View source for Stingray

{{short description|Suborder of fishes}}
{{About|the fish|other uses|Stingray (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| name = Stingrays
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|Hauterivian|recent|[[Early Cretaceous]] to recent<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marmi |first1=Josep |last2=Vila # |first2=Bernat |last3=Oms |first3=Oriol |last4=Galobart |first4=Àngel |last5=Cappetta |first5=Henri |title=Oldest records of stingray spines (Chondrichthyes, Myliobatiformes) |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |date=18 May 2010 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=970–974 |doi=10.1080/02724631003758011 |bibcode=2010JVPal..30..970M }}</ref>}}
| image = SStringray.jpg
| image_caption = [[Southern stingray]] (''Hypanus americanus'')
| taxon = Myliobatoidei
| authority = [[Leonard Joseph Victor Compagno|Compagno]], 1973
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = * '''Hexatrygonoidea'''
**[[Hexatrygonidae]]
* '''Urolophoidea'''
**[[Plesiobatidae]]
**[[Urolophidae]]
* '''Dasyatoidea'''
**[[Urotrygonidae]]
**[[Dasyatidae]]
**[[Potamotrygonidae]]
**[[Gymnuridae]]
**{{extinct}}[[Dasyomyliobatidae]]
**[[Myliobatidae]]
**{{extinct}}[[Rhombodontidae]]
}}

'''Stingrays''' are a group of sea [[Batoidea|rays]], a type of [[cartilaginous fish]]. They are classified in the suborder '''Myliobatoidei''' of the order [[Myliobatiformes]] and consist of eight families: [[Hexatrygonidae]] (sixgill stingray), [[Plesiobatidae]] (deepwater stingray), [[Urolophidae]] (stingarees), [[Urotrygonidae]] (round rays), [[Dasyatidae]] (whiptail stingrays), [[Potamotrygonidae]] (river stingrays), [[Gymnuridae]] (butterfly rays) and [[Myliobatidae]] (eagle rays).<ref name="nelson">{{cite book |title=Fishes of the World | vauthors = Nelson JS |edition=fourth |publisher=John Wiley |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-471-25031-9 |pages=76–82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Helfman GS, Collette BB, Facey DE |title=The Diversity of Fishes |publisher=Blackwell Science |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-86542-256-8 |page=180}}</ref>
There are about 220 known stingray species organized into 29 genera.

Stingrays are common in coastal [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] marine waters throughout the world. Some species, such as the [[thorntail stingray]] (''Dasyatis thetidis''), are found in warmer [[temperate]] oceans and others, such as the [[deepwater stingray]] (''Plesiobatis daviesi''), are found in the [[deep ocean]]. The [[Potamotrygonidae|river stingrays]] and a number of [[whiptail stingray]]s (such as the [[Niger stingray]] (''Fontitrygon garouaensis'')) are restricted to [[fresh water]]. Most myliobatoids are [[demersal]] (inhabiting the next-to-lowest zone in the [[water column]]), but some, such as the [[pelagic stingray]] and the [[eagle ray]]s, are [[pelagic]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/gallery/descript/pelagicstingray/pelagicstingray.html | title = Pelagic Stingray | vauthors = Bester C, Mollett HF, Bourdon J | publisher = [[Florida Museum of Natural History]], Ichthyology department | date = 2017-05-09 | access-date = 2009-09-29 | archive-date = 2016-01-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160115085500/http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/PelagicStingray/PelagicStingray.html | url-status = live }}</ref>

Stingray species are [[List of threatened rays|progressively becoming threatened]] or vulnerable to [[extinction]], particularly as a consequence of [[unregulated fishing]].<ref>[http://www.cites.org/common/com/ac/25/E25i-06.pdf The Future of Sharks: A Review of Action and Inaction] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512102129/http://www.cites.org/common/com/ac/25/E25i-06.pdf |date=2013-05-12 }} CITES AC25 Inf. 6, 2011.</ref> As of 2013, 45 species have been listed as [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] or [[endangered species|endangered]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]]. The status of some other species is poorly known, leading to their being listed as [[data deficient]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Shuffling into Stingray Conservation|date=13 July 2020 |url=https://brevardzoo.org/news/shuffling-into-stingray-conservation/|access-date=May 20, 2025}}</ref>

== Evolution ==
[[File:Raya pelágica (Pteroplatytrygon violacea), Cabo de Palos, España, 2022-07-16, DD 72.jpg|thumb|375x375px|A [[pelagic stingray]].]]
Stingrays diverged from their closest relatives, the [[Panray|panrays]], during the [[Late Jurassic]] period, and diversified over the course of the [[Cretaceous]] into the different extant families today. The earliest stingrays appear to have been benthic, with the ancestors of the eagle rays becoming pelagic during the early [[Late Cretaceous]].<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Marramà |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Carnevale |first2=Giorgio |last3=Giusberti |first3=Luca |last4=Naylor |first4=Gavin J. P. |last5=Kriwet |first5=Jürgen |title=A bizarre Eocene dasyatoid batomorph (Elasmobranchii, Myliobatiformes) from the Bolca Lagerstätte (Italy) reveals a new, extinct body plan for stingrays |journal=Scientific Reports |date=1 October 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=14087 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-50544-y |pmid=31575915 |pmc=6773687 |bibcode=2019NatSR...914087M }}</ref><ref name="wiley" /> 

===Fossils===
[[File:Lessiniabatis fossil.png|thumb|The bizarre ''[[Lessiniabatis]]'' of Early Eocene Italy|347x347px]]
[[Permineralization|Permineralized]] stingray teeth have been found in [[sedimentary]] deposits around the world as far back as the [[Early Cretaceous]]. The oldest known stingray taxon is "''Dasyatis''" ''speetonensis'' from the [[Hauterivian]] of [[England]], whose teeth most closely resemble that of the extant [[sixgill stingray]] (''Hexatrygon''). Although stingray [[teeth]] are rare on [[seafloor|sea bottoms]] compared to the similar [[shark teeth]], [[scuba diver]]s searching for the latter do encounter the teeth of stingrays.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Heliobatis radians Stingray Fossil from Green River |url=http://www.fossilmall.com/Science/Sites/GreenRiver/WF14/heliobatis.htm |access-date=2023-02-14 |website=www.fossilmall.com}}</ref> 

Full-body stingray fossils are very rare but are known from certain [[lagerstätte]]n that preserve soft-bodied animals. The extinct ''[[Cyclobatis]]'' of the [[Cretaceous]] of [[Lebanon]] is thought to be a [[Skate (fish)|skate]] that had [[Convergent evolution|convergently evolved]] a highly stingray-like body plan, although its exact taxonomic placement is still uncertain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marramà |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Schultz |first2=Ortwin |last3=Kriwet |first3=Jürgen |title=A new Miocene skate from the Central Paratethys (Upper Austria): the first unambiguous skeletal record for the Rajiformes (Chondrichthyes: Batomorphii) |journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology |date=3 June 2019 |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=937–960 |doi=10.1080/14772019.2018.1486336 |pmc=6510527 |pmid=31156351 |bibcode=2019JSPal..17..937M }}</ref> True stingray fossils become more common in the Eocene, with the extinct freshwater stingrays ''[[Heliobatis]]'' and ''[[Asterotrygon]]'' known from the [[Green River Formation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=De Carvalho |first1=Marcelo R. |last2=Maisey |first2=John G. |last3=Grande |first3=Lance |title=Freshwater Stingrays of the Green River Formation of Wyoming (Early Eocene), with the Description of a New Genus and Species and an Analysis of ITS Phylogenetic Relationships (Chondrichthyes: Myliobatiformes) |journal=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |date=June 2004 |volume=284 |pages=1–136 |doi=10.1206/0003-0090(2004)284<0001:FSOTGR>2.0.CO;2 |url=http://publication.plazi.org/id/A23BFFC9FFF7713A6831FD6DFF83FFAA }}</ref> [[File:Heliobatis radians Green River Formation (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Early Eocene]] fossil stingray ''Heliobatis radians''|323x323px]]A diversity of stingray fossils is known from the Eocene [[Monte Bolca]] formation from [[Italy]], including the early [[Urolophidae|stingaree]] ''[[Arechia]]'', as well as ''[[Dasyomyliobatis]]'', which is thought to represent a [[Transitional fossil|transitional form]] between stingrays and [[Eagle ray|eagle rays]], and the highly unusual ''[[Lessiniabatis]]'', which had an extremely short and slender tail with no sting.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="wiley">{{Cite journal |last1=Marramà |first1=G. |last2=Villalobos-Segura |first2=E. |last3=Zorzin |first3=R. |last4=Kriwet |first4=J. |last5=Carnevale |first5=G. |year=2023 |title=The evolutionary origin of the durophagous pelagic stingray ecomorph |journal=Palaeontology |volume=66 |issue=4 |at=e12669 |bibcode=2023Palgy..6612669M |doi=10.1111/pala.12669 |pmc=7614867 |pmid=37533696}}</ref>

==Anatomy==
[[File:Dasyatis say njsm (annotated).jpg|thumb|400px|{{center|dorsal (topside) ← &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; → ventral (underside)<br />External anatomy of a male [[bluntnose stingray]] (''Hypanus say'')}}]]
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| caption_align     = center
| direction         = horizontal
| width1            = 170
| image1            = Stingray teeth and jaws.jpg
| alt1              = 
| caption1          = Stingray jaw and teeth.<br />The teeth are modified [[placoid scale]]s.
| width2            = 226
| image2            = Taeniura lymma by Marek Jakubowski.jpg
| alt2              = 
| caption2          = Like in other rays, the [[bluespotted ribbontail ray]] (''Taeniura lymma'') breathes though [[Spiracle (vertebrates)|spiracle]]s just behind the eyes when it hunts in [[seafloor sediment]].
}}

=== Jaw and teeth ===
The mouth of the stingray is located on the [[Anatomical term of location#Dorsal and ventral|ventral]] side of the vertebrate. Stingrays exhibit hyostylic jaw suspension, which means that the mandibular arch is only suspended by an articulation with the [[hyomandibula]]. This type of suspensions allows for the upper jaw to have high mobility and protrude outward.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7qXMBQAAQBAJ&q=biology+of+sharks+and+their+relatives+2nd+edition+jaws&pg=PA176|title=Biology of Sharks and Their Relatives|edition=Second|last1=Carrier|first1=Jeffrey C.|last2=Musick|first2=John A.|last3=Heithaus|first3=Michael R.|name-list-style=vanc|date=2012-04-09|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-3926-3|access-date=2020-11-21|archive-date=2022-01-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110002705/https://books.google.com/books?id=7qXMBQAAQBAJ&q=biology+of+sharks+and+their+relatives+2nd+edition+jaws&pg=PA176|url-status=live}}</ref> The teeth are modified [[placoid scale]]s that are regularly shed and replaced.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E0Oy1i-8vfsC&q=teeth+that+are+modified+placoid+scales&pg=PA26|title=Biology Of Fishes|last=Khanna|first=D. R.|date=2004|publisher=Discovery Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7141-908-1|access-date=2020-11-21|archive-date=2022-01-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110002707/https://books.google.com/books?id=E0Oy1i-8vfsC&q=teeth+that+are+modified+placoid+scales&pg=PA26|url-status=live}}</ref> In general, the teeth have a root implanted within the connective tissue and a visible portion of the tooth, is large and flat, allowing them to crush the bodies of hard shelled prey.<ref name="Morphology does not predict">{{cite journal |last1=Kolmann |first1=M. A. |last2=Crofts |first2=S. B. |last3=Dean |first3=M. N. |last4=Summers |first4=A. P. |last5=Lovejoy |first5=N. R. |title=Morphology does not predict performance: jaw curvature and prey crushing in durophagous stingrays |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |date=13 November 2015 |volume=218 |issue=24 |pages=3941–3949 |doi=10.1242/jeb.127340 |pmid=26567348|doi-access=free }}</ref> Male stingrays display [[sexual dimorphism]] by developing [[Cusp (anatomy)|cusps]], or pointed ends, to some of their teeth. During mating season, some stingray species fully change their tooth morphology which then returns to baseline during non-mating seasons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kajiura|first1=null|last2=Tricas|first2=null|date=1996|title=Seasonal dynamics of dental sexual dimorphism in the Atlantic stingray Dasyatis sabina|journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology|volume=199|issue=Pt 10|pages=2297–2306|doi=10.1242/jeb.199.10.2297|pmid=9320215|doi-access=free|bibcode=1996JExpB.199.2297K }}</ref>

=== Spiracles ===
[[Spiracle (vertebrates)|Spiracle]]s are small openings that allow some fish and amphibians to breathe. Stingray spiracles are openings just behind its eyes. The respiratory system of stingrays is complicated by having two separate ways to take in water to use the oxygen. Most of the time stingrays take in water using their mouth and then send the water through the gills for [[gas exchange]]. This is efficient, but the mouth cannot be used when hunting because the stingrays bury themselves in the ocean sediment and wait for prey to swim by.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2009/long_nico/Adaptation.htm|title = Stingray|website = bioweb.uwlax.edu|access-date = 2018-05-12|archive-date = 2018-07-23|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180723120346/http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2009/long_nico/Adaptation.htm|url-status = live}}</ref> So the stingray switches to using its spiracles. With the spiracles, they can draw water free from sediment directly into their gills for gas exchange.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution|last=Kardong|first=Kenneth | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|year=2015|isbn=978-0-07-802302-6|location=New York|page=426}}</ref> These alternate ventilation organs are less efficient than the mouth, since spiracles are unable to pull the same volume of water. However, it is enough when the stingray is quietly waiting to ambush its prey.

The flattened bodies of stingrays allow them to effectively conceal themselves in their environments. Stingrays do this by agitating the sand and hiding beneath it. Because their eyes are on top of their bodies and their mouths on the undersides, stingrays cannot see their prey after capture; instead, they use smell and electroreceptors ([[ampullae of Lorenzini]]) similar to those of [[shark]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bedore CN, Harris LL, Kajiura SM | title = Behavioral responses of batoid elasmobranchs to prey-simulating electric fields are correlated to peripheral sensory morphology and ecology | journal = Zoology | volume = 117 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–103 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24290363 | doi = 10.1016/j.zool.2013.09.002 | bibcode = 2014Zool..117...95B }}</ref> Stingrays settle on the bottom while feeding, often leaving only their eyes and tails visible. [[Coral reef]]s are favorite feeding grounds and are usually shared with sharks during high tide.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stingray City - Altering Stingray Behavior & Physiology?|url=https://www.divephotoguide.com/underwater-photography-scuba-ocean-news/stingray_city___altering_stingray_behavior___physiology/|access-date=2023-02-14|website=DivePhotoGuide
| first= Jason | last=Heller
| date = 14 April 2009 
|language=en}}</ref>

{{clear}}

==Behavior==
[[File:Dasyatis sabina - MC Gilbert 2019.jpg|thumb|{{center|Skeleton of an [[atlantic stingray]] (''Hypanus sabinus'')}}]]

===Reproduction===
[[File:Mobula breach 2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mobula]] (devil rays) are thought to [[Cetacean surfacing behaviour|breach]] as a form of courtship.]]
During the [[breeding season]], males of various stingray species such as the [[round stingray]] (''Urobatis halleri''), may rely on their [[ampullae of Lorenzini]] to sense certain electrical signals given off by mature females before potential [[copulation (zoology)|copulation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tricasa |first1=Timothy C. |last2=Michael |first2=Scott W. |last3=Sisneros |first3=Joseph A. |title=Electrosensory optimization to conspecific phasic signals for mating |journal=Neuroscience Letters |date=December 1995 |volume=202 |issue=1–2 |pages=129–132 |doi=10.1016/0304-3940(95)12230-3 |pmid=8787848 }}</ref> When a male is courting a female, he follows her closely, biting at her pectoral disc. He then places one of his two claspers into her valve.<ref>[http://www.wetwebmedia.com/fwsubwebindex/fwraybehfaq.htm FAQs on Freshwater Stingray Behavior] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171002070831/http://www.wetwebmedia.com/fwsubwebindex/fwraybehfaq.htm |date=2017-10-02 }}. Wetwebmedia.com. Retrieved on 2012-07-17.</ref>

Reproductive ray behaviors are associated with their [[behavioral endocrinology]], for example, in species such as the [[atlantic stingray]] (''Hypanus sabinus''), social groups are formed first, then the sexes display complex [[courtship display|courtship]] behaviors that end in pair [[copulation (zoology)|copulation]] which is similar to the species ''Urobatis halleri.''<ref name = hormone>{{cite journal |last1=Tricas |first1=Timothy C. |last2=Rasmussen |first2=L. E. L. |last3=Maruska |first3=Karen P. |title=Annual Cycles of Steroid Hormone Production, Gonad Development, and Reproductive Behavior in the Atlantic Stingray |journal=General and Comparative Endocrinology |date=2000 |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=209–25 |doi=10.1006/gcen.2000.7466 |pmid=10890563 }}</ref> Furthermore, their mating period is one of the longest recorded in elasmobranch fish. Individuals are known to mate for seven months before the females ovulate in March. During this time, the male stingrays experience increased levels of androgen hormones which has been linked to its prolonged mating periods.<ref name = hormone/> The behavior expressed among males and females during specific parts of this period involves aggressive social interactions.<ref name = hormone/> Frequently, the males trail females with their snout near the female vent then proceed to bite the female on her fins and her body.<ref name = hormone/> Although this mating behavior is similar to the species ''Urobatis halleri'', differences can be seen in the particular actions of ''Hypanus sabinus''. Seasonal elevated levels of serum androgens coincide with the expressed aggressive behavior, which led to the proposal that androgen steroids start, indorse and maintain aggressive sexual behaviors in the male rays for this species which drives the prolonged mating season. Similarly, concise elevations of serum androgens in females has been connected to increased aggression and improvement in [[mate choice]]. When their androgen steroid levels are elevated, they are able to improve their mate choice by quickly fleeing from tenacious males when undergoing ovulation succeeding impregnation. This ability affects the paternity of their offspring by refusing less qualified mates.<ref name = hormone/>

Stingrays are [[ovoviviparous]], bearing live young in "litters" of five to thirteen. During this period, the female's behavior transitions to support of her future offspring. Females hold the embryos in the womb without a placenta. Instead, the embryos absorb nutrients from a [[yolk sac]] and after the sac is depleted, the mother provides uterine "milk".<ref>[http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/AtlanticStingray/AtlanticStingray.html Florida Museum of Natural History Ichthyology Department: Atlantic Stingray] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104222940/https://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/AtlanticStingray/AtlanticStingray.html |date=2016-01-04 }}. Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved on 2012-07-17.</ref> After birth, the offspring generally disassociate from the mother and swim away, having been born with the instinctual abilities to protect and feed themselves. In a very small number of species, like the [[giant freshwater stingray]] (''Urogymnus polylepis''), the mother "cares" for her young by having them swim with her until they are one-third of her size.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Seubert |first1=Curtis |title=How Do Stingrays Take Care of Their Young? |date=April 24, 2017 |url=https://sciencing.com/do-stingrays-care-young-8791629.html |access-date=December 14, 2018 |archive-date=December 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216031207/https://sciencing.com/do-stingrays-care-young-8791629.html |work=Sciencing|url-status=live }}</ref>

At the [[Sea Life London Aquarium]], two female stingrays delivered seven baby stingrays, although the mothers have not been near a male for two years. This suggests some species of rays can store sperm then give birth when they deem conditions to be suitable.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/stingrays-born-in-female-only-tank-20110810-1imik.html |title=Stingrays born in female only tank |date=2011-08-10 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=2020-07-25 |archive-date=2020-07-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725012114/https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/stingrays-born-in-female-only-tank-20110810-1imik.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Locomotion ===
[[File:Stingray locomotion gif.gif|thumb|{{center|[[Atlantic stingray]] (''Hypanus sabinus'') undulation locomotion}}]]

The stingray uses its paired [[pectoral fin]]s for moving around. This is in contrast to sharks and most other fish, which get most of their swimming power from a single [[Caudal fin|caudal (tail) fin]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yangwei |last2=Tan |first2=Jinbo |last3=Zhao |first3=Dongbiao |title=Design and Experiment on a Biomimetic Robotic Fish Inspired by Freshwater Stingray |journal=Journal of Bionic Engineering |date=June 2015 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=204–216 |doi=10.1016/S1672-6529(14)60113-X }}</ref> Stingray pectoral fin [[Animal locomotion|locomotion]] can be divided into two categories, undulatory and oscillatory.<ref name="Fontanella">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fontanella J | date = 2013 | title = Two- and three-dimensional geometries of batoids in relation to locomotor mode|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology and Ecology|volume=446|pages=273–281 | doi = 10.1016/j.jembe.2013.05.016 | bibcode = 2013JEMBE.446..273F }}</ref> Stingrays that use undulatory locomotion have shorter thicker fins for slower motile movements in [[Benthic zone|benthic]] areas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bottom II |first1=R. G. |last2=Borazjani |first2=I. |last3=Blevins |first3=E. L. |last4=Lauder |first4=G. V. |title=Hydrodynamics of swimming in stingrays: numerical simulations and the role of the leading-edge vortex |journal=Journal of Fluid Mechanics |date=10 February 2016 |volume=788 |pages=407–443 |doi=10.1017/jfm.2015.702 |bibcode=2016JFM...788..407B }}</ref> Longer thinner pectoral fins make for faster speeds in oscillation mobility in pelagic zones.<ref name="Fontanella" /> Visually distinguishable oscillation has less than one wave going, opposed to undulation having more than one wave at all times.<ref name="Fontanella" />

=== Feeding behavior and diet ===
[[File:Bat-ray-NOAA-Tony-Chess.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bat ray]] (''Myliobatis californica'') in a feeding posture]]
Stingrays use a wide range of feeding strategies. Some have specialized jaws that allow them to crush hard mollusk shells,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kolmann MA, Huber DR, Motta PJ, Grubbs RD | title = Feeding biomechanics of the cownose ray, ''Rhinoptera bonasus'', over ontogeny | journal = Journal of Anatomy | volume = 227 | issue = 3 | pages = 341–51 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26183820 | pmc = 4560568 | doi = 10.1111/joa.12342 }}</ref> whereas others use external mouth structures called cephalic lobes to guide plankton into their oral cavity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dean MN, Bizzarro JJ, Summers AP | title = The evolution of cranial design, diet, and feeding mechanisms in batoid fishes | journal = Integrative and Comparative Biology | volume = 47 | issue = 1 | pages = 70–81 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 21672821 | doi = 10.1093/icb/icm034 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Benthic zone|Benthic]] stingrays (those that reside on the sea floor) are ambush hunters.<ref name="Curio">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-81028-2 |title=The Ethology of Predation |date=1976 |last1=Curio |first1=Eberhard |isbn=978-3-642-81030-5 }}{{pn|date=November 2024}}</ref> They wait until prey comes near, then use a strategy called "tenting".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wilga CD, Maia A, Nauwelaerts S, Lauder GV | title = Prey handling using whole-body fluid dynamics in batoids | journal = Zoology | volume = 115 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–57 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22244456 | doi = 10.1016/j.zool.2011.09.002 | bibcode = 2012Zool..115...47W }}</ref> With pectoral fins pressed against the substrate, the ray will raise its head, generating a suction force that pulls the prey underneath the body. This form of whole-body suction is analogous to the buccal [[suction feeding]] performed by ray-finned fish. Stingrays exhibit a wide range of colors and patterns on their dorsal surface to help them camouflage with the sandy bottom. Some stingrays can even change color over the course of several days to adjust to new habitats. Since their mouths are on the underside of their bodies, they catch their prey, then crush and eat with their powerful jaws. Like its shark relatives, the stingray is outfitted with electrical sensors called ampullae of Lorenzini. Located around the stingray's mouth, these organs sense the natural electrical charges of potential prey. Many rays have jaw teeth to enable them to crush mollusks such as clams, oysters and mussels.

Most stingrays feed primarily on [[mollusca|mollusk]]s, [[crustacean]]s and, occasionally, on small fish. [[Potamotrygonidae|Freshwater stingrays]] in the Amazon feed on insects and break down their tough exoskeletons with mammal-like chewing motions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kolmann MA, Welch KC, Summers AP, Lovejoy NR | title = Always chew your food: freshwater stingrays use mastication to process tough insect prey | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 283 | issue = 1838 | article-number = 20161392 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27629029 | pmc = 5031661 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2016.1392 }}</ref> Large [[Pelagic fish|pelagic]] rays like the [[Manta ray|manta]] use [[Aquatic feeding mechanisms|ram feeding]] to consume vast quantities of [[plankton]] and have been seen swimming in acrobatic patterns through plankton patches.<ref name="Notarbartolo-di-Sciara 607–614">{{Cite journal|last1=Notarbartolo-di-Sciara|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Hillyer|first2=Elizabeth V. | name-list-style = vanc |date=1989-01-01|title=Mobulid Rays off Eastern Venezuela (Chondrichthyes, Mobulidae)|journal=Copeia|volume=1989|issue=3|pages=607–614|doi=10.2307/1445487|jstor=1445487}}</ref>

==Stingray injuries==
{{Main|Stingray injury}}
[[File:Stringray's sting.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The stinger of a stingray is known also as the spinal blade. It is located in the mid-area of the tail and can secrete venom. The ruler measures {{Convert|10|cm|abbr=on}}.]]

Stingrays are not usually aggressive and ordinarily attack humans only when provoked, such as when they are accidentally stepped on.<ref name="Slaughter">{{cite journal |last1=Slaughter |first1=Robin J. |last2=Beasley |first2=D. Michael G. |last3=Lambie |first3=Bruce S. |last4=Schep |first4=Leo J. |title=New Zealand's venomous creatures |journal=The New Zealand Medical Journal |date=27 February 2009 |volume=122 |issue=1290 |pages=83–97 |pmid=19319171 }}</ref> Stingrays can have one, two or three blades. Contact with the spinal blade or blades causes local trauma (from the cut itself), pain, swelling, muscle cramps from the venom and, later, may result in infection from bacteria or fungi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stingray Injury Case Reports|url=http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?staticaction=marine_vertebrates%2Fns-stingray_injuries.html|work=Clinical Toxicology Resources|publisher=University of Adelaide|access-date=22 October 2012|archive-date=4 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404015645/http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?staticaction=marine_vertebrates%2Fns-stingray_injuries.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The injury is very painful, but rarely life-threatening unless the stinger pierces a vital area.<ref name="Slaughter"/> The blade is often deeply barbed and usually breaks off in the wound. Surgery may be required to remove the fragments.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Flint DJ, Sugrue WJ | title = Stingray injuries: a lesson in debridement | journal = The New Zealand Medical Journal | volume = 112 | issue = 1086 | pages = 137–8 | date = April 1999 | pmid = 10340692 }}</ref>

Fatal stings are very rare.<ref name="Slaughter"/> The [[death of Steve Irwin]] in 2006 was only the second recorded in Australian waters since 1945.<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://scienceline.org/2006/09/ask-grant-irwin/|author=Hadhazy, Adam T. |work=Scienceline| title=I thought stingrays were harmless, so how did one manage to kill the "Crocodile Hunter?"| date=2006-09-11| access-date=2018-11-18| archive-date=2022-03-29| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329163907/https://scienceline.org/2006/09/ask-grant-irwin/| url-status=live}}</ref> The stinger penetrated his [[thoracic wall]] and pierced his heart, causing massive trauma and bleeding.<ref>[http://animal.discovery.com/fansites/crochunter/steve-irwin/stingray/stingray.html Discovery Channel Mourns the Death of Steve Irwin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130107070254/http://animal.discovery.com/fansites/crochunter/steve-irwin/stingray/stingray.html |date=2013-01-07 }}. animal.discovery.com</ref>

=== Venom ===
[[File:Wikipedia Project Anatomy Of Stingray Tail.svg|thumb|Posterior anatomy of a stingray. (1) Pelvic fins (2) Caudal tubercles (3) Stinger (4) Dorsal fin (5) Claspers (6) Tail]]
The [[venom]] of the stingray has been relatively unstudied due to the mixture of venomous tissue secretions [[Cell (biology)|cells]] and [[mucous membrane]] cell products that occurs upon secretion from the spinal blade. The spine is covered with the epidermal skin layer. During secretion, the venom penetrates the [[epidermis]] and mixes with the mucus to release the venom on its victim. Typically, other venomous organisms create and store their venom in a [[gland]]. The stingray is notable in that it stores its venom within tissue cells. The toxins that have been confirmed to be within the venom are [[cystatin]]s, [[peroxiredoxin]] and [[galectin]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = da Silva NJ, Ferreira KR, Pinto RN, Aird SD | title = A Severe Accident Caused by an Ocellate River Stingray (''Potamotrygon motoro'') in Central Brazil: How Well Do We Really Understand Stingray Venom Chemistry, Envenomation, and Therapeutics? | journal = Toxins | volume = 7 | issue = 6 | pages = 2272–88 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26094699 | pmc = 4488702 | doi = 10.3390/toxins7062272 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Galectin induces cell death in its victims and cystatins inhibit defense enzymes. In humans, these toxins lead to increased blood flow in the superficial capillaries and cell death.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dos Santos JC, Grund LZ, Seibert CS, Marques EE, Soares AB, Quesniaux VF, Ryffel B, Lopes-Ferreira M, Lima C | title = Stingray venom activates IL-33 producing cardiomyocytes, but not mast cell, to promote acute neutrophil-mediated injury | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | page = 7912 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28801624 | pmc = 5554156 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-08395-y | bibcode = 2017NatSR...7.7912D }}</ref> Despite the number of cells and toxins that are within the stingray, there is little relative energy required to produce and store the venom.

The venom is produced and stored in the secretory cells of the [[vertebral column]] at the mid-distal region. These secretory cells are housed within the ventrolateral grooves of the spine. The [[Cell (biology)|cells]] of both marine and freshwater stingrays are round and contain a great amount of [[Granule (cell biology)|granule]]-filled cytoplasm.<ref name = "Pedroso_2007">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pedroso CM, Jared C, Charvet-Almeida P, Almeida MP, Garrone Neto D, Lira MS, Haddad V, Barbaro KC, Antoniazzi MM | title = Morphological characterization of the venom secretory epidermal cells in the stinger of marine and freshwater stingrays | journal = Toxicon | volume = 50 | issue = 5 | pages = 688–97 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17659760 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.06.004 | bibcode = 2007Txcn...50..688P }}</ref> The stinging cells of marine stingrays are located only within these lateral grooves of the stinger.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Enzor LA, Wilborn RE, Bennett WA | date = December 2011 | title=Toxicity and metabolic costs of the Atlantic stingray (Dasyatis sabina) venom delivery system in relation to its role in life history |journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology|volume=409|issue=1–2|pages=235–239|doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2011.08.026 | bibcode = 2011JEMBE.409..235E }}</ref> The stinging cells of freshwater stingray branch out beyond the lateral grooves to cover a larger surface area along the entire blade. Due to this large area and an increased number of proteins within the cells, the venom of freshwater stingrays has a greater toxicity than that of marine stingrays.<ref name = "Pedroso_2007" />

==Human use==
===As food===
[[File:Eihire - stingray meat - Japanese pub food - September 2014.jpg|thumb|''Eihire'', dried strips of stingray fin, served as a [[sakana|drinking snack]] in Japan]]

Rays are edible, and may be caught as food using fishing lines or spears. Stingray recipes can be found in many coastal areas worldwide.<ref name="ADW">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-10 |title=Animal Diversity Web – Dasyatidae, Stingrays |url=https://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/information/Dasyatidae.html |access-date=2021-03-10 |website=Animal Diversity Web |archive-date=2021-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617014811/https://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/information/Dasyatidae.html |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, in [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]], stingray is commonly [[grilling|grill]]ed over charcoal, then served with spicy ''[[sambal]]'' sauce. In [[Goa]], and other [[India]]n states, it is sometimes used as part of spicy curries. Generally, the most prized parts of the stingray are the wings, the "cheek" (the area surrounding the eyes), and the liver. The rest of the ray is considered too rubbery to have any culinary uses.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Delicious and Deadly Stingray. Nyonya. New York, NY. (Partially from the Archives.)|url=http://www.deependdining.com/2006/09/delicious-and-deadly-stingray-nyonya.html|access-date=2023-02-14|language=en
| last = Lin | first = Eddie
| date = 2006
| website= Deep End Dining
| publisher= (blog)
}}</ref>

===Ecotourism===
[[File:Stingray CIty in Grand Cayman.jpg|thumb|Divers can interact with [[Southern stingray|southern stingrays (''Hypanus americanus'')]] at [[Stingray City]] in the [[Cayman Islands]].]]
Stingrays are usually very docile and curious, their usual reaction being to flee any disturbance, but they sometimes brush their fins past any new object they encounter. Nevertheless, certain larger species may be more aggressive and should be approached with caution, as the stingray's defensive reflex (use of its venomous stinger) may result in serious injury or death.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Sullivan BN | date = May 2009 | url = http://therightblue.blogspot.com/2009/05/stingrays-dangerous-or-not.html | title = Stingrays: Dangerous or Not? | work = The Right Blue | access-date = 17 July 2012 | archive-date = 24 July 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120724162037/http://therightblue.blogspot.com/2009/05/stingrays-dangerous-or-not.html | url-status = live }}</ref>

===Other uses===
[[File:Stingray wallets.JPG|thumb|left|Stingray wallets]]
The skin of the ray is used as an under layer for the cord or leather wrap (known as ''samegawa'' in [[Japanese Language|Japanese]]) on [[Katana|Japanese swords]] due to its hard, rough texture that keeps the braided wrap from sliding on the handle during use.<ref name="Samegawa">{{Cite web |title=The Samegawa – Parts of a Japanese Katana |url=https://www.reliks.com/functional-swords/japanese-swords/samegawa/ |access-date=2021-03-10 |website=Reliks |archive-date=2021-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226180154/https://www.reliks.com/functional-swords/japanese-swords/samegawa/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Several ethnological sections in museums,<ref>[http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/DaisyStingray/DaisyStingray.html FLMNH Ichthyology Department: Daisy Stingray] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160104222906/http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/DaisyStingray/DaisyStingray.html |date=2016-01-04 }}. Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved on 17 July 2012.</ref> such as the [[British Museum]], display arrowheads and spearheads made of stingray stingers, used in [[Micronesia]] and elsewhere.<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Séret, B. |author2=Couzens, G. |author3=Valenti, S.V. |year=2016 |title=''Hypanus rudis'' |volume=2016 |article-number=e.T161620A104133548 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T161620A104133548.en |access-date=2 November 2024}}</ref> [[Henry de Monfreid]] stated in his books that before [[World War II]], in the [[Horn of Africa]], [[whip]]s were made from the tails of big stingrays and these devices inflicted cruel cuts, so in [[Aden]], the British forbade their use on women and slaves. In former Spanish colonies, a stingray is called {{Lang|es|raya látigo}} ("whip ray").

Some stingray species are commonly seen in public [[aquarium]] exhibits and more recently in home aquaria.<ref name="ADW" /><ref name="TFH">{{Cite magazine |last=Michael |first=Scott W. |date=September 2014 |title=Rays in the Home Aquarium |url=https://www.tfhmagazine.com/articles/saltwater/rays-in-the-home-aquarium-full-article |magazine=Tropical Fish Magazine |access-date=2021-03-10 |archive-date=2021-04-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422143732/https://www.tfhmagazine.com/articles/saltwater/rays-in-the-home-aquarium-full-article |url-status=live }}</ref>{{clear}}

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
File:Hexatrygon bickelli csiro-nfc.jpg|Unlike other [[Batoidea|rays]], [[sixgill stingray]]s (''Hexatrygon bickelli'') have six rather than five pairs of [[gill slits]].
File:Plesiobatis daviesi cochin.jpg|[[Deepwater stingray]]s (''Plesiobatis daviesi'') are found on the upper continental slope throughout the [[Indo-Pacific]].
File:Urolophus gigas museum victoria.jpg|[[Spotted stingaree]]s (''Urolophus gigas'') are found along the [[Coastal regions of Western Australia|Western Australian coast]].
File:Round stingray.jpg|[[Round stingray]]s (''Urobatis halleri'') frequently sting beachgoers along the [[Western American]] coast.
File:Himantura leoparda ala.jpg|[[Leopard whipray]]s (''Himantura leoparda'') are [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]] from overfishing.
File:Dasyatis sabina.jpg|[[Atlantic stingray]]s (''Hypanus sabinus'') are found in [[Ocean|marine]], [[brackish]], and [[freshwater]] environments along the [[Southeastern United States]] coast.
File:Smalleye Stingray (Dasyatis microps).jpeg|The [[smalleye stingray]] (''Megatrygon microps'') is a rare stingray distributed throughout the [[Indo-Pacific]].
File:Pelagic stingray fukushima.jpg|The [[pelagic stingray]] (''Pteroplatytrygon violacea'') is one of the few stingrays that primarily inhabit the [[open ocean]].
File:Taeniura lymma edit.JPG|[[Bluespotted ribbontail ray]]s (''Taeniura lymma'')
File:Himantura chaophraya (Monkolprasit & Roberts, 1990).jpg|[[Giant freshwater stingray]]s (''Urogymnus polylepis'') are amongst the largest freshwater fish.
File:Ocellate river stingray, Boston Aquarium.jpg|[[Ocellate river stingray]]s (''Potamotrygon motoro'') are found in [[South American]] rivers.
File:Gymnura altavela.jpg|[[Spiny butterfly ray]]s (''Gymnura altavela'') are [[Endangered species|endangered]] from [[overfishing]]. Found along the lower [[East Coast of the United States]] and the [[South American]] coast.
File:Pteromylaeus bovinus valencia.jpg|[[Bull ray]]s (''Aetomylaeus bovinus'') are found along [[Europe]]an and [[Africa]]n coasts.
File:Corl0112 (28034475541).jpg|[[Giant oceanic manta ray]]s (''Mobula birostris'') are the largest of the stingrays.
File:Rhinoptera steindachneri.jpg|[[Golden cownose ray]]s (''Rhinoptera steindachneri'') often migrate in large schools.
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[List of threatened rays]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|32em}}

==Bibliography==
* {{FishBase family | family = Dasyatidae | month = August | year = 2005}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Myliobatoidei|Stingray}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Almagro |first1=Álvaro |last2=Barría |first2=Claudio |title=The end of silent predators: First cases of active sound production in batoids from the Mediterranean Sea and its potential implications |journal=Marine Biology |date=November 2024 |volume=171 |issue=11 |page=208 |doi=10.1007/s00227-024-04536-w |bibcode=2024MarBi.171..208A }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Barroil |first1=Adèle |last2=Deter |first2=Julie |last3=Holon |first3=Florian |last4=Bertucci |first4=Frédéric |title=Sound production in wild Mediterranean blonde ray Raja brachyura |journal=Ecology |date=7 October 2024 |volume=105 |issue=11 |article-number=e4440 |doi=10.1002/ecy.4440 |pmid=39370952 |bibcode=2024Ecol..105E4440B }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Fetterplace |first1=Lachlan C. |last2=Delgado Esteban |first2=J. Javier |last3=Pini-Fitzsimmons |first3=Joni |last4=Gaskell |first4=John |last5=Wueringer |first5=Barbara E. |title=Evidence of sound production in wild stingrays |journal=Ecology |date=November 2022 |volume=103 |issue=11 |article-number=e3812 |doi=10.1002/ecy.3812 |pmid=35808819 |bibcode=2022Ecol..103E3812F |pmc=9786621 }}
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=zSADAAAAMBAJ&pg=-PA7 "Beware the Ugly Sting Ray."] ''Popular Science'', July 1954, pp.{{nbsp}}117–118/pp.{{nbsp}}224–228.

{{Taxonbar|from=Q5328202}}

[[Category:Myliobatiformes]]
[[Category:Venomous fish]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Extant Early Cretaceous first appearances]]