View source for Sucrose

{{Short description|Disaccharide made of glucose and fructose}}
{{For|the Genshin Impact character|List of Genshin Impact characters#Sucrose}}
{{merge from|white sugar|discuss=Talk:White sugar#Merge into sucrose|date=October 2025}}
{{chembox
| Watchedfields  = changed
| verifiedrevid  = 458434693
| Name           = Sucrose
| ImageFile1     = Saccharose2.svg
| ImageName1     = Haworth projection of sucrose
| ImageClass1    = skin-invert-image
| ImageFile2     = Sucrose-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
| ImageName2     = Ball-and-stick model of sucrose
| ImageClass2    = bg-transparent
| IUPACName      = β-<small>D</small>-Fructofuranosyl α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranoside
| SystematicName = β-<small>D</small>-''arabino''-Hex-2-ulofuranosyl α-<small>D</small>-''gluco''-hexopyranoside<ref>{{cite web | title=Sucrose | url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5988#section=Biologic-Description&fullscreen=true }}</ref> <small>''(Systematic carbohydrate name)''</small>
<br />(2''R'',3''R'',4''S'',5''S'',6''R''<nowiki>)-2-{[(2</nowiki>''S'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-3,4-Dihydroxy-2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)oxolan-2-yl]oxy}-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-3,4,5-triol<ref>{{cite web | title=Sucrose | url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/5988#section=IUPAC-Name&fullscreen=true }}</ref> <small>''(Systematic substitutive name)''</small>
| OtherNames     = {{ubli
 | Sugar;
 | Saccharose;
 | α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranosyl-(1↔2)-β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranoside;
 | β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranosyl-(2↔1)-α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranoside;
 | β-(2''S'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-fructofuranosyl-α-(1''R'',2''R'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-glucopyranoside;
 | α-(1''R'',2''R'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-glucopyranosyl-β-(2''S'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-fructofuranoside;
 | Dodecacarbon monodecahydrate;
 | ((2R,3R,4S,5S,6R)-2-[(2S,3S,4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)oxapent-2-yl]oxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxahexane-3,4,5-triol)
 }}
| Section1       = {{Chembox Identifiers
| IUPHAR_ligand = 5411
| InChI = 1/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(264115619)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1
| CASNo = 57-50-1
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 253582
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| EC_number = 200-334-9
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 5768
| PubChem = 5988
| RTECS = WN6500000
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
| DrugBank = DB02772
| KEGG = C00089
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = C151H8M554
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 17992
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(19)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = CZMRCDWAGMRECN-UGDNZRGBSA-N
| SMILES = O1[C@H](CO)[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@@H](O)[C@H]1O[C@@]2(O[C@@H]([C@@H](O)[C@@H]2O)CO)CO
}}
| Section2       = {{Chembox Properties
| Properties_ref = <ref name="ICSC">{{ICSC-ref|1507|name=Sucrose|date=November 2003}}</ref>
| Formula = {{chem|C|12|H|22|O|11}}
| MolarMass = 342.30 g/mol
| Appearance = Colourless crystals or white powder
| Density = {{cvt|1.587|g/cm3}}, solid
| Solubility = 2.01 g/mL ({{cvt|20|°C}}) 
| MeltingPt = None; decomposes at {{convert|186|°C|°F K|abbr=on}}
| LogP = −3.76
}}
| Section4       = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
| Thermochemistry_ref =
| HeatCapacity =
| Entropy =
| DeltaHf = {{cvt|-2226.1|kJ/mol}}<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Haynes |editor1-first=W. M. |editor2-last=Lide |editor2-first=David R. |editor3-last=Bruno |editor3-first=Thomas J. |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |date=2014–2015 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1482208672 |edition=95th |pages=5–40}}</ref>
| DeltaGf =
| DeltaHc ={{cvt|1349.6|kcal/mol|kJ/mol}}<ref name=CRC>''[[CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics]]'', 49th edition, 1968–1969, p. D-188.</ref> ([[Higher heating value]])}}
| Section3       = {{Chembox Structure
| CrystalStruct = [[Monoclinic]]
| SpaceGroup = P2<sub>1</sub>
| Dipole =
}}
| Section7       = {{Chembox Hazards
| ExternalSDS = [https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1507.htm ICSC 1507]
| NFPA-H = 0
| NFPA-F = 1
| NFPA-R = 0
| LD50 = 29700 mg/kg (oral, rat)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/#tab/sidsrcname=ChemIDplus&query=57-50-1&input_type=text |website=ChemIDplus |title=57-50-1 - CZMRCDWAGMRECN-UGDNZRGBSA-N - Sucrose [JAN:NF] |access-date=2014-08-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812222747/https://chem.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/57-50-1 |archive-date=2014-08-12 }}</ref>
| PEL = TWA 15 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (total) TWA 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (resp)<ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0574}}</ref>
| IDLH = N.D.<ref name=PGCH/>
| REL = TWA 10 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (total) TWA 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (resp)<ref name=PGCH/>
}}
| Section8       = {{Chembox Related
| OtherCompounds = [[Lactose]]<br />[[Maltose]]
}}
}}

'''Sucrose''', a [[disaccharide]], is a [[sugar]] composed of [[glucose]] and [[fructose]] subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of [[white sugar]]. It has the [[molecular formula]] {{chem|C|12|H|22|O|11}}.

For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined from either [[sugarcane]] or [[sugar beet]]. [[Sugar mill]]s – typically located in [[tropical regions]] near where sugarcane is grown – crush the cane and produce raw sugar which is shipped to other factories for refining into pure sucrose. Sugar beet factories are located in [[temperate climate]]s where the beet is grown, and process the beets directly into refined sugar. The [[Sugar refinery|sugar-refining]] process involves washing the raw sugar crystals before dissolving them into a sugar syrup which is filtered and then passed over carbon to remove any residual colour. The sugar syrup is then concentrated by boiling under a vacuum and crystallized as the final purification process to produce crystals of pure sucrose that are clear, odorless, and sweet.

Sugar is often an [[Added sugar|added]] ingredient in food production and recipes. About 185 million [[tonne]]s of sugar were produced worldwide in 2017.

==Etymology==
The word ''sucrose'' was coined in 1857, by the English chemist [[William Allen Miller|William Miller]]<ref>William Allen Miller, ''Elements of Chemistry: Theoretical and Practical'', Part III. Organic Chemistry (London, England: John W. Parker and son, 1857), [https://books.google.com/books?id=cuMHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52 pages 52 and 54] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424193600/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuMHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52 |date=2017-04-24 }}.</ref> from the [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|sucre}} ("sugar") and the generic chemical suffix for sugars ''[[-ose]]''. The abbreviated term ''Suc'' is often used for ''sucrose'' in scientific literature.

The name ''saccharose'' was coined in 1860 by the French chemist [[Marcellin Berthelot]].<ref>Marcellin Berthelot, ''Chimie organique fondée sur la synthèse'' (Paris, France: Mallet-Bachelier, 1860),  [https://books.google.com/books?id=7AtQYV5FlVwC&pg=PA254 pp. 254–55] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627013507/https://books.google.com/books?id=7AtQYV5FlVwC&pg=PA254 |date=2014-06-27 }}.</ref> Saccharose is an obsolete name for sugars in general, especially sucrose.

==Physical and chemical properties==

===Structure===
Sucrose's [[IUPAC]] name is ''β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranosyl-(2→1)-α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranoside''. In this disaccharide, glucose and fructose are linked via a [[glycosidic linkage]], i.e. an ether bond between C1 on the [[glucosyl]] subunit and C2 on the [[fructosyl]] unit. Glucose exists predominantly as a mixture of α and β "pyranose" [[anomer]]s, but sucrose has only the α form. Fructose exists as a mixture of five [[tautomer]]s but sucrose has only the β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranose form. Unlike most [[disaccharide]]s, the glycosidic bond in sucrose is formed between the reducing ends of both glucose and fructose, and not between the reducing end of one and the non-reducing end of the other. This linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units, and prevents sucrose from spontaneously reacting with cellular and circulatory macromolecules in the manner that glucose and other reducing sugars do. Since sucrose contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non-[[reducing sugar]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}

Sucrose crystallizes in the [[monoclinic]] [[space group]] P2<sub>1</sub> with room-temperature lattice parameters ''a'' = 1.08631&nbsp;nm, ''b'' = 0.87044&nbsp;nm, ''c'' = 0.77624&nbsp;nm, β = 102.938°.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal = Acta Crystallogr|year = 1952|volume = 5|pages = 689–90|doi = 10.1107/S0365110X52001908|title = The crystal structure of sucrose|author1=Beevers, C. A. |author2=McDonald, T. R. R. |author3=Robertson, J. H. |author4=Stern, F. |issue = 5| bibcode=1952AcCry...5..689B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1107/S0021889891002492|title=Sucrose, a convenient test crystal for absolute structures|year=1991|last1=Hynes|first1=R. C.|last2=Le Page|first2=Y.|journal=Journal of Applied Crystallography|volume=24|issue=4|page=352|bibcode=1991JApCr..24..352H }}</ref>

===Thermal and oxidative degradation===
Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes at {{convert|186|°C}} to form [[caramel]]. Like other [[carbohydrate]]s, it combusts to [[carbon dioxide]] and water by the simplified equation:
:{{chem2|C12H22O11 + 12 O2 → 12 CO2 + 11 H2O}}

Mixing sucrose with the oxidizer [[potassium nitrate]] produces the fuel known as [[rocket candy]] that is used to propel amateur rocket motors.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/sucrose.html |first=Richard |last=Nakka| website=Experimental Rocketry |title=Potassium Nitrate/Sucrose Propellant (KNSU) |access-date=2015-11-19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026075559/https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/sucrose.html |archive-date=2015-10-26}}</ref>

{{chem2|C12H22O11 + 6 KNO3 -> 9 CO + 3 N2 + 11 H2O + 3 K2CO3}}

This reaction is somewhat simplified though. Some of the carbon does get fully oxidized to carbon dioxide, and other reactions, such as the [[water-gas shift reaction]] also take place. A more accurate theoretical equation is:

{{chem2|C12H22O11 + 6.288 KNO3 -> 3.796 CO2 + 5.205 CO + 7.794 H2O + 3.065 H2 + 3.143 N2 + 2.988 K2CO3 + 0.274 KOH}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/succhem.html |first=Richard |last=Nakka |website=Experimental Rocketry|title=KN-Sucrose (KNSU) Propellant Chemistry and Performance Characteristics |access-date=2014-08-21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118052432/https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/succhem.html |archive-date=2014-11-18}}</ref>

Sucrose burns with [[chloric acid]], formed by the reaction of [[hydrochloric acid]] and [[potassium chlorate]]:

{{chem2|8 HClO3 + C12H22O11 -> 11 H2O + 12 CO2 + 8 HCl}}

Sucrose can be dehydrated with concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] to form a black, [[carbon]]-rich solid, as indicated in the following idealized equation:

{{chem2|H2SO4 (catalyst) + C12H22O11 -> 12 C + 11 H2O + heat (and some H2O + SO3 as a result of the heat).}}

The formula for sucrose's decomposition can be represented as a two-step reaction: the first simplified reaction is dehydration of sucrose to pure carbon and water, and then carbon is oxidised to {{chem2|CO2}} by {{chem2|O2}} from air.

{{chem2|C12H22O11 + heat -> 12 C + 11 H2O}}

{{chem2|12 C + 12 O2 -> 12 CO2}}
<div style="float:right;clear:right;margin-left:0.5em;">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Solubility of sucrose in water vs. temperature
! T (°C) !! S (g/dL)
|-
| 50 || 259
|-
| 55 || 273
|-
| 60 || 289
|-
| 65 || 306
|-
| 70 || 325
|-
| 75 || 346
|-
| 80 || 369
|-
| 85 || 394
|-
| 90 || 420
|}
</div>

===Hydrolysis===
[[Hydrolysis]] breaks the glycosidic bond converting sucrose into [[glucose]] and [[fructose]]. Hydrolysis is, however, so slow that solutions of sucrose can sit for years with negligible change. If the [[enzyme]] [[sucrase]] is added, however, the reaction will proceed rapidly.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571354/sucrase "Sucrase"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425011926/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571354/sucrase |date=2010-04-25 }}, ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''</ref> Hydrolysis can also be accelerated with acids, such as [[cream of tartar]] or lemon juice, both weak acids. Likewise, gastric acidity converts sucrose to glucose and fructose during digestion, the bond between them being an acetal bond which can be broken by an acid.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

Given [[Higher heating value|(higher) heats of combustion]] of 1349.6&nbsp;kcal/mol for sucrose, 673.0 for glucose, and 675.6 for fructose,<ref>All three from ''[[CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics]]'', 49th edition, 1968-1969, pp. D-184-189.</ref> hydrolysis releases about {{cvt|1.0|kcal|kJ}} per mole of sucrose, or about 3 [[small calorie]]s per gram of product.

===Synthesis and biosynthesis of sucrose===
The [[biosynthesis]] of sucrose proceeds via the precursors [[UDP-glucose]] and [[fructose 6-phosphate]], catalyzed by the enzyme [[Sucrose-phosphate synthase|sucrose-6-phosphate synthase]]. The energy for the reaction is gained by the cleavage of [[uridine diphosphate]] (UDP).
Sucrose is formed by plants, [[algae]] and [[cyanobacteria]] but not by other [[organism]]s. Sucrose is the end product of [[photosynthesis]] and is found naturally in many food plants along with the [[monosaccharide]] fructose. In many fruits, such as [[pineapple]] and [[apricot]], sucrose is the main sugar. In others, such as [[grapes]] and [[pear]]s, fructose is the main sugar.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

====Chemical synthesis====
After numerous unsuccessful attempts by others, [[Raymond Lemieux]] and George Huber succeeded in synthesizing sucrose from [[acetylated]] glucose and fructose in 1953.<ref name = "Lemieux">{{cite journal|last1 = Lemieux|first1 = R. U.|author-link1 = Raymond Lemieux|last2 = Huber|first2 = G.|title = A chemical synthesis of sucrose|journal = J. Am. Chem. Soc.|volume = 75|issue = 16|page = 4118|year = 1953|doi = 10.1021/ja01112a545| bibcode=1953JAChS..75.4118L }}</ref>

===Measurement===
The purity of sucrose is measured by [[polarimetry]], i.e., the rotation of [[Polarization (waves)|plane-polarized light]] by a sugar solution. The [[specific rotation]] at {{cvt|20|°C}} using yellow "sodium-D" light (589&nbsp;nm) is +66.47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter. Sucrose does not deteriorate at ambient conditions.

The [[sugar industry]] uses degrees [[Brix]] (symbol °Bx), introduced by [[Adolf Ferdinand Wenceslaus Brix|Adolf Brix]], as units of measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved substance to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx sucrose solution has 25&nbsp;grams of sucrose per 100&nbsp;grams of liquid; or, to put it another way, 25&nbsp;grams of sucrose sugar and 75&nbsp;grams of water exist in the 100&nbsp;grams of solution. A 25 °Bx solution therefore has a concentration of 25 mass % sucrose.

The Brix degrees are measured using an infrared sensor. This measurement does not equate to Brix degrees from a density or refractive index measurement, because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When using a refractometer, one should report the result as "[[refractometric dried substance]]" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as having 20 °Bx RDS. This refers to a measure of percent by weight of ''total'' dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since sucrose in fact forms the majority of dried solids. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors has made measuring the amount of dissolved sugar in products economical using a direct measurement.

== Sources ==
In nature, sucrose is present in many plants, and in particular their roots, fruits and [[nectar]]s, because it serves as a way to store energy, primarily from [[photosynthesis]].<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0021259 |chapter=Sucrose Metabolism |author=John E. Lunn |title=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences |publisher= John Wiley & Sons Ltd |date=December 2008|isbn=978-0470016176 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nutritiondata.self.com/foods-009009000000000000000.html?maxCount=74 |title=Foods highest in Sucrose |website=SelfNutritiondata |publisher=Condé Nast |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719080357/https://nutritiondata.self.com/foods-009009000000000000000.html?maxCount=74 |archive-date=2015-07-19 }}</ref> Many mammals, birds, insects and bacteria accumulate and feed on the sucrose in plants and for some it is their main food source. Although [[honeybee]]s consume sucrose, the [[honey]] they produce consists primarily of fructose and glucose, with only trace amounts of sucrose.<ref>{{cite book|title=Foods and Food Production Encyclopedia |author=Douglas M. Considine |editor1-first=Douglas M |editor1-last=Considine |editor2-first=Glenn D |editor2-last=Considine |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.|date=1982 |page=956|edition=1 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-8511-0|isbn=978-1-4684-8513-4 }}</ref>

As fruits ripen, their sucrose content usually rises sharply, but some fruits contain almost no sucrose at all. This includes [[grapes]], [[cherry|cherries]], [[blueberry|blueberries]], [[blackberry|blackberries]], [[fig]]s, [[pomegranate]]s, [[tomato]]es, [[avocado]]s, [[lemon]]s and [[Lime (fruit)|lime]]s. In grapes, for instance, during ripening the sucrose molecules are [[hydrolysis|hydrolyzed ]] (separated) into [[glucose]] and [[fructose]].{{cn|date=August 2025}}

Sucrose is a naturally occurring sugar, but with the advent of [[industrialization]], it has been increasingly refined and consumed in all kinds of processed foods.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

==Production==
{{Main|History of sugar|Sugar industry}}
Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: [[sugarcane]] (''Saccharum spp.'') and [[sugar beet]]s (''Beta vulgaris''), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight.  The plant material is separated to isolate the sucrose-rich portions.  Purification of the sucrose exploits the good solubility of sucrose in water.  After this aqueous extraction, a variety of tools and techniques allow further purification and production of solid forms suited for the markets.

==Culinary sugars==
[[File:Raw sugar closeup.jpg|thumb|Grainy raw sugar]]

===Mill white===
Mill white, also called plantation white, crystal sugar or superior sugar is produced from raw sugar. It is exposed to [[sulfur dioxide]] during the production to reduce the concentration of color compounds and helps prevent further color development during the crystallization process. Although common to sugarcane-growing areas, this product does not store or ship well. After a few weeks, its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping; therefore this type of sugar is generally limited to local consumption.<ref>{{cite book | author = Steindl, Roderick | date = 2005 | title = Syrup Clarification for Plantation White Sugar to meet New Quality Standards | editor = Hogarth, DM | publisher = Proceedings of the XXV Congress of International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists | pages = 106–16 | location = Guatemala, Guatemala City | url = https://eprints.qut.edu.au/4888/1/4888_1.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130810042657/https://eprints.qut.edu.au/4888/1/4888_1.pdf | archive-date = 2013-08-10 }}</ref>

===Blanco directo===
Blanco directo, a white sugar common in India and other south Asian countries, is produced by precipitating many impurities out of cane juice using [[phosphoric acid]] and [[calcium hydroxide]], similar to the [[carbonatation]] technique used in beet sugar refining. Blanco directo is purer than mill white sugar, but less pure than white refined sugar.

===White refined===
{{See also|White sugar}}
White refined is the most common form of sugar in North America and Europe. Refined sugar is made by dissolving and purifying raw sugar using [[phosphoric acid]] similar to the method used for blanco directo, a [[carbonatation]] process involving calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide, or by various filtration strategies. It is then further purified by filtration through a bed of [[activated carbon]] or [[bone char]]. Beet sugar refineries produce refined white sugar directly without an intermediate raw stage.{{Clarify|date=February 2010}}

White refined sugar is typically sold as '''''granulated sugar''''', which has been dried to prevent clumping and comes in various crystal sizes for home and industrial use:
[[Image:Sucre blanc cassonade complet rapadura.jpg|thumb|Sugars; clockwise from top left: Refined, unrefined, brown, unprocessed cane]]
* {{Anchor|Coarse-grain}}'''Coarse-grain''', such as ''sanding sugar'' (also called "pearl sugar", "decorating sugar", ''nibbed sugar'' or ''sugar nibs'') is a coarse grain sugar used to add sparkle and flavor atop baked goods and candies. Its large reflective crystals will not dissolve when subjected to heat.
* '''Granulated''', familiar as table sugar, with a grain size about 0.5&nbsp;mm across.<ref name="tryengineering">[https://www.tryengineering.org/lessons/sugarnano.pdf Sugar Crystal Challenge] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508221320/https://www.tryengineering.org/lessons/sugarnano.pdf |date=2013-05-08 }}. IEEE</ref> "[[Sugar cube]]s" are lumps for convenient consumption produced by mixing granulated sugar with sugar syrup.
* {{Anchor|Caster}}'''Caster''' (0.35&nbsp;mm),<ref name="tryengineering" /> a very fine sugar in Britain and other Commonwealth countries, so-named because the grains are small enough to fit through a [[sugar caster]] which is a small vessel with a perforated top, from which to sprinkle sugar at table.<ref name="OED">"castor, n.2." OED Online. Oxford University Press, June 2017. Web. 25 July 2017. It says castor is a misspelling that is now the preferred spelling.</ref> Commonly used in baking and mixed drinks, it is sold as '''"superfine"''' sugar in the United States. Because of its fineness, it dissolves faster than regular white sugar and is especially useful in meringues and cold liquids. Caster sugar can be prepared at home by grinding granulated sugar for a couple of minutes in a mortar or food processor.
* '''[[Powdered sugar|Powdered]]''', ''10X sugar,'' ''confectioner's sugar'' (0.060&nbsp;mm), or ''icing sugar'' (0.024&nbsp;mm), produced by grinding sugar to a fine powder. The manufacturer may add a small amount of [[anticaking agent]] to prevent clumping&nbsp;— either [[corn starch]] (1% to 3%) or tri-[[calcium phosphate]].

[[File:Sa brownsugar.jpg|thumb|Brown sugar crystals]]
'''[[Brown sugar]]''' comes either from the late stages of cane sugar refining, when sugar forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white refined sugar with a cane molasses syrup (blackstrap molasses). Brown sugar's color and taste become stronger with increasing molasses content, as do its moisture-retaining properties. Brown sugars also tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere, although proper handling can reverse this.

==Consumption==
{{Main|History of sugar}}
Refined sugar was a luxury before the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessary food in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes.<ref name=mintz>{{cite book|title=Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History|author=Mintz, Sidney|isbn=978-0-14-009233-2|year=1986|publisher=Penguin|url=https://archive.org/details/sweetnesspowerpl00mint}}</ref> Eventually, table sugar became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine and flavored drinks.

Sucrose forms a major element in [[confectionery]] and [[dessert]]s. Cooks use it for sweetening. It can also act as a [[Sugaring|food preservative]] when used in sufficient concentrations, and thus is an important ingredient in the production of [[fruit preserves]]. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called "[[junk food]]s".

===Nutritional information===
{{nutritional value
| name = Sugars, granulated [sucrose]
| kJ = 1620
| protein = 0 g
| fat = 0 g
| carbs = 100 g
| calcium_mg =
| iron_mg = 0
| phosphorus_mg = 0
| potassium_mg = 2.0
| vitC_mg = 0
| thiamin_mg = 0
| riboflavin_mg = 0
| niacin_mg = 0
| selenium_ug = 0.6
| source_usda = 1
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/169655/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
Fully refined sugar is 99.9% sucrose, thus providing only carbohydrate as dietary [[nutrient]] and 390 [[kilocalories]] per 100 g serving (table).<ref name="nd">{{cite web|url=https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2|title=Nutrition Facts for sugars, granulated [sucrose] per 100 g (USDA National Nutrient Database, SR-21)|publisher=Conde Nast|date=2014|access-date=6 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307044435/https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2|archive-date=7 March 2015}}</ref> There are no [[micronutrients]] of significance in fully refined sugar (table).<ref name=nd/>

===Metabolism of sucrose===
[[File:Sugar 2xmacro.jpg|thumb|left|Granulated sucrose]]
In humans and other mammals, sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, by [[sucrase]] or [[isomaltase]] [[glycoside hydrolases]], which are located in the [[cell membrane|membrane]] of the [[microvilli]] lining the [[duodenum]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gray GM|title= Intestinal digestion and maldigestion of dietary carbohydrate|journal=Annual Review of Medicine|year=1971|volume=22|pages=391–404|doi=10.1146/annurev.me.22.020171.002135|pmid=4944426}}</ref><ref>Kaneko J.J. (2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=spsD4WQbL0QC&pg=PA46 "Carbohydrate metabolism and its diseases"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922061138/https://books.google.com/books?id=spsD4WQbL0QC&pg=PA46 |date=2014-09-22 }}, p. 46 in Kaneko J.J., Harvey J.W., Bruss M.L. (eds.) ''Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals,'' San Diego, CA: Academic Press, {{ISBN|012370491X}}.</ref> The resulting glucose and fructose molecules are then rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream. In [[bacteria]] and some animals, sucrose is digested by the enzyme [[invertase]]. Sucrose is an easily assimilated [[nutrient|macronutrient]] that provides a quick source of energy, provoking a rapid rise in [[blood glucose]] upon ingestion. Sucrose, as a pure carbohydrate, has an energy content of 3.94&nbsp;[[kilocalorie|calorie]]s per gram (or 17&nbsp;[[kilojoule]]s per gram).

If consumed excessively, sucrose may contribute to the development of [[metabolic syndrome]], including increased risk for [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]], insulin resistance, weight gain and [[obesity]] in adults and children.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis |doi=10.2337/dc10-1079 |year=2010 |last1=Malik |first1=V. S. |last2=Popkin |first2=B. M. |last3=Bray |first3=G. A. |last4=Despres |first4=J.-P. |last5=Willett |first5=W. C. |last6=Hu |first6=F. B. |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2477–83 |pmid=20693348 |pmc=2963518}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=Vasanti S. |last2=Pan |first2=An |last3=Willett |first3=Walter C. |last4=Hu |first4=Frank B. |date=2013-10-01 |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/4/1084.full |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |language=en |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1084–1102 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.113.058362 |issn=0002-9165 |pmc=3778861 |pmid=23966427 |access-date=2018-12-21 |archive-date=2018-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109162407/https://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/4/1084.full |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Tooth decay ====
[[Dental caries|Tooth decay]] (dental caries) has become a pronounced health hazard associated with the consumption of sugars, especially sucrose. Oral bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus mutans]]'' live in [[dental plaque]] and metabolize ''any'' free sugars (not just sucrose, but also glucose, [[lactose]], fructose, and cooked [[starch]]es)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |title=What causes tooth decay? |publisher=Animated-teeth.com |access-date=2010-05-05 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209031710/https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |archive-date=2010-02-09 }}</ref> into [[lactic acid]]. The resultant lactic acid lowers the pH of the tooth's surface, stripping it of minerals in the process known as tooth decay.<ref>[https://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/548toothdecay.html Tooth Decay] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025132424/https://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/548toothdecay.html |date=2014-10-25 }}. Elmhurst.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref><ref>[https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm What causes tooth decay?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209031710/https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |date=2010-02-09 }}. Animated-teeth.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref>

All 6-carbon sugars and disaccharides based on 6-carbon sugars can be converted by dental plaque bacteria into acid that demineralizes teeth, but sucrose may be uniquely useful to ''[[Streptococcus sanguinis]]'' (formerly ''Streptococcus sanguis'') and ''Streptococcus mutans''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tanzer|first=JM|title=Essential dependence of smooth surface caries on, and augmentation of fissure caries by, sucrose and Streptococcus mutans infection|journal=Infection and Immunity|date=August 1979|volume=25|issue=2|pages=526–31|doi=10.1128/IAI.25.2.526-531.1979|pmid=489122|pmc=443577}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite thesis|last=Darlington|first=W.|title=Metabolism of sucrose by Stepococcus sanguis 804 (NCTC 10904) and its relevance to the oral environment|type=Ph.D Thesis|publisher= University of Glasgow |date=August 1979}}</ref> Sucrose is the only dietary sugar that can be converted to sticky glucans (dextran-like polysaccharides) by extracellular enzymes.<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | veditors = Ryan KJ, Ray CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn= 978-0-8385-8529-0 }}</ref> These glucans allow the bacteria to adhere to the tooth surface and to build up thick layers of plaque. The anaerobic conditions deep in the plaque encourage the formation of acids, which leads to carious lesions. Thus, sucrose could enable ''S. mutans'', ''S. sanguinis'' and many other species of bacteria to adhere strongly and resist natural removal, e.g. by flow of saliva, although they are easily removed by brushing. The glucans and levans (fructose polysaccharides) produced by the plaque bacteria also act as a reserve food supply for the bacteria.
Such a special role of sucrose in the formation of tooth decay is much more significant in light of the almost universal use of sucrose as the most desirable sweetening agent. Widespread replacement of sucrose by high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has not diminished the danger from sucrose. If smaller amounts of sucrose are present in the diet, they will still be sufficient for the development of thick, anaerobic plaque and plaque bacteria will metabolise other sugars in the diet,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> such as the glucose and fructose in HFCS.

====Glycemic index====
Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of 50% glucose and 50% fructose and has a [[glycemic index]] of 65.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wolever|first=Thomas M. S.|title=The Glycaemic Index: A Physiological Classification of Dietary Carbohydrate|publisher=CABI|year=2006|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|isbn=9781845930523|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216215845/https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|archive-date=2017-12-16}}</ref>  Sucrose is digested rapidly,<ref name="wolever">{{cite book|last=Wolever|first=Thomas M. S.|title=The Glycaemic Index: A Physiological Classification of Dietary Carbohydrate|publisher=CABI|year=2006|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|isbn=9781845930523|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216215845/https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|archive-date=2017-12-16}}</ref><ref name="nas">{{cite book|last=Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine of the US National Academies|title=Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids (macronutrients)|publisher=National Academies Press|year=2005|page=323|doi=10.17226/10490|isbn=978-0-309-08525-0|url=https://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10490&page=323|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715023623/https://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10490&page=323|archive-date=2015-07-15}}</ref> but has a relatively low glycemic index due to its content of fructose, which has a minimal effect on blood glucose.<ref name="wolever" />

As with other sugars, sucrose is digested into its components via the enzyme [[sucrase]] to glucose (blood sugar). The glucose component is transported into the blood where it serves immediate metabolic demands, or is converted and reserved in the [[liver]] as [[glycogen]].<ref name=nas/>

====Gout====
The occurrence of [[gout]] is connected with an excess production of uric acid. A diet rich in sucrose may lead to gout as it raises the level of insulin, which prevents excretion of uric acid from the body. As the concentration of uric acid in the body increases, so does the concentration of uric acid in the joint liquid and beyond a critical concentration, the uric acid begins to precipitate into crystals. Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of gout.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abcvitaminslife.com/HealthFacts/Article429.aspx |title=Nutrients for Gout – good and bad |author=Magidenko, Leonid |publisher=ABCVitaminsLife.com |date=2007-07-30 |access-date=2010-05-05 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223191342/https://www.abcvitaminslife.com/HealthFacts/Article429.aspx |archive-date=2009-02-23 }}</ref>

====Sucrose intolerance====
{{main|Sucrose intolerance}}

===UN dietary recommendation===
In 2015, the [[World Health Organization]] published a new guideline on sugars intake for adults and children, as a result of an extensive review of the available scientific evidence by a multidisciplinary group of experts. The guideline recommends that both adults and children ensure their intake of free sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates) is less than 10% of total energy intake. A level below 5% of total energy intake brings additional health benefits, especially with regards to dental caries.<ref>See [https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sugars_intake/en/ ''Guideline: Sugars intake for adults and children. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015'' ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817100425/https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sugars_intake/en/ |date=2015-08-17 }}</ref>

===Religious concerns===
The sugar refining industry often uses bone char ([[calcinated]] animal bones) for decolorizing.<ref>[https://www.vegfamily.com/articles/sugar.htm The Great Sugar Debate: Is it Vegan?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919012241/https://www.vegfamily.com/articles/sugar.htm |date=2009-09-19 }}. Vegfamily.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref><ref name="VegetarianJournal">{{cite journal
 |last        = Yacoubou, MS
 |first       = Jeanne
 |title       = Is Your Sugar Vegan? An Update on Sugar Processing Practices
 |journal     = Vegetarian Journal
 |volume      = 26
 |issue       = 4
 |pages       = 16–20
 |publisher   = The Vegetarian Resource Group
 |location    = Baltimore, MD
 |year        = 2007
 |url         = https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
 |access-date  = 2007-04-04
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080409003341/https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
 |archive-date = 2008-04-09
}}</ref> About 25% of sugar produced in the U.S. is processed using bone char as a filter, the remainder being processed with [[activated carbon]]. As bone char does not seem to remain in finished sugar, Jewish religious leaders consider sugar filtered through it to be [[pareve]], meaning that it is neither meat nor dairy and may be used with either type of food. However, the bone char must source to a kosher animal (e.g. cow, sheep) for the sugar to be [[kosher]].<ref name="VegetarianJournal"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|first1 = J.|last1 = Yudkin|last2 = Edelman|first2 = J.|last3 = Hough|first3 = L.|title = Sugar: Chemical, Biological and Nutritional Aspects of Sucrose|publisher = Butterworth|year = 1973|isbn = 978-0-408-70172-3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sucrose}}
* [https://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/graphics/gallery/sucroses.html 3D images of sucrose ]  [https://web.archive.org/web/20230901094347/https://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/graphics/gallery/sucroses.html archived from the original]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0574.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]

{{Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism}}
{{Carbohydrates}}
{{Sugar}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Disaccharides]]
[[Category:Types of sugar]]
[[Category:Glycosides]]
[[Category:Fructosides]]