]
| speakers_label = Speakers
| ref              = <ref name="over80percent">{{Citation |title=Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin |work=People's Daily |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |access-date=2021-12-22 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021445/http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=251}}{{sfnp|Liang|2014|p=45}}
| speakers         = [[First language|L1]] and [[Second language|L2]]: 80% of China
| familycolor      = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2             = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3             = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
| fam4             = [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
| fam5             = [[Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)|Beijing Mandarin]]
| fam6             = [[Beijing dialect|Beijingese]]
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan]]
| ancestor2        = [[Old Chinese]]
| ancestor3        = [[Eastern Han Chinese]]
| ancestor4        = [[Middle Chinese]]
| ancestor5        = [[Old Mandarin]]
| ancestor6        = [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|Middle Mandarin]]
| ancestor7        = [[Beijing Mandarin (division of Mandarin)|Beijing Mandarin]]
| script           = {{ubl|[[Chinese characters]]|[[Mainland Chinese Braille]]|[[Taiwanese Braille]]|[[Two-cell Chinese Braille]]}}
| nation           = *China (''de facto'', as ''Putonghua'')<ref name="Adamson & Feng">{{Citation |last1=Adamson |first1=Bob |title=Multilingual China: National, Minority and Foreign Languages |date=27 December 2021 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQdSEAAAQBAJ |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-48702-2 |last2=Feng |first2=Anwei |quotation=Despite not being defined as such in the Constitution, ''Putonghua'' enjoys ''de facto'' status of the official language in China and is legislated as the standard form of Chinese. |access-date=29 January 2024 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=GQdSEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Taiwan (''de facto'', as [[Taiwanese Mandarin]]<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:國家語言整體發展方案—推廣多元國家語言文化傳承及發展|url=https://www.ey.gov.tw/Page/5A8A0CB5B41DA11E/b6cf529e-a421-4f8d-9541-b7b0ef63f9cb |website=www.ey.gov.tw |access-date=7 July 2025 |language=zh-tw }}</ref>){{efn|Taiwan does not have any legally designated official language. Mandarin is the primary language used in business and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Not designated but meets the legal definition, that is "{{lang|zh|本法所稱國家語言，指臺灣各固有族群使用之自然語言及臺灣手語。}}"<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:國家語言發展法 |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143 |website=law.moj.gov.tw |access-date=22 May 2019 |language=zh |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111221059/https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0170143 |url-status=live }}</ref> ("a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language")}}
*Singapore (as [[Singaporean Mandarin|Mandarin]])
*United Nations (as Chinese)
*[[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]]
| minority         = Malaysia
| agency           = {{ubl|{{Indented plainlist|
*[[China]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Education]]{{efn|{{ill|National Commission on Language and Script Work|zh|国家语言文字工作委员会}}}}
*[[Taiwan]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education (Taiwan)|Ministry of Education]]
*[[Malaysia]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education (Malaysia)|Ministry of Education]] and [[Chinese Language Standardisation Council of Malaysia|Chinese Language Standardisation Council]]
*[[Singapore]]:<br>[[Ministry of Education (Singapore)|Ministry of Education]]<br>[[Promote Mandarin Council]]}}
}}
| isoexception     = dialect<!--Putonghua has not been assigned an ISO code-->
| iso6             = {{Ubl|goyu (Guoyu)|huyu (Huayu)|cosc (Putonghua)}}
| notice           = IPA
| sign             = Signed Chinese<ref>{{Citation |last1=Tai |first1=James |title=Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook |date=2015 |page=772 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA772 |access-date=26 February 2020 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-1-61451-817-4 |last2=Tsay |first2=Jane |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021527/https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA772#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>
| glotto           = none
| map              = Mandarin sphere.svg
| mapcaption       = Global distribution of Standard Mandarin speakers
{{legend|#0E0069|Majority native language}}
{{legend|#439DD4|Statutory or de facto national working language}}
{{legend|#9FCEFF|More than 1,000,000 L1 and L2 speakers}}
{{legend|#D5E8FF|More than 500,000 speakers}}
{{legend|#F7D5FF|More than 100,000 speakers}}
| mapscale         = 1.2
}}

{{Infobox Chinese
| title = ''Putonghua''
| showflag = stp
| s = {{linktext|普通话}}
| t = {{linktext|普通話}}
| p = Pǔtōnghuà
| j = Pou2 tung1 waa2
| y = Póutūngwá
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|p|u|3|.|t|ong|1|.|h|ua|4}}
| myr = Pǔtūnghwà
| w = {{tonesup|P'u3-t'ung1-hua4}}
| l = Common speech
| altname = ''Guoyu''
| s2 = {{linktext|国语}}
| t2 = {{linktext|國語}}
| p2 = Guóyǔ
| mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|g|uo|2|.|yu|3}}
| w2 = {{tonesup|Kuo2-yü3}}
| myr2 = Gwóyǔ
| l2 = [[National language]]
| altname3 = ''Huayu''
| s3 = {{linktext|华语}}
| t3 = {{linktext|華語}}
| p3 = Huáyǔ
| mi3 = {{IPAc-cmn|h|ua|2|.|yu|3}}
| w3 = {{tonesup|Hua2-yü3}}
| myr3 = Hwáyǔ
| l3 = Chinese language
| bpmf = ㄆㄨˇ ㄊㄨㄥ ㄏㄨㄚˋ
| tp = Pǔ-tong-huà
| tp2 = Guó-yǔ
| bpmf2 = ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄩˇ
| bpmf3 = ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄩˇ
| tp3 = Huá-yǔ
}}

'''Standard Chinese''' ({{lang-zh|s=现代标准汉语|t=現代標準漢語|p=Xiàndài biāozhǔn hànyǔ|l=modern standard Han speech}}) is a modern [[Standard language|standard]] form of [[Mandarin Chinese]] that was first codified during the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|republican era]] (1912–1949). It is designated as the national [[lingua franca]] of [[Languages of China|China]], one of the official languages of the [[United Nations languages|United Nations]] and of [[Languages of Singapore|Singapore]], and one of the national languages of [[Languages of Taiwan|Taiwan]]. It is largely based on the [[Beijing dialect]]. Standard Chinese is a [[pluricentric language]] with local standards in mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore that mainly differ in their [[lexicon]].{{sfnp|Bradley|1992|p=307}} [[Hong Kong written Chinese]], used for formal written communication in Hong Kong and Macau, is a form of Standard Chinese that is read aloud with the [[Cantonese]] reading of characters.

Like other [[Sinitic languages]], Standard Chinese is a [[tone (linguistics)|tonal language]] with [[topic-prominent language|topic-prominent]] organization and [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO) word order. Compared with southern varieties, the language has fewer vowels, final consonants and tones, but more initial consonants. It is an [[analytic language]], albeit with many [[compound word]]s.

In the context of [[linguistics]], the dialect has been labeled '''Standard Northern Mandarin'''<ref name="John Rohsenow 2004">{{Citation |last=Rohsenow |first=John S. |title=Language Policy in the People's Republic of China |date=2004 |pages=22, 24 |editor-last=Zhou |editor-first=Minglang |chapter=Fifty Years of Script and Written Language Reform in the P.R.C. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-XDdBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-8039-5 |quote=accurately represent and express the sounds of standard Northern Mandarin (Putonghua) [...]. Central to the [[promotion of Putonghua|promotion of ''Putonghua'']] as a national language with a standard pronunciation as well as to assisting literacy in the non-[[Phonemic orthography|phonetic writing system]] of Chinese characters was the development of a [[pinyin|system of phonetic symbols]] with which to convey the pronunciation of spoken words and written characters in '''standard northern Mandarin'''.}}</ref><ref name="Yunyun Ran 2016">{{Citation |last1=Ran |first1=Yunyun |title=Proceedings of the second workshop "Chinese Accents and Accented Chinese" (2nd CAAC) 2016, at the Nordic Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, 26-27 October 2015 |date=2016 |page=4 |editor-last=Sloos |editor-first=Marjoleine |editor-last2=Weijer |editor-first2=Jeroen van de |url=http://chineseaccents.yolasite.com/resources/CAAC2015%20RYY%26JW%20Final.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161211200335/http://chineseaccents.yolasite.com/resources/CAAC2015%20RYY%26JW%20Final.pdf |archive-date=2016-12-11 |chapter=On L2 English Intonation Patterns by Mandarin and Shanghainese Speakers: A Pilot Study |quote=We recorded a number of English sentences spoken by speakers with Mandarin Chinese (standard northern Mandarin) as their first language and by Chinese speakers with [[Shanghainese]] as their first language, [...] |last2=Weijer |first2=Jeroen van de}}</ref><ref name="David Bradley 2008">{{Citation |last=Bradley |first=David |title=Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages |date=2008 |page=500 (e-book) |editor-last=Moseley |editor-first=Christopher |chapter=Chapter 5: East and Southeast Asia |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT500 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79640-2 |quote=As a result of the spread of standard northern Mandarin and major regional varieties of provincial capitals since 1950, many of the smaller ''tuyu'' [土語] are disappearing by being absorbed into larger regional ''fangyan'' [方言], which of course may be a sub-variety of Mandarin or something else. |author-link=David Bradley (linguist) |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023006/https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT500#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> or '''Standard Beijing Mandarin''',<ref name="Jeff Siegel 2003">{{Citation |last=Siegel |first=Jeff |title=The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition |date=2003 |page=201 |editor-last=Doughty |editor-first=Catherine J. |editor-last2=Long |editor-first2=Michael H. |chapter=Chapter 8: Social Context |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLoVScagwYC&pg=PA201 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing, U.K. |isbn=978-1-4051-5188-7 |quote=Escure [Geneviève Escure, 1997] goes on to analyse second dialect texts of '''Putonghua''' ('''standard Beijing Mandarin Chinese''') produced by speakers of other [[varieties of Chinese]], [in] [[Wuhan]] and [[Suzhou, Jiangsu|Suzhou]]. |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023007/https://books.google.com/books?id=xmLoVScagwYC&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ying-Chuan Chen2013">{{cite thesis|title=Becoming Taiwanese: Negotiating Language, Culture and Identity|first=Ying-Chuan|last=Chen|publisher=[[University of Ottawa]]|date=2013|page=300|url=https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/24934/5/Chen_Ying-Chuan_2013_thesis.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200219134255/https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/24934/5/Chen_Ying-Chuan_2013_thesis.pdf|archive-date=2020-02-19|quote=[...] a consistent gender pattern found across all the age [[Cohort (statistics)|cohort]]s is that women were more concerned about their teachers' bad Mandarin pronunciation, and implied that it was an inferior form of Mandarin, which signified their aspiration to speak '''standard Beijing Mandarin''', the good version of the language.}}</ref> and in common speech simply '''Mandarin''',<ref name="Weng, Jeffrey 2018 611–633">{{Citation |last=Weng |first=Jeffrey |title=What is Mandarin? The social project of language standardization in early Republican China |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=611–633 |year=2018 |doi=10.1017/S0021911818000487 |quote=in common usage, 'Mandarin' or 'Mandarin Chinese' usually refers to China's standard spoken language. In fact, I would argue that this is the predominant meaning of the word |doi-access=free}}</ref> more specifically qualified as '''Standard Mandarin''', '''Modern Standard Mandarin''', or '''Standard Mandarin Chinese'''.

{{Toclimit|3}}

== Naming ==
===In English===
Among linguists, Standard Chinese has been referred to as ''Standard Northern Mandarin''<ref name="John Rohsenow 2004" /><ref name="Yunyun Ran 2016" /><ref name="David Bradley 2008" /> or ''Standard Beijing Mandarin''.<ref name="Jeff Siegel 2003" /><ref name="Ying-Chuan Chen2013"/> It is colloquially referred to as simply ''Mandarin'',<ref name="Weng, Jeffrey 2018 611–633" /> though this term may also refer to the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin dialect group]] as a whole, or the late imperial [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|form used as a lingua franca]].<ref name="Robert M Sanders 1987">{{Citation |last=Sanders |first=Robert M. |title=The Four Languages of "Mandarin" |date=1987 |work=Sino-Platonic Papers |issue=4 |url=http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp004_mandarin_chinese.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307022502/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp004_mandarin_chinese.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-07}}</ref>{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=136}}<ref>{{Citation |title=Mandarin |work=Oxford Dictionary |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/mandarin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703095204/https://www.lexico.com/definition/mandarin |archive-date=3 July 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Weng, Jeffrey 2018 611–633" /> "Mandarin" is a translation of ''Guanhua'' ({{zhi|s=官话|t=官話|first=t|l=bureaucrat speech}}),{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} which referred to the late imperial lingua franca.{{sfnp|Mair|1991|pp=11–12}} The term ''Modern Standard Mandarin'' is used to distinguish it from older forms.{{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}}{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|p=537}}

===In Chinese===
====''Guoyu'' and ''Putonghua''====
The word ''Guoyu'' ({{zhi|t=國語|s=国语|l=national language}}){{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} was initially used during the late [[Qing dynasty]] to refer to the [[Manchu language]]. The 1655 ''[[Memoir of Qing Dynasty]], Volume: Emperor [[Nurhaci]]'' ({{lang|zh-Hant|清太祖實錄}}) says: "(In 1631) as Manchu ministers do not comprehend the Han language, each ministry shall create a new position to be filled up by [[Han people|Han]] official who can comprehend the national language."<ref>{{Citation |last=张杰 |title=清文化与满族精神 |date=2012 |editor-last=张杰 |url=http://www.xjass.cn/mzwh/content/2011-04/08/content_192291.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105000708/http://www.xjass.cn/mzwh/content/2011-04/08/content_192291.htm |archive-date=2020-11-05 |chapter=论清代满族语言文字在东北的兴废与影响 |publisher=辽宁民族出版社 |language=zh |quote=[天聪五年, 1631年] 满大臣不解汉语，故每部设启心郎一员，以通晓国语之汉员为之，职正三品，每遇议事，座在其中参预之。}}</ref> However, the sense of ''Guoyu'' as a specific language variety promoted for general use by the citizenry was originally borrowed from Japan in the early 20th century. In 1902, the Japanese Diet had formed the [[National Language Research Council]] to standardize a form of the Japanese language dubbed {{tlit|ja|kokugo}} ({{lang|ja|国語}}).{{sfnp|Tam|2020|p=76}} Reformers in the Qing bureaucracy took inspiration and borrowed the term into Chinese, and in 1909 the Qing education ministry officially proclaimed [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|imperial Mandarin]] to be the national language.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=133–134}}

The term ''Putonghua'' ({{zhi|t=普通話|s=普通话|l=common tongue}}){{sfnp|Mair|2013|p=737}} dates back to 1906 in writings by [[Zhu Wenxiong]] to differentiate the standard vernacular Mandarin from [[Literary Chinese]] and other [[varieties of Chinese]].

====Usage concerns====
Since 2000, the Chinese government has used the term "Countrywide common spoken and written language" ({{zhi|s=国家通用语言文字}}), while also making provisions for the use and protection of [[Chinese ethnic minorities|ethnic minority]] languages.<ref name="进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识">{{Cite web |title=进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识 |url=http://npc.people.com.cn/n1/2020/1116/c14576-31932918.html |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=人民日报}}</ref> The term is derived from the title of a 2000 law which defines ''Putonghua'' as the "Countrywide Common Spoken and Written Language".<ref name="进一步贯彻实施国家通用语言文字法铸牢中华民族共同体意识"/>

Use of the term ''Putonghua'' ('common tongue') deliberately avoids calling the dialect a 'national language', in order to mitigate the impression of coercing minority groups to adopt the language of the majority. Such concerns were first raised by the early Communist leader [[Qu Qiubai]] in 1931. His concern echoed within the Communist Party, which adopted the term ''Putonghua'' in 1955.<ref>{{Citation |last=Cao |first=Dehe |author-mask=Cao Dehe (曹德和) |year=2011 |publisher=Tribune of Social Sciences |issue=10 |script-title=zh:恢复"国语名"称的建议为何不被接受_──《国家通用语言文字法》学习中的探讨和思考 |language=zh}}</ref><ref>Yuan, Zhongrui. (2008) "[http://www.china-language.gov.cn/63/2008_3_10/1_63_3387_0_1205124588468.html 国语、普通话、华语] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426051531/http://www.china-language.gov.cn/63/2008_3_10/1_63_3387_0_1205124588468.html |date=26 April 2009 }} (Guoyu, Putonghua, Huayu)". ''China Language'' National Language Committee, People's Republic of China</ref> Since 1949, usage of the word ''Guoyu'' was phased out in the PRC, only surviving in established compound nouns, e.g. '[[Mandopop]]' ({{zhi|p=Guóyǔ liúxíng yīnyuè|s=国语流行音乐}}), or 'Chinese cinema' ({{zhi|p=Guóyǔ diànyǐng|s=国语电影}}).

In Taiwan, ''Guoyu'' is the colloquial term for Standard Chinese. In 2017 and 2018, the Taiwanese government introduced two laws explicitly recognizing the indigenous [[Formosan languages]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Sponsored by [[Council of Indigenous Peoples]] |title=原住民族語言發展法 |date=2017-06-14 |trans-title=Indigenous Languages Development Act |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037 |publisher=[[Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China]], the Ministry of Justice |quote=Indigenous languages are national languages. To carry out historical justice, promote the preservation and development of indigenous languages, and secure indigenous language usage and heritage, this act is enacted according to... [原住民族語言為國家語言，為實現歷史正義，促進原住民族語言之保存與發展，保障原住民族語言之使用及傳承，依...] |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213123845/https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0130037 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wang Baijian2018" /> and [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]<ref>{{Citation |last=Sponsored by [[Hakka Affairs Council]] |title=客家基本法 |date=2018-01-31 |trans-title=Hakka Basic Act |url=https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005 |publisher=[[Laws & Regulations Database of The Republic of China]], the Ministry of Justice |quote=Hakka language is one of the national languages, equal to the languages of other ethnic groups. The people shall be given guarantee on their right to study in Hakka language and use it in enjoying public services and partaking of the dissemination of resources. [客語為國家語言之一，與各族群語言平等。人民以客語作為學習語言、接近使用公共服務及傳播資源等權利，應予保障。] |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190213124007/https://law.moj.gov.tw/ENG/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=D0140005 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Wang Baijian2018">{{Citation |last=Wang |first=Baojian |author-mask=Wang Baojian (王保鍵) |year=2018 |work=Journal of Civil Service |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=89, 92–96 |script-title=zh:客家基本法之制定與發展：兼論 2018 年修法重點 |url=https://ws.exam.gov.tw/001/Upload/15/attachment/12083/38483/882416282671.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105103333/https://ws.exam.gov.tw/001/Upload/15/attachment/12083/38483/882416282671.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-05}}</ref> as "Languages of the nation" ({{lang|zh-Hant|國家語言}}) alongside Standard Chinese. Since then, there have been efforts to redefine ''Guoyu'' as encompassing all "languages of the nation", rather than exclusively referring to Standard Chinese.

====''Hanyu'' and ''Zhongwen''====
Among Chinese people, ''Hanyu'' ({{zhi|t=漢語|s=汉语|l=Han language}}) refers to spoken [[varieties of Chinese]]. ''Zhongwen'' ({{zhi|c=中文|l=written Chinese}}){{sfnp|Mair|1991|pp=11}} refers to written Chinese. Among foreigners, the term ''Hanyu'' is most commonly used in textbooks and Standard Chinese education, such as in the [[Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi]] (HSK) test.

====''Huayu''====
Until the mid-1960s, ''Huayu'' ({{zhi|t=華語|s=华语}}) referred to all the language varieties used among the [[Zhonghua minzu|Chinese nation]].<ref name="Xu2018">{{Citation |last=Xu |first=Weixian |pages=36–41 |year=2018 |author-mask=Xu Weixian (許維賢) |trans-title=Chinese films in Malaysia: local and overseas styles and auteur theory |script-title=zh:華語電影在後馬來西亞：土腔風格、華夷風與作者論 |publisher=Lianjing chuban |language=zh |isbn=978-957-08-5098-7}}</ref> For example, [[Cinema of Hong Kong|Cantonese]], [[Cinema of China|Mandarin]], and [[Hokkien films]] produced in Hong Kong were imported into Malaysia and collectively known as "''Huayu'' cinema" until the mid-1960s.<ref name="Xu2018" /> Gradually, the term has been re-appropriated to refer specifically to Standard Chinese. The term is mostly used in [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and the [[Philippines]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Kane |first=Daniel |title=The Chinese Language: Its History and Current Usage |pages=22–23, 93 |year=2006 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-0-8048-3853-5}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Standard Chinese}}

The [[Chinese language]] has had considerable dialectal variation throughout its history, including [[prestige dialect]]s and [[linguae francae]] used throughout the territory controlled by the dynastic states of China. For example, [[Confucius]] is thought to have used a dialect known as ''[[Yayan (language)|yayan]]'' rather than regional dialects; during the [[Han dynasty]], texts also referred to {{transliteration|zh|tōngyǔ}} ({{zhi|t={{linktext|通語}}|l=common language}}). The [[rime book]]s that were written starting in the [[Northern and Southern dynasties|Northern and Southern period]] may have reflected standard systems of pronunciation. However, these standard dialects were mostly used by the educated elite, whose pronunciation may still have possessed great variation. For these elites, the Chinese language was unified in [[Literary Chinese]], a form that was primarily written, as opposed to spoken.

=== Late empire ===
{{main|Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)}}
[[File:Fourmont-Zhongguo-Guanhua.png|thumb|right|''Zhongguo Guanhua'' ({{zhi|s=中国官话|t=中國官話|first=t}}), or {{lang|la|Medii Regni Communis Loquela}} ('Middle Kingdom's Common Speech'), used on the [[book frontispiece|frontispiece]] of an early Chinese grammar published by [[Étienne Fourmont]] (with [[Arcadio Huang]]) in 1742<ref>{{Citation |last=Fourmont|first=Étienne|title=Linguæ Sinarum Mandarinicæ Hieroglyphicæ Grammatica Duplex|trans-title=Grammar of the Mandarin Chinese Hieroglyphics|language=la|author-link=Étienne Fourmont|year=1742|url=https://archive.org/details/b30448955/page/n7/mode/2up|location=Paris|publisher=Hippolyte-Louis Guérin}}</ref>]]

The term ''Guanhua'' ({{zhi|t=官話|s=官话|first=t|l=official speech}}) was used during the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties to refer to [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|the lingua franca]] spoken within the imperial courts. The term "Mandarin" is borrowed directly from the Portuguese word {{lang|pt|mandarim}}, in turn derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word {{transliteration|sa|[[mantri]]n}} ('minister')—and was initially used to refer to Chinese [[scholar-official]]s. The Portuguese then began referring to ''Guanhua'' as "the language of the mandarins".{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|p=537}}

{{blockquote|text=The Chinese have different languages in different provinces, to such an extent that they cannot understand each other.... [They] also have another language which is like a universal and common language; this is the official language of the mandarins and of the court; it is among them like Latin among ourselves.... Two of our fathers [Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci] have been learning this mandarin language...|author=[[Alessandro Valignano]]|source={{lang|es|Historia del Principio y Progresso de la Compañia de Jesus en las Indias Orientales}} (1542–1564)<ref>Translation quoted in {{harvp|Coblin|2000|p=539}}</ref>}}

During the 17th century, the state had set up [[orthoepy]] academies ({{zhi|t=正音書院|p=zhèngyīn shūyuàn}}) in an attempt to conform the speech of bureaucrats to the standard. These attempts had little success: as late as the 19th century, the emperor had difficulty understanding some of his ministers in court, who did not always follow a standard pronunciation.

Before the 19th century, the lingua franca was based on the [[Nanjing dialect]], but later the [[Beijing dialect]] became increasingly influential, despite the mix of officials and commoners speaking various dialects in the capital, [[Beijing]].{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|pp=549–550}} By some accounts, as late as 1900 the position of the Nanjing dialect was considered by some to be above that of Beijing; the [[postal romanization]] standards established in 1906 included spellings that reflected elements of Nanjing pronunciation.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Richard |first1=Louis |title=Comprehensive geography of the Chinese empire and dependencies |year=1908 |url=http://archive.org/details/lrichardscompreh00rich |access-date=2024-03-06 |place=Shanghai |publisher=Tusewei Press |last2=Kennelly |first2=M. |page=iv}}</ref> The sense of ''Guoyu'' as a specific language variety promoted for general use by the citizenry was originally borrowed from Japan; in 1902 the Japanese Diet had formed the [[National Language Research Council]] to standardize a form of the Japanese language dubbed {{tlit|ja|kokugo}} ({{lang|ja|国語}}).{{sfnp|Tam|2020|p=76}} Reformers in the Qing bureaucracy took inspiration and borrowed the term into Chinese, and in 1909 the Qing education ministry officially proclaimed [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|imperial Mandarin]] as ''Guoyu'' ({{zhi|s=国语|t=國語}}), the 'national language'.

=== Republican era ===
[[File:Madarin in Chinese Mainland EN.PNG|right|thumb|upright=1.15|Distribution of Mandarin subgroups in mainland China, as of 1987]]

After the [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]] was established in 1912, there was more success in promoting a common national language. A [[Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation]] was convened with delegates from the entire country.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=16–17}} A ''Dictionary of National Pronunciation'' ({{zhi|s=国音字典|t=國音字典|first=t}}) was published in 1919, defining a [[Old National Pronunciation|hybrid pronunciation]] that did not match any existing speech.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=134}}{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=18}} Meanwhile, despite the lack of a workable standardized pronunciation, colloquial literature in [[written vernacular Chinese]] continued to develop.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=10}}

Gradually, the members of the National Language Commission came to settle upon the Beijing dialect, which became the major source of standard national pronunciation due to its prestigious status. In 1932, the commission published the ''Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use'' ({{zhi|s=国音常用字汇|t=國音常用字彙|first=t}}), with little fanfare or official announcement. This dictionary was similar to the previous published one except that it normalized the pronunciations for all characters into the pronunciation of the Beijing dialect. Elements from other dialects continue to exist in the standard language, but as exceptions rather than the rule.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=15}}

Following the end of the [[Chinese Civil War]], the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) continued standardisation efforts on the mainland, and in 1955 officially began using ''Putonghua'' ({{zhi|s=普通话|t=普通話|l=common speech}}) instead of ''Guoyu'', which remains the name used in [[Taiwan]]. The forms of Standard Chinese used in China and Taiwan have diverged somewhat since the end of the Civil War, especially in newer vocabulary, and a little in pronunciation.{{sfnp|Bradley|1992|pp=313–314}}

In 1956, the PRC officially defined Standard Chinese as "the standard form of Modern Chinese with the Beijing phonological system as its norm of pronunciation, and Northern dialects as its base dialect, and looking to exemplary modern works in [[written vernacular Chinese]] for its grammatical norms."<ref name="langlaw">{{Citation |title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) |date=31 October 2000 |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |access-date=27 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724204951/http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |archive-date=24 July 2013 |url-status=live |publisher=Gov.cn |trans-quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.|script-quote=zh:普通话就是现代汉民族共同语，是全国各民族通用的语言。普通话以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作语法规范}}</ref>{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=24}} According to the official definition, Standard Chinese uses:
* The [[phonology]] of the Beijing dialect, if not always with each phoneme having the precise [[phonetic]] values as those heard in Beijing.
* The [[vocabulary]] of [[Mandarin dialects]] in general, excepting what are deemed to be [[slang]] and regionalisms. The vocabulary of all Chinese varieties, especially in more technical fields like science, law, and government, is very similar—akin to the profusion of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] vocabulary in European languages. This means that much of the vocabulary of Standard Chinese is shared with all varieties of Chinese. Much of the [[colloquialism|colloquial]] vocabulary of the Beijing dialect is not considered part of Standard Chinese, and may not be understood by people outside Beijing.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=37–38}}
* The [[grammar]] and idioms of exemplary modern [[Chinese literature]], a form known as [[written vernacular Chinese]]. Written vernacular Chinese is loosely based upon a synthesis of predominantly northern grammar and vocabulary, with southern and Literary elements. This distinguishes Standard Chinese from the dialect heard on the streets of Beijing.

Proficiency in the new standard was initially limited, even among Mandarin speakers, but increased over the following decades.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=27–28}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Percentage of population of China proficient in Standard Chinese{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=28}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! Early 1950s
! colspan="2" | 1984
|-
! Comprehension
! Comprehension
! Speaking
|-
! Mandarin-speaking areas
| 54 || 91 || 54
|-
! non-Mandarin areas
| 11 || 77 || 40
|-
! whole country
| 41 || 90 || 50
|}

A 2007 survey conducted by the Chinese Ministry of Education indicated that 53.06% of the population were able to effectively communicate using Standard Chinese.<ref>{{Citation |title=More than half of Chinese can speak Mandarin |date=7 March 2007 |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/201946.htm |publisher=[[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua]] |access-date=10 November 2017 |archive-date=4 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181204232341/http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/201946.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> By 2020, this figure had risen to over 80%.<ref>{{Citation|title=Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin|language=en|work=People's Daily|url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html|last1=E'nuo|first1=Zhao|last2=Wu|first2=Yue|date=16 October 2020|access-date=22 December 2021|archive-date=30 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930021445/http://en.people.cn/n3/2020/1016/c90000-9769716.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Status ==
In both mainland China and Taiwan, Standard Chinese is used in most official contexts, as well as the media and educational system, contributing to its proliferation. As a result, it is now spoken by most people in both countries, though often with some regional or personal variation in vocabulary and pronunciation.

In overseas Chinese communities outside Asia where Cantonese once dominated, such as the [[Manhattan Chinatown|Chinatown in Manhattan]], the use of Standard Chinese, which is the primary lingua franca of more recent [[Chinese immigrants]], is rapidly increasing.<ref>{{Citation |last=Semple |first=Kirk |title=In Chinatown, Sound of the Future Is Mandarin |date=21 October 2009 |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/22/nyregion/22chinese.html |access-date=18 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714084739/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/22/nyregion/22chinese.html |archive-date=14 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Mainland China ===
[[File:Map of sinitic languages cropped-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Distribution of the [[varieties of Chinese|Chinese dialect groups]] as of 1987, including Mandarin (light brown)]]
While Standard Chinese was made China's official language in the early 20th century, local languages continue to be the main form of everyday communication in much of the country. The language policy adopted by the Chinese government promotes the use of Standard Chinese while also making allowances for the use and preservation of local varieties.<ref>{{Citation |last=Spolsky |first=Bernard |title=Language management in the People's Republic of China |date=December 2014 |work=Linguistic Society of America |volume=90 |pages=168 |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/02e_90.4Spolsky.pdf |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023014/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/02e_90.4Spolsky.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> From an official point of view, Standard Chinese serves as a [[lingua franca]] to facilitate communication between speakers of mutually unintelligible [[varieties of Chinese]] and [[Languages of China|non-Sinitic languages]]. The name ''Putonghua'', or 'common speech', reinforces this idea. However, due to Standard Chinese being a "public" lingua franca, other Chinese varieties and even non-Sinitic languages have shown signs of losing ground to the standard dialect. In many areas, especially in southern China, it is commonly used for practical reasons, as linguistic diversity is so great that residents of neighboring cities may have difficulties communicating with each other without a lingua franca.

According to the Chinese government, their language policy been largely successful, with over 80% of the Chinese population able to speak Standard Chinese as of 2020.<ref name="over80percent" /> The Chinese government's current goal is to have 85% of the country's population speak Standard Chinese by 2025, and virtually the entire country by 2035.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=China says 85% of citizens will use Mandarin by 2025 |work=ABC News |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/china-85-citizens-mandarin-2025-81485477 |access-date=2021-12-22 |language=en}}</ref> Throughout the country, Standard Chinese has heavily influenced local languages through [[diglossia]], replacing them entirely in some cases, especially among younger people in urban areas.<ref>{{Citation |last=Zuo |first=Xinyi |title=Proceedings of the 2020 3rd International Conference on Humanities Education and Social Sciences (ICHESS 2020) |date=2020-12-16 |pages=56–59 |chapter=Effects of Ways of Communication on the Preservation of Shanghai Dialect |chapter-url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-20/125949177 |publisher=Atlantis Press |language=en |doi=10.2991/assehr.k.201214.465 |isbn=978-94-6239-301-1 |s2cid=234515573 |doi-access=free |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023038/https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ichess-20/125949177 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Chinese government is keen to promote ''Putonghua'' as the national lingua franca: under the ''National Common Language and Writing Law'', the government is required to promote its use. Officially, the Chinese government has not stated its intent to replace regional varieties with Standard Chinese. However, regulations enacted by local governments to implement the national law have included measures to control the use of spoken dialects and [[traditional characters]] in writing.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}} For example, the ''[[Guangdong National Language Regulations]]'' enacted in 2012 generally require broadcasts in the province to be in Standard Chinese, with programs and channels able to broadcast in other varieties if approved by the national or provincial government. Government employees, including teachers, conference holders, broadcasters, and TV staff are required to use Standard Chinese.<ref name="phxtvonline">{{Citation |date=18 December 2011 |script-title=zh:广东省国家通用语言文字规定 |trans-title=Full Text of Guangdong National Language Regulations |language=zh |work=news.ifeng.com |url=http://news.ifeng.com/mainland/detail_2011_12/18/11402971_0.shtml |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="world1">{{Citation |url=http://www.worldjournal.com/view/aChinanews/16824746/article-廣東限制粵語廣播恐爆抗議潮?instance=top_rec |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130209120433/http://www.worldjournal.com/view/aChinanews/16824746/article-%E5%BB%A3%E6%9D%B1%E9%99%90%E5%88%B6%E7%B2%B5%E8%AA%9E%E5%BB%A3%E6%92%AD%E6%81%90%E7%88%86%E6%8A%97%E8%AD%B0%E6%BD%AE?instance=top_rec |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 February 2013 |website=worldjournal.com |language=zh |script-title=zh:廣東限制粵語廣播恐爆抗議潮 |trans-title=Protests Worries As Guangdong Pushes New Language Bill |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref> In addition, public signage is to be written using [[simplified characters]], with exceptions for historical sites, pre-registered logos, or when approved by the state.<ref name="phxtvonline" /> Public brands, seals, documents, websites, signs, and trade names are not to use traditional characters or [[character variants]].<ref>{{Citation |url=http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20111218/00178_008.html |work=Oriental Daily (Hong Kong) |language=zh |script-title=zh:廣東廢粵語滅繁體 |trans-title=Guangdong Limits Use of Cantonese Language and Traditional Chinese Characters |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |url=http://club.dayoo.com/view-171298550-1-1.html |date=17 December 2011 |work=Guangzhou Daily |language=zh |script-title=zh:粤语将何去何从？广东省国家通用语言文字规定明年实行 |trans-title=Guangdong National Language Regulations Puts Cantonese Language in the Crosshairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101204458/http://club.dayoo.com/view-171298550-1-1.html |archive-date=1 January 2012 |access-date=6 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |date=18 December 2011 |script-title=zh:粵嚴令媒體推普限制粵方言 |trans-title=Guangdong's Strict New Media Laws Oppresses Cantonese |language=zh |work=Sing Tao Daily |url=http://hk.news.yahoo.com/粵嚴令媒體-推普限制粵方言-220939679.html |access-date=6 January 2012 |via=Yahoo News Hong Kong}}</ref>

Some Chinese speakers who are older or from rural areas cannot speak Standard Chinese fluently or at all, though most are able to understand it. Meanwhile, those from urban areas—as well as younger speakers, who have received their education primarily in Standard Chinese—are almost all fluent in it, with some being unable to speak their local dialect.

The Chinese government has disseminated [[public service announcement]]s promoting the use of ''Putonghua'' on television and the radio, as well as on public buses. The standardization campaign has been challenged by local dialectical and ethnic populations, who fear the loss of their cultural identity and native dialect. In the summer of 2010, reports of a planned increase in the use of the ''Putonghua'' on local television in [[Guangdong]] led to demonstrations on the streets by thousands of [[Cantonese]]-speaking citizens.<ref>{{Citation |last=Luo |first=Chris |title=One-third of Chinese do not speak Putonghua, says Education Ministry |date=2014-09-23 |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1598040/3-10-chinese-citizens-do-not-speak-putonghua-says-education |access-date=2017-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150602081902/http://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/article/1598040/3-10-chinese-citizens-do-not-speak-putonghua-says-education |archive-date=2 June 2015 |url-status=live |place=Hong Kong}}</ref> While the use of Standard Chinese is encouraged as the common working language in predominantly [[Han Chinese|Han]] areas on the mainland, the PRC has been more sensitive to the status of non-Sinitic minority languages, and has generally not discouraged their social use outside of education.

=== Hong Kong and Macau ===
In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], which are [[Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China|special administrative regions]] of the PRC, there is [[diglossia]] between [[Cantonese]] ({{zhi|t=口語|j=hau2 jyu5|l=spoken language}}) as the primary spoken language, alongside a [[Hong Kong written Chinese|local form of Standard Chinese]] ({{zhi|t=書面語|j=syu1 min6 jyu5|l=written language}}) used in schools, local government, and formal writing.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Lee |first=Siu-lun |title=The Learning and Teaching of Cantonese as a Second Language |year=2023 |place=Abingdon/New York |publisher=Routledge |language=en |isbn=978-1-000-88989-5}}</ref> [[Written Cantonese]] may also be used in informal settings such as advertisements, magazines, popular literature, and comics. Mixture of formal and informal written Chinese occurs to various degrees.<ref name=":12">{{Citation |last=Shi |first=Dingxu |title=Hong Kong written Chinese: Language change induced by language contact |date=2006-10-12 |journal=Journal of Asian Pacific Communication |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=299–318 |url=http://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi |language=en |doi=10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi |s2cid=143191355 |access-date=28 June 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023013/https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/japc.16.2.09shi |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> After the [[transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong|Hong Kong's handover]] from the United Kingdom and [[transfer of sovereignty over Macau|Macau's handover]] from Portugal, their governments use ''Putonghua'' to communicate with the PRC's [[Central People's Government]]. There has been significant effort to promote use of ''Putonghua'' in Hong Kong since the handover,<ref>{{Citation |last=Standing Committee on Language Education & Research |title=Putonghua promotion stepped up |date=25 March 2006 |url=http://archive.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/atschool/060325/html/060325en02002.htm |access-date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092538/http://archive.news.gov.hk/isd/ebulletin/en/category/atschool/060325/html/060325en02002.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead |publisher=Hong Kong Government}}</ref> including the training of police<ref>{{Citation |title=Online training to boost Chinese skills |url=http://www.police.gov.hk/offbeat/692/0110_e.htm |access-date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092725/http://www.police.gov.hk/offbeat/692/0110_e.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=live |publisher=Hong Kong Police Department}}</ref> and teachers.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hong Kong LegCo |title=Panel on Education working reports |date=19 April 1999 |url=http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/ed/papers/ed1904_4.htm |access-date=12 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092708/http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr98-99/english/panels/ed/papers/ed1904_4.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=live |publisher=Hong Kong Government}}</ref>

=== Taiwan ===
{{main|Taiwanese Mandarin}}
Standard Chinese is the official language of [[Taiwan]]. Standard Chinese started being widely spoken in Taiwan following the end of the [[Chinese Civil War]] in 1949, with the relocation of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) to the island along with an [[Waishengren|influx of refugees]] from the mainland. The Standard Chinese used in Taiwan differs very little from that of mainland China, with differences largely being in technical vocabulary introduced after 1949.<ref>{{Citation |last=Yao |first=Qian |title=Analysis of Computer Terminology Translation Differences between Taiwan and Mainland China |date=September 2014 |journal=Advanced Materials Research |volume=1030-1032 |pages=1650–1652 |doi=10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1030-1032.1650 |s2cid=136508776}}</ref>

Prior to 1949, the varieties most commonly spoken by Taiwan's Han population were [[Taiwanese Hokkien]], as well as [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] to a lesser extent. Much of the [[Taiwanese Aboriginal]] population spoke their native [[Formosan languages]]. During the period of [[martial law]] between 1949 and 1987, the Taiwanese government revived the [[Mandarin Promotion Council]], discouraging or in some cases forbidding the use of Hokkien and other non-standard varieties. This resulted in Standard Chinese replacing Hokkien as the country's lingua franca,{{sfnp|Scott|Tiun|2007|p=57}} and ultimately, a political backlash in the 1990s. Starting in the 2000s during the administration of President [[Chen Shui-Bian]], the Taiwanese government began making efforts to recognize the country's other languages. They began being taught in schools, and their use increased in media, though Standard Chinese remains the country's lingua franca.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hubbs |first=Elizabeth |title=Taiwan language-in-education policy: social, cultural and practical implications |work=Arizona Working Papers in SLA & Teaching |volume=20 |pages=76–95 |url=https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/AZSLAT/article/download/21223/20804 |access-date=13 May 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240930023013/https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/AZSLAT/article/download/21223/20804 |url-status=live }}</ref> Chen often used Hokkien in his speeches; later Taiwanese President [[Lee Teng-hui]] also openly spoke Hokkien. In an amendment to the Enforcement Rules of the Passport Act ({{lang|zh-tw|護照條例施行細則}}) passed on 9 August 2019, Taiwan's [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Taiwan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] announced that romanized spellings of names in [[Hoklo]], Hakka and Aboriginal languages may be used in Taiwanese passports. Previously, only Mandarin names could be romanized.<ref>{{Citation |last=Jason Pan |title=NTU professors' language rule draws groups' ire |date=16 August 2019 |work=[[Taipei Times]] |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2019/08/16/2003720563 |access-date=17 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817081519/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2019/08/16/2003720563 |archive-date=17 August 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Singapore ===
{{Main|Singaporean Mandarin}}
Mandarin is one of the four official languages of Singapore, along with English, [[Malay language|Malay]], and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. Historically, it was seldom used by the [[Chinese Singaporeans|Chinese Singaporean community]], which primarily spoke the Southern Chinese languages of [[Hokkien]], [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]], Cantonese, or [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} [[Standard Singaporean Mandarin]] is nearly identical to the standards of China and Taiwan, with minor vocabulary differences. It is the Mandarin variant used in education, media, and official settings. Meanwhile, a colloquial form called Singdarin is used in informal daily life and is heavily influenced in terms of both grammar and vocabulary by local languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, and Malay. Instances of code-switching with English, Hokkien, Cantonese, Malay, or a combination thereof are also common.

In Singapore, the government has heavily promoted a "[[Speak Mandarin Campaign]]" since the late 1970s, with the use of other Chinese varieties in broadcast media being prohibited and their use in any context officially discouraged until recently.<ref>{{Citation |title=New Hokkien drama aimed at seniors to be launched on Sep 9 |date=1 September 2016 |work=[[Channel News Asia]] |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/new-hokkien-drama-aimed-at-seniors-to-be-launched-on-sep-9/3091668.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219200949/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/new-hokkien-drama-aimed-at-seniors-to-be-launched-on-sep-9/3091668.html |archive-date=19 December 2016}}</ref> This has led to some resentment amongst the older generations, as Singapore's migrant Chinese community is made up almost entirely of people of south Chinese descent. [[Lee Kuan Yew]], the initiator of the campaign, admitted that to most Chinese Singaporeans, Mandarin was a "stepmother tongue" rather than a true mother language. Nevertheless, he saw the need for a unified language among the Chinese community not biased in favor of any existing group.<ref name="Yew 2000">{{Citation |last=Yew |first=Lee Kuan |title=From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965-2000 |date=2000-10-03 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-06-019776-6 |ol=7275961M}}</ref>

===Malaysia===
{{Main|Malaysian Mandarin}}
In Malaysia, Mandarin has been adopted by local Chinese-language schools as the medium of instruction with the standard shared with Singaporean Chinese. Together influenced by the Singaporean Speak Mandarin Campaign and Chinese culture revival movement in the 1980s, Malaysian Chinese started their own promotion of Mandarin too, and similar to Singapore, but to a lesser extent, experienced language shift from other Chinese variants to Mandarin. Today, Mandarin functions as lingua franca among Malaysian Chinese, while Hokkien and Cantonese are still retained in the northern part and central part of Peninsular Malaysia respectively.

===Myanmar===
{{See also|Chinese people in Myanmar}}
In some regions controlled by [[List of insurgent groups in Myanmar|insurgent groups]] in northern Myanmar, Mandarin serves as the lingua franca.<ref>{{Citation |author=Aung Thein Kha |title=In Myanmar's Remote Mongla Region, Mandarin Supplants The Burmese Language |date=17 September 2019 |work=[[Radio Free Asia]] |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/in-myanmars-remote-mongla-region-09172019141648.html |access-date=31 May 2020 |last2=Gerin |first2=Roseanne |archive-date=5 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505202706/https://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/in-myanmars-remote-mongla-region-09172019141648.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Education ==
[[File:Yangzhou-Highschool-Speak-Putonghua-3388.jpg|thumb|A poster outside a high school in [[Yangzhou]] urges people to "Speak Putonghua to welcome guests from all around, use the language of the civilized to give your sincere feelings".]]

In both mainland China and Taiwan, Standard Chinese is taught by immersion starting in elementary school. After the second grade, the entire educational system is in Standard Chinese, except for local language classes that have been taught for a few hours each week in Taiwan starting in the mid-1990s.

With an increase in internal [[migration in China]], the official [[Putonghua Proficiency Test]] (PSC) has become popular. Employers often require a level of Standard Chinese proficiency from applicants depending on the position, and many university graduates on the mainland take the PSC before looking for a job.

== Phonology ==
{{Main|Standard Chinese phonology}}

The pronunciation of Standard Chinese is defined as that of the [[Beijing dialect]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=138}}
The usual unit of analysis is the syllable, consisting of an optional initial [[consonant]], an optional medial [[semivowel|glide]], a main vowel and an optional coda, and further distinguished by a [[tone (linguistics)|tone]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=138–139}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Initial consonants with pinyin spellings{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=139}}
|-
! colspan="2" |
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! Dental [[sibilant]]
! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]s
| {{IPA link|m}} {{grapheme|m}} || {{IPA link|n}} {{grapheme|n}} || || || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive|Stops]] and<br/>[[affricates]]
! <small>unaspirated</small>
| {{IPA link|p}} {{grapheme|b}} || {{IPA link|t}} {{grapheme|d}} || {{IPA link|t̪͡s̪|t͡s}} {{grapheme|z}} || {{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂ}} {{grapheme|zh}} || {{IPA link|t͡ɕ}} {{grapheme|j}} || {{IPA link|k}} {{grapheme|g}}
|-
! <small>[[aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
| {{IPA link|pʰ}} {{grapheme|p}} || {{IPA link|tʰ}} {{grapheme|t}} || {{IPA link|t͡sʰ}} {{grapheme|c}} || {{IPA link|ʈ͡ʂʰ}} {{grapheme|ch}} || {{IPA link|t͡ɕʰ}} {{grapheme|q}} || {{IPA link|kʰ}} {{grapheme|k}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]s
| {{IPA link|f}} {{grapheme|f}} || || {{IPA link|s̪|s}} {{grapheme|s}} || {{IPA link|ʂ}} {{grapheme|sh}} || {{IPA link|ɕ}} {{grapheme|x}} || {{IPA link|x}} {{grapheme|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant]]s
| {{IPA link|w}} {{grapheme|w}} || {{IPA link|l̪|l}} {{grapheme|l}} || || {{IPA link|ɻ}}~{{IPA link|ʐ}} {{grapheme|r}} || {{IPA link|j}} {{grapheme|y}} ||
|}

The palatal initials {{IPA|[tɕ]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰ]}} and {{IPA|[ɕ]}} pose a classic problem of [[phonemic]] analysis. Since they occur only before high front vowels, they are in [[complementary distribution]] with three other series, the dental sibilants, retroflexes and velars, which never occur in this position.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=140–141}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Syllable finals with pinyin spellings{{sfnp|Lee|Zee|2003|p=110}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɹ̩}} {{angle bracket|''i''}} || {{IPA|ɤ}} {{angle bracket|''e''}} || {{IPA|a}} {{angle bracket|''a''}} || {{IPA|ei}} {{angle bracket|''ei''}} || {{IPA|ai}} {{angle bracket|''ai''}} || {{IPA|ou}} {{angle bracket|''ou''}} || {{IPA|au}} {{angle bracket|''ao''}} || {{IPA|ən}} {{angle bracket|''en''}} || {{IPA|an}} {{angle bracket|''an''}} || {{IPA|əŋ}} {{angle bracket|''eng''}} || {{IPA|aŋ}} {{angle bracket|''ang''}} || {{IPA|ɚ}} {{angle bracket|''er''}}
|-
| {{IPA|i}} {{angle bracket|''i''}} || {{IPA|ie}} {{angle bracket|''ie''}} || {{IPA|ia}} {{angle bracket|''ia''}} ||     ||     || {{IPA|iou}} {{angle bracket|''iu''}} || {{IPA|iau}} {{angle bracket|''iao''}} || {{IPA|in}} {{angle bracket|''in''}} || {{IPA|ien}} {{angle bracket|''ian''}} || {{IPA|iŋ}} {{angle bracket|''ing''}} || {{IPA|iaŋ}} {{angle bracket|''iang''}} ||
|-
| {{IPA|u}} {{angle bracket|''u''}} || {{IPA|uo}} {{angle bracket|''uo''}} || {{IPA|ua}} {{angle bracket|''ua''}} || {{IPA|uei}} {{angle bracket|''ui''}} || {{IPA|uai}} {{angle bracket|''uai''}} ||     ||     || {{IPA|uən}} {{angle bracket|''un''}} || {{IPA|uan}} {{angle bracket|''uan''}} || {{IPA|uŋ}} {{angle bracket|''ong''}} || {{IPA|uaŋ}} {{angle bracket|''uang''}} ||
|-
| {{IPA|y}} {{angle bracket|''ü''}} || {{IPA|ye}} {{angle bracket|''üe''}} ||    ||     ||     ||     ||     || {{IPA|yn}} {{angle bracket|''un''}} || {{IPA|yen}} {{angle bracket|''uan''}} || {{IPA|iuŋ}} {{angle bracket|''iong''}} || ||
|}
The {{IPA|[ɹ̩]}} final, which occurs only after dental sibilant and retroflex initials, is a syllabic [[approximant consonant|approximant]], prolonging the initial.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=142}}{{sfnp|Lee|Zee|2003|p=111}}

[[File:Pinyin Tone Chart.svg|right|thumb|upright=0.6|Relative pitch contours of the four full tones]]
The [[rhotacized vowel]] {{IPA|[ɚ]}} forms a complete syllable.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=143–144}}
A reduced form of this syllable occurs as a sub-syllabic suffix, spelled ''-r'' in pinyin and often with a [[diminutive]] connotation. The suffix modifies the coda of the base syllable in a rhotacizing process called ''[[erhua]]''.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=144–145}}

Each full syllable is pronounced with a phonemically distinctive pitch contour. There are four tonal categories, marked in pinyin with diacritics, as in the words {{transliteration|zh|mā}} ({{zhi|s=妈|t=媽|first=t}}; 'mother'), {{transliteration|zh|má}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|麻}}; 'hemp'), {{transliteration|zh|mǎ}} ({{zhi|s=马|t=馬|first=t}}; 'horse') and {{transliteration|zh|mà}} ({{zhi|s=骂|t=罵|first=t}}; 'curse').{{sfnp|Duanmu|2007|p=225}} The tonal categories also have secondary characteristics. For example, the third tone is long and [[murmured voice|murmured]], whereas the fourth tone is relatively short.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=147}}{{sfnp|Duanmu|2007|p=236}} Statistically, vowels and tones are of similar importance in the language.{{efn|"A word pronounced in a wrong tone or inaccurate tone sounds as puzzling as if one said 'bud' in English, meaning 'not good' or 'the thing one sleeps in.{{' "}}{{sfnp|Chao|1948|p=24}}}}<ref>{{citation | surname1 = Surendran | given1 = Dinoj | surname2 = Levow | given2 = Gina-Anne | chapter-url = http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~dinoj/research/fltonemandarin.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070416214008/http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~dinoj/research/fltonemandarin.pdf |archivedate=2007-04-16 | chapter = The functional load of tone in Mandarin is as high as that of vowels | pages = 99–102 | title = Proceedings of the International Conference on Speech Prosody 2004 | editor1-given = Bernard | editor1-surname = Bel | editor2-given = Isabelle | editor2-surname = Marlien | publisher = SProSIG | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-2-9518233-1-0 }}</ref>

There are also weak syllables, including grammatical particles such as the interrogative ''ma'' ({{lang-zh|s=吗|t=嗎|first=t|labels=no}}) and certain syllables in polysyllabic words. These syllables are short, with their pitch determined by the preceding syllable.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=148}} Such syllables are commonly described as being in the neutral tone.

=== Regional accents ===
It is common for Standard Chinese to be spoken with the speaker's regional accent, depending on factors such as age, level of education, and the need and frequency to speak in official or formal situations.

Due to evolution and standardization, Mandarin, although based on the Beijing dialect, is no longer synonymous with it. Part of this was due to the standardization to reflect a greater vocabulary scheme and a more archaic and "proper-sounding" pronunciation and vocabulary.

Distinctive features of the Beijing dialect are more extensive use of ''erhua'' in vocabulary items that are left unadorned in descriptions of the standard such as the ''[[Xiandai Hanyu Cidian]]'', as well as more neutral tones.{{sfnp|Chen|1999|pp=39–40}} An example of standard versus Beijing dialect would be the standard {{transliteration|zh|mén}} (door) and Beijing {{transliteration|zh|ménr}}.

While the Standard Chinese spoken in Taiwan is nearly identical to that of mainland China, the colloquial form has been heavily influenced by other local languages, especially Taiwanese Hokkien. Notable differences include: the merger of [[retroflex]] sounds (zh, ch, sh, r) with the [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] series (z, c, s), frequent mergers of the "neutral tone" with a word's original tone, and absence of ''[[erhua]]'' (rhoticization).{{sfnp|Chen|1999|p=47}} [[Code-switching]] between Mandarin and Taiwanese Hokkien is common, as the majority of the population continues to also speak the latter as a native language.<ref>{{Citation |last=Chiu |first=Miao-chin |title=Code-switching and Identity Constructions in Taiwan TV Commercials |date=April 2012 |work=Monumenta Taiwanica |volume=5 |url=http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/bitstream/20.500.12235/12992/1/ntnulib_ja_B0601_0005_027.pdf |access-date=24 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807182654/http://rportal.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/bitstream/20.500.12235/12992/1/ntnulib_ja_B0601_0005_027.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The stereotypical "southern Chinese" accent does not distinguish between [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] and [[alveolar consonant]]s, pronouncing pinyin ''zh'' [tʂ], ''ch'' [tʂʰ], and ''sh'' [ʂ] in the same way as ''z'' [ts], ''c'' [tsʰ], and ''s'' [s] respectively.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=140}} Southern-accented Standard Chinese may also interchange ''l'' and ''n'', final ''n'' and ''ng'', and vowels ''i'' and ''ü'' [y]. Attitudes towards southern accents, particularly the Cantonese accent, range from disdain to admiration.<ref>{{Citation |last=Blum |first=Susan D. |title=China Off Center: Mapping the Margins of the Middle Kingdom |pages=160–161 |year=2002 |editor-last=Blum |editor-first=Susan Debra |editor-last2=Jensen |editor-first2=Lionel M |chapter=Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity in Kunming |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2577-5}}</ref>

== Grammar ==
{{main|Chinese grammar}}

Chinese is a strongly [[analytic language]], having almost no [[inflectional morpheme]]s, and relying on word order and [[grammatical particle|particle]]s to express relationships between the parts of a sentence.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=159}}
Nouns are not marked for [[grammatical case|case]] and rarely marked for [[grammatical number|number]].{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=11–12}}
Verbs are not marked for [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] or [[grammatical tense]], but [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] is marked using post-verbal particles.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=12–13}}

The basic word order is [[subject–verb–object]] (SVO), as in English.{{sfnp|Lin|1981|p=19}}
Nouns are generally preceded by any modifiers ([[adjective]]s, [[possessive]]s and [[relative clause]]s), and verbs also generally follow any modifiers ([[adverb]]s, [[auxiliary verb]]s and prepositional phrases).{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=24–26}}

{{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3
|他 为/為 他的 朋友 做了 这个/這個 工作。
|Tā wèi tā-de péngyǒu zuò-le zhè-ge gōngzuò.
|He for he-GEN friend do-PERF this-CL job
|'He did this job for his friends.'{{sfnp|Lin|1981|p=169}}
}}

The predicate can be an intransitive verb, a transitive verb followed by a direct object, a [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] (linking verb) {{transliteration|zh|shì}} ({{lang|zh|是}}) followed by a noun phrase, etc.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=141}}

In predicative use, Chinese adjectives function as [[stative verb]]s, forming complete predicates in their own right without a copula.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=141–143}} For example,
{{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3
|我 不 累。
|Wǒ bú lèi.
|I not tired
|'I am not tired.'
}}

Chinese additionally differs from English in that it forms another kind of sentence by [[Topic-prominent language|stating a topic and following it by a comment]].{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=15–16}} To do this in English, speakers generally flag the topic of a sentence by prefacing it with "as for". For example:
{{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3
|妈妈/媽媽 给/給 我们/我們 的 钱/錢, 我 已经/已經 买了/買了 糖果。
|Māma gěi wǒmen de qián, wǒ yǐjīng mǎi-le tángguǒ(r)
|Mom give us REL money I already buy-PERF candy
|'As for the money that Mom gave us, I have already bought candy with it.'
}}

The time when something happens can be given by an explicit term such as "yesterday", by relative terms such as "formerly", etc.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|pp=320–320}}

As in many east Asian languages, [[Chinese classifier|classifier]]s or measure words are required when using [[numeral (linguistics)|numeral]]s, [[demonstrative]]s and similar quantifiers.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=104}}
There are many different classifiers in the language, and each noun generally has a particular classifier associated with it.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=105}}
{{fs interlinear|lang1=zh|lang2=zh-Latn-pinyin|indent=3
|一顶 帽子, 三本 书/書, 那支 笔/筆
|yī-dǐng màozi, sān-běn shū, nèi-zhī bǐ
|one-top hat three-volume book that-branch pen
|'a hat, three books, that pen'
}}

The general classifier ''ge'' ({{lang|zh-Hans|个}}/{{lang|zh-Hant|個}}) is gradually replacing specific classifiers.{{sfnp|Li|Thompson|1981|p=112}}

In [[word formation]], the language allows for [[Compound (linguistics)|compounds]] and for [[reduplication]].

== Vocabulary ==
Many [[Chinese honorifics|honorifics]] used in imperial China are also used in daily conversation in modern Mandarin, such as {{transliteration|zh|jiàn}} ({{linktext|賤|lang=zh-Hant}}; {{lang|zh-Hans|贱}}; '[my] humble') and {{transliteration|zh|guì}} ({{linktext|貴|lang=zh-Hant}}; {{lang|zh-Hans|贵}}; '[your] honorable').

Although Chinese speakers make a clear distinction between Standard Chinese and the Beijing dialect, there are aspects of Beijing dialect that have made it into the official standard. Standard Chinese has a [[T–V distinction]] between the polite and informal "you" that comes from the Beijing dialect, although its use is quite diminished in daily speech. It also distinguishes between "{{transliteration|zh|zánmen}}" ('we', including the listener) and "{{transliteration|zh|wǒmen}}" ('we', not including the listener). In practice, neither distinction is commonly used by most Chinese, at least outside the Beijing area.

The following samples are some phrases from the Beijing dialect which are not yet accepted into Standard Chinese:{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}
* {{lang|zh|倍儿}} {{transliteration|zh|bèir}} means 'very much'; {{lang|zh|拌蒜}} {{transliteration|zh|bànsuàn}} means 'stagger'; {{lang|zh|不吝}} {{transliteration|zh|bù lìn}} means 'do not worry about'; {{lang|zh|撮}} {{transliteration|zh|cuō}} means 'eat'; {{lang|zh|出溜}} {{transliteration|zh|chūliū}} means 'slip'; {{lang|zh|(大)老爷儿们儿}} {{transliteration|zh|dà lǎoyermenr}} means 'man, male'.

The following samples are some phrases from Beijing dialect which have become accepted as Standard Chinese:{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
* {{lang|zh|二把刀}} {{transliteration|zh|èr bǎ dāo}} means 'not very skillful'; {{lang|zh|哥们儿}} {{transliteration|zh|gēménr}} means 'good male friend', 'buddy'; {{lang|zh|抠门儿}} {{transliteration|zh|kōu ménr}} means 'frugal' or 'stingy'.

== Writing system ==
{{Main|Written vernacular Chinese|Modern Chinese characters}}
Standard Chinese is written with characters corresponding to syllables of the language, most of which represent a morpheme.
In most cases, these characters come from those used in [[Classical Chinese]] to write cognate morphemes of late [[Old Chinese]], though their pronunciation, and often meaning, has shifted dramatically over two millennia.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=74}}
However, there are several words, many of them heavily used, which have no classical counterpart or whose etymology is obscure.
Two strategies have been used to write such words:{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=74–75}}
* An unrelated character with the same or similar pronunciation might be used, especially if its original sense was no longer common. For example, the [[demonstrative pronoun]]s {{transliteration|zh|zhè}} 'this' and {{transliteration|zh|nà}} 'that' have no counterparts in Classical Chinese, which used {{lang|zh|此}} {{transliteration|zh|cǐ}} and {{lang|zh|彼}} {{transliteration|zh|bǐ}} respectively. Hence the character {{lang|zh-Hant|這}} (later simplified as {{lang|zh-Hans|这}}) for {{transliteration|zh|zhè}} 'to meet' was borrowed to write {{transliteration|zh|zhè}} 'this', and the character {{lang|zh|那}} for {{transliteration|zh|nà}}, the name of a country and later a rare surname, was borrowed to write {{transliteration|zh|nà}} 'that'.
* A new character, usually a phono-semantic or semantic compound, might be created. For example, {{transliteration|zh|gǎn}} 'pursue', 'overtake', is written with a new character {{lang|zh|趕}}, composed of the signific {{lang|zh|走}} {{transliteration|zh|zǒu}} 'run' and the phonetic {{lang|zh|旱}} {{transliteration|zh|hàn}} 'drought'.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=76}} This method was used to represent many [[Chemical elements in East Asian languages#Chinese|elements in the periodic table]].

The PRC, as well as several other governments and institutions, has promulgated a set of simplified character forms. Under this system, the forms of the words {{transliteration|zh|zhèlǐ}} ('here') and {{transliteration|zh|nàlǐ}} ('there') changed from {{lang|zh-Hant|這裏/這裡}} and {{lang|zh-Hant|那裏/那裡}} to {{lang|zh-Hans|这里}} and {{lang|zh-Hans|那里}}, among many other changes.

Chinese characters were traditionally read from top to bottom, right to left, but in modern usage it is more common to read from left to right.

== Examples ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English
! Traditional characters
! Simplified characters
! Pinyin
|-
| Hello!
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|[[wikt:你好|你好]]！}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ hǎo!}}
|-
| What is your name?
| {{lang|zh-hant|你叫什麼名字？}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|你叫什么名字？}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ jiào shénme míngzi?}}
|-
| My name is...
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|我叫...}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ jiào}} ...
|-
| How are you?
| {{lang|zh-hant|你好嗎？/ 你怎麼樣？}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|你好吗？/ 你怎么样？}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ hǎo ma? / Nǐ zěnmeyàng?}}
|-
| I am fine, how about you?
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|我很好，你呢？}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ hěn hǎo, nǐ ne?}}
|-
| I don't want it / I don't want to
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|我不要。}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ bú yào.}}
|-
| Thank you!
| {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:謝謝|謝謝]]！}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|[[wikt:谢谢|谢谢]]！}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Xièxie}}
|-
| Welcome! / You're welcome! (Literally: No need to thank me!) / Don't mention it! (Literally: Don't be so polite!)
| {{lang|zh-hant|歡迎！/ 不用謝！/ 不客氣！}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|欢迎！/ 不用谢！/ 不客气！}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Huānyíng! / Búyòng xiè! / Bú kèqì!}}
|-
| Yes. / Correct.
| {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:是|是]]。 / [[wikt:對|對]]。/ 嗯。}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|是。 / [[wikt:对|对]]。/ 嗯。}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Shì. / Duì. / M.}}
|-
| No. / Incorrect.
| {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:不是|不是]]。/ 不對。/ 不。}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|不是。/ 不对。/ 不。}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Búshì. / Bú duì. / Bù.}}
|-
| When?
| {{lang|zh-hant|什麼時候？}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|什么时候？}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Shénme shíhou?}}
|-
| How much money?
| {{lang|zh-hant|多少錢？}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|多少钱？}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Duōshǎo qián?}}
|-
| Can you speak a little slower?
| {{lang|zh-hant|您能說得再慢些嗎？}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|您能说得再慢些吗？}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Nín néng shuō de zài mànxiē ma?}}
|-
| Good morning! / Good morning!
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | {{lang|zh|早上好！ / 早安！}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Zǎoshang hǎo! / Zǎo'ān!}}
|-
| Goodbye!
| {{lang|zh-hant|[[wikt:再見|再見]]！}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|[[wikt:再见|再见]]！}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Zàijiàn!}}
|-
| How do you get to the airport?
| {{lang|zh-hant|去機場怎麼走？}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|去机场怎么走？}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Qù jīchǎng zěnme zǒu?}}
|-
| I want to fly to London on the eighteenth
| {{lang|zh-hant|我想18號坐飛機到倫敦。}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|我想18号坐飞机到伦敦。}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ xiǎng shíbā hào zuò fēijī dào Lúndūn.}}
|-
| How much will it cost to get to Munich?
| {{lang|zh-hant|到慕尼黑要多少錢？}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|到慕尼黑要多少钱？}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Dào Mùníhēi yào duōshǎo qián?}}
|-
| I don't speak Chinese very well.
| {{lang|zh-hant|我的漢語說得不太好。}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|我的汉语说得不太好。}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ de Hànyǔ shuō de bú tài hǎo.}}
|-
| Do you speak English?
| {{lang|zh-hant|你會說英語嗎？}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|你会说英语吗？}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Nǐ huì shuō Yīngyǔ ma?}}
|-
| I have no money.
| {{lang|zh-hant|我沒有錢。}}
| {{lang|zh-hans|我没有钱。}}
| {{transliteration|zh|Wǒ méiyǒu qián.}}
|}

Article 1 of the ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'' in Standard Chinese:<ref>{{Citation |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Chinese, Mandarin (Simplified) |work=unicode.org |url=https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119003226/http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |archive-date=19 January 2022 |url-status=dead }}{{pb}}{{Citation |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Chinese, Mandarin (Simplified) |work=unicode.org |url=https://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119003226/http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_cmn_hans.html |archive-date=19 January 2022 |url-status=dead }}{{pb}}{{Citation |last=Nations |first=United |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |work=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-date=16 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{blockquote|{{lang|zh-Hans|人人生而自由，在尊严和权利上一律平等。他们赋有理性和良心，并应以兄弟关系的精神相对待。}}{{pb}}
{{lang|zh-Hant|人人生而自由，在尊嚴和權利上一律平等。他們賦有理性和良心，並應以兄弟關係的精神相對待。}}{{pb}}
{{transliteration|zh|Rén rén shēng ér zìyóu, zài zūnyán hé/hàn quánlì shàng yīlǜ píngděng. Tāmen fùyǒu lǐxìng hé/hàn liángxīn, bìng yīng yǐ xiōngdì guānxì de jīngshén xiāng duìdài.}}{{pb}}
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.}}

== See also ==
* [[Chinese speech synthesis]]
* [[Comparison of national standards of Chinese]]
* [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines]]
* [[Protection of the varieties of Chinese]]
* [[Chinese language law]]
* [[Yayan]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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* {{Citation
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{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation |last=Chao |first=Yuen Ren |title=A Grammar of Spoken Chinese |year=1968 |url=https://archive.org/details/grammarofspokenc0000chao |edition=2nd |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-00219-7 |url-access=registration}}
* Hsia, T., ''China's Language Reforms'', Far Eastern Publications, Yale University, (New Haven), 1956.
* Ladefoged, Peter; & Maddieson, Ian (1996). ''The sounds of the world's languages''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. {{ISBN|978-0-631-19814-7}} (hbk); {{ISBN|978-0-631-19815-4}} (pbk).
* {{Citation |last1=Ladefoged |first1=Peter |title=Places of articulation: An investigation of Pekingese fricatives and affricates |journal=Journal of Phonetics |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=267–278 |year=1984 |doi=10.1016/S0095-4470(19)30883-6 |last2=Wu |first2=Zhongji |doi-access=free}}
* Lehmann, W. P. (ed.), ''Language & Linguistics in the People's Republic of China'', University of Texas Press, (Austin), 1975.
* {{cite JIPA |last1=Le |first1=Wai-Sum |last2=Zee |first2=Eric |title=Standard Chinese (Beijing) |printdate=2003 June |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=109-112 |doi=10.1017/S0025100303001208 }}
* Lin, Y., ''Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage'', The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1972.
* Milsky, C., "New Developments in Language Reform", ''The China Quarterly'', No. 53, (January–March 1973), pp.&nbsp;98–133.
* Seybolt, P. J. and Chiang, G. K. (eds.), ''Language Reform in China: Documents and Commentary'', M. E. Sharpe (White Plains), 1979. {{ISBN|978-0-87332-081-8}}.
* Simon, W., ''A Beginners' Chinese-English Dictionary of the National Language (Gwoyeu): Fourth Revised Edition'', Lund Humphries (London), 1975.
* {{Citation |last=Weng |first=Jeffrey |title=What Is Mandarin? The Social Project of Language Standardization in Early Republican China |date=2018 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=611–633 |doi=10.1017/S0021911818000487 |s2cid=166176089 |ref=none |doi-access=free}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{InterWiki |code = zh }}
* {{Wikibooks inline|Chinese (Mandarin)}}
* {{wikivoyage inline|Chinese phrasebook - Traditional|Standard Chinese}}
* Video {{Citation |title=A History of Mandarin: China's Search for a Common Language |date=2018-02-23 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Wjy0WfKhQc |publisher=[[NYU Shanghai]]}} - Talk by David Moser<!--This is an officially-hosted YouTube video-->

{{Chinese language}}
{{Languages of China}}
{{Languages of Macau}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Languages of Malaysia}}
{{Languages of Singapore}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Standard Chinese| ]]
[[Category:Languages of China]]
[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Chinese languages in Singapore]]
[[Category:Standard languages|Chinese]]
[[Category:Chinese language reform]]