View source for Sugar beet

{{Short description|Plant grown commercially for sugar production}}
{{More citations needed|date = February 2021}}
{{Infobox cultivar
| name = Sugar beet
| image = 276 Beta vulgaris L.jpg
| image_caption = Sugar beet, illustration of root, leaf, and flowering patterns 
| species = ''[[Beta vulgaris]]''
| subspecies = [[Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris|''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''vulgaris'' (''var. saccharifera'')]]
| group = Altissima Group
| origin = [[Silesia]], mid-18th century
}}

A '''sugar beet''' is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of [[sucrose]] and is grown commercially for [[sugar]] production. In plant breeding, it is known as the Altissima [[cultivar group]] of the common beet (''[[Beta vulgaris]]'').<ref name="MMPND" /> Together with other beet cultivars, such as [[beetroot]] and [[chard]], it belongs to the subspecies ''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''vulgaris'' but is classified as ''var. saccharifera''. Its closest wild relative is the [[sea beet]] (''Beta vulgaris'' subsp. ''maritima'').<ref name=springer/>

Sugar beets are grown in climates that are too cold for [[sugarcane]]. In 2020, Russia, the United States, Germany, France and Turkey were the world's five largest sugar beet producers.<ref name=fao/> In 2010–2011, Europe, and North America except Arctic territories failed to supply the overall domestic demand for sugar and were all net importers of sugar.<ref name=usda/> The US harvested {{convert|1,004,600|acre|ha|0|order=flip}} of sugar beets in 2008.<ref name=usda2/> In 2009, sugar beets accounted for 20% of the world's sugar production<ref name=agrisugar1/> and nearly 30% by 2013.<ref name="Dohm-et-al-2013" /> [[Sugarcane]] accounts for most of the rest of [[Sugar industry|sugar produced globally]]. In February 2015, a USDA factsheet reported that sugar beets generally account for about 55 percent of sugar produced in the United States, and sugar cane for about 45 percent.<ref name="usda4" />

== Description ==
The sugar beet has a conical, white, fleshy root (a [[taproot]]) with a flat crown. The plant consists of the root and a rosette of leaves. Sugar is formed by [[photosynthesis]] in the leaves and is then stored in the root.

The root of the beet contains 75% water, about 20%<ref name="Dohm-et-al-2013" /> sugar, and 5% [[Beet pulp|pulp]].<ref name=respons/> The exact sugar content can vary between 12% and 21%, depending on the cultivar and growing conditions. Sugar is the primary value of sugar beet as a [[cash crop]]. The pulp, [[Solubility|insoluble]] in water and mainly composed of [[cellulose]], hemicellulose, [[lignin]], and [[pectin]], is used in animal feed. The byproducts of the sugar beet crop, such as pulp and [[molasses]], add another 10% to the value of the harvest.<ref name=agrisugar1/>

Sugar beets grow exclusively in the [[Temperate climate|temperate]] zone, in contrast to [[sugarcane]], which grows exclusively in the tropical and subtropical zones. The average weight of a sugar beet ranges between {{convert|0.5|and|1|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Sugar beet foliage has a rich, brilliant green color and grows to a height of about {{convert|35|cm|inch|abbr=on}}. The leaves are numerous and broad and grow in a tuft from the crown of the beet, which is usually level with or just above the ground surface.<ref name=gr1/>

== History==

=== Discovery ===
{{Main|Beta vulgaris}}
[[File:Inspecting sugar beet plants.jpg|thumb|upright|A geneticist evaluates sugar beet plants]]
[[File:French sugar beet mill, 1843.jpg|thumb|French sugar beet mill in operation in the 1840s]]

The species beet consists of several cultivar groups. The 16th-century French scientist [[Olivier de Serres]] discovered a process for preparing sugar syrup from (red) [[beetroot]]. He wrote: "The beet-root, when being boiled, yields a juice similar to syrup of sugar, which is beautiful to look at on account of its [[vermilion]] colour"<ref name=worldcat/> (1575).<ref name="histoire" /> Because crystallized cane sugar was already available and had a better taste, this process did not become popular.

Modern sugar beets date to the mid-18th century [[Silesia]], where [[Frederick the Great]], king of [[Prussia]], subsidized experiments to develop processes for sugar extraction.<ref name="Langer" /><ref name="ucdsugar" /> In 1747, [[Andreas Sigismund Marggraf]], professor of physics in the Academy of Science of Berlin, isolated sugar from beetroots and found them at concentrations of 1.3–1.6%.<ref name="Mansfeld" /> He also demonstrated that the sugar that could be extracted from beets was identical to that produced from cane.<ref name="ucdsugar"/> He found the best of these vegetable sources for sugar was the white beet.<ref name=margg/> Despite Marggraf's success in isolating sugar from beets, it did not lead to commercial beet sugar production.

=== Development of the sugar beet ===
Marggraf's student and successor [[Franz Karl Achard]] began [[plant breeding]] sugar beet in [[Kaulsdorf (Berlin)|Kaulsdorf]] near Berlin in 1786.<ref name="Doering" /> Achard started his plant breeding by evaluating 23 varieties of beet for sugar content.<ref name="Louisiana" /> In the end he selected a local strain from [[Halberstadt]] in modern-day [[Saxony-Anhalt]], Germany. Moritz Baron von Koppy and his son further selected white, conical tubers from this strain.<ref name="Mansfeld" /> The selection was named ''weiße schlesische Zuckerrübe'', meaning white Silesian sugar beet.<ref name="Doering" /> In about 1800, this cultivar contained about 5% to 6% sucrose by (dry) weight.<ref name="Birnbaum" /> It went on to become the progenitor of all modern sugar beets.<ref name="Doering" /> The plant breeding process has continued since then, leading to a sucrose content of around 18% in modern varieties.<ref name="Dohm-et-al-2013" />

=== Beet sugar industry ===
{{Main|Beet sugar factory}}

Franz Karl Achard opened the world's first [[beet sugar factory]] in 1801, at [[Konary, Wołów County|Kunern]], [[Silesia]] (now Konary, Poland).<ref name=gr1/> The idea to produce sugar from beet was soon introduced to France, whence the European sugar beet industry rapidly expanded. By 1840, about 5% of the world's sugar was derived from sugar beets, and by 1880, this number had risen more than tenfold to over 50%.<ref name="Langer" /> In North America, the first commercial production started in 1879 at a farm in [[Alvarado, California]].<ref name="ucdsugar"/><ref name="Mansfeld" /> The sugar beet was introduced to [[Chile]] by German settlers around 1850.<ref name="Mansfeld" />

== Culture ==
[[File:Zuckerrüben Pflug010.jpg|thumb|A sugar beet farm in Switzerland]]
[[File:Sugarbeetoutput.png|thumb|Worldwide sugar beet production in 2000]]
[[File:Suikerbietenrooier zesrijige bunker (Sugarbeet harvester).jpg|thumb|A beet harvester]]

The sugar beet, like [[sugarcane]], needs a particular [[soil]] and a proper climate for its successful cultivation. The most important requirements are that the soil must contain a large supply of nutrients, be rich in [[humus]], and be able to contain a great deal of moisture. A certain amount of [[alkali]] is not necessarily detrimental, as sugar beets are not especially susceptible to injury by some alkali. The ground should be fairly level and well-drained, especially where [[irrigation]] is practiced.<ref name=gr1/>

Generous crops can be grown in both sandy soil and heavy [[loam]]s, but the ideal soil is a sandy loam, i.e., a mixture of organic matter, clay and sand. A subsoil of gravel, or the presence of [[hardpan]], is not desirable, as cultivation to a depth of from {{convert|12|to|15|in|cm|0}} is necessary to produce the best results.

Climatic conditions, temperature, sunshine, rainfall and winds have an important bearing upon the success of sugar beet agriculture. A temperature ranging from {{convert|15|to|21|°C|°F|0}} during the growing months is most favorable. In the absence of adequate irrigation, {{convert|460|mm|in|0|abbr=in}} of rainfall are necessary to raise an average crop. High winds are harmful, as they generally crust the land and prevent the young beets from coming through the ground. The best results are obtained along the coast of southern California, where warm, sunny days succeeded by cool, foggy nights seem to meet sugar beet's favored growth conditions. Sunshine of long duration but not of great intensity is the most important factor in the successful cultivation of sugar beets. Near the equator, the shorter days and the greater heat of the sun sharply reduce the sugar content in the beet.<ref name=gr1/>

In high elevation regions such as those of Idaho, Colorado and Utah, where the temperature is high during the daytime, but where the nights are cool, the quality of the sugar beet is excellent. In [[Michigan]], the long summer days from the relatively high latitude (the [[Lower Peninsula of Michigan|Lower Peninsula]], where production is concentrated, lies between the 41st and 46th parallels North) and the influence of the Great Lakes result in satisfactory climatic conditions for sugar beet culture. [[Sebewaing, Michigan]], lies in [[the Thumb]] region of Michigan; both the region and state are major sugar beet producers. Sebewaing is home to one of four [[Michigan Sugar Company]] factories. The town sponsors an annual Michigan Sugar Festival.<ref name=voices/>{{unreliable source?|date=September 2015}}

To cultivate beets successfully, the land must be properly prepared. Deep ploughing is the first principle of beet culture. It allows the roots to penetrate the subsoil without much obstruction, thereby preventing the beet from growing out of the ground, besides enabling it to extract considerable nourishment and moisture from the lower soil. If the latter is too hard, the roots will not penetrate it readily and, as a result, the plant will be pushed up and out of the earth during the process of growth. A hard subsoil is impervious to water and prevents proper drainage. It should not be too loose, however, as this allows the water to pass through more freely than is desirable. Ideally, the soil should be deep, fairly fine and easily penetrable by the roots. It should also be capable of retaining moisture and at the same time admit of a free circulation of air and good drainage. Sugar beet crops exhaust the soil rapidly. Crop rotation is recommended and necessary. Normally, beets are grown in the same ground every third year, peas, beans or grain being raised the other two years.<ref name=gr1/>

In most [[temperate]] climates, beets are planted in the spring and harvested in the autumn. At the northern end of its range, growing seasons as short as 100 days can produce commercially viable sugar beet crops. In warmer climates, such as in [[California]]'s [[Imperial Valley (California)|Imperial Valley]], sugar beets are a winter crop, planted in the autumn and harvested in the spring. In recent years, [[Syngenta]] has developed the so-called tropical sugar beet. It allows the plant to grow in tropical and subtropical regions. Beets are planted from a small seed; {{convert|1|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of beet seed comprises 100,000 seeds and will plant over {{convert|1|ha|acre|spell=in}} of ground ({{convert|1|lb|g|-2|spell=in|disp=or}} will plant about {{convert|1|acre|ha|spell=in|disp=or}}.

Until the latter half of the 20th century, sugar beet production was highly labor-intensive, as weed control was managed by densely planting the crop, which then had to be manually thinned two or three times with a [[Hoe (tool)|hoe]] during the growing season. Harvesting also required many workers. Although the roots could be lifted by a [[plough]]-like device that  could be pulled by a horse team, the rest of the preparation was by hand. One laborer grabbed the beets by their leaves, knocked them together to shake free loose soil, and then laid them in a row, root to one side, greens to the other. A second worker equipped with a beet hook (a short-handled tool between a [[billhook]] and a [[sickle]]) followed behind, and would lift the beet and swiftly chop the crown and leaves from the root with a single action. Working this way, he would leave a row of beets that could be forked into the back of a [[cart]].

Today, mechanical sowing, [[herbicide]] application for weed control, and mechanical harvesting have displaced this reliance on manual farm work. A root beater uses a series of blades to chop the leaf and crown (which is high in nonsugar impurities) from the root. The [[Sugar beet harvester|beet harvester]] lifts the root, and removes excess soil from the root in a single pass over the field. A modern harvester is typically able to cover six rows at the same time. The beets are dumped into trucks as the harvester rolls down the field, and then delivered to the factory. The conveyor then removes more soil.

If the beets are to be left for later delivery, they are formed into [[storage clamp|clamps]]. Straw bales are used to shield the beets from the weather. Provided the clamp is well built with the right amount of ventilation, the beets do not significantly deteriorate. Beets that freeze and then defrost, produce complex carbohydrates that cause severe production problems in the factory. In the UK, loads may be hand examined at the factory gate before being accepted.

In the US, the fall harvest begins with the first hard frost, which arrests [[photosynthesis]] and the further growth of the root. Depending on the local climate, it may be carried out over the course of a few weeks or be prolonged throughout the winter months. The harvest and processing of the beet is referred to as "the campaign", reflecting the organization required to deliver the crop at a steady rate to processing factories that run 24 hours a day for the duration of the harvest and processing (for the UK, the campaign lasts about five months). In the Netherlands, this period is known as {{Lang|nl|de bietencampagne}}, a time to be careful when driving on local roads in the area while the beets are being grown, because the naturally high [[clay]] content of the soil tends to cause slippery roads when soil falls from the trailers during transport.

==Production==
{{owidslider
|start        = 2023
|list         = Template:OWID/sugar beet production#gallery
|location      = commons
|caption      =
|title        =
|language     =
|file         = [[File:sugar beet production, World, 2023 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|Sugar beet production]]
|startingView = World
}}

{{Table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Top ten sugar beet producers—2022 [[UN Food and Agriculture Organization|(FAO)]]<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Sugar beet production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2024|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=10 June 2024}}</ref>
! Rank
! Country
! abbr="Production" | Production<br />(million tonnes)
|-
| 1 || {{RUS}} || style="text-align:right;"| 48.9
|-
| 2 || {{FRA}} || style="text-align:right;" | 31.5
|-
| 3 || {{USA}} || style="text-align:right;" | 29.6
|-
| 4 || {{DEU}} || style="text-align:right;" | 28.2
|-
| 5 || {{TUR}} || style="text-align:right;"| 19.0
|-
| 6 || {{POL}} || style="text-align:right;"| 14.2
|-
| 7 || {{EGY}} || style="text-align:right;" | 13.6
|-
| 9 || {{UKR}} || style="text-align:right;" | 9.9
|-
| 8 || {{CHN}} || style="text-align:right;"| 8.9
|-
| 10 || {{NLD}}|| style="text-align:right;" | 7.3
|-
|'''Total''' || World || style="text-align:right;"| '''261.0'''
|-
|}
The world harvested {{convert|260998614|t|sigfig=4}} of sugar beets in 2022. The world's largest producer was Russia, with a {{convert|48907753|t|sigfig=3}} harvest.<ref name="faostat"/> The average yield of sugar beet crops worldwide was 60.8 tonnes per [[hectare]].<ref name="faostat"/>

The most productive sugar beet farms in the world, in 2022, were in [[Chile]], with a nationwide average yield of 106.2 tonnes per hectare.<ref name="faostat"/>

[[Imperial Valley (California)]] farmers have achieved yields of about 160 tonnes per hectare and over 26 tonnes sugar per hectare. Imperial Valley farms benefit from high intensities of incident sunlight and intensive use of irrigation and fertilizers.<ref name=sasta/><ref name=farmg/>

== Sugar extraction ==

[[File:Hollogne sur-geer -Sucrerie.jpg|thumb|A sugar beet farm in Belgium: Beyond the field is the sugar factory.]]
Most sugar beet are used to create [[white sugar]]. This is done in a beet sugar factory, often abbreviated to sugar factory. Nowadays these usually also act as a sugar refinery, but historically the beet sugar factory produced raw sugar and the sugar refinery refined raw sugar to create white sugar. 

=== Sugar factory ===
{{Main|Beet sugar factory}}
In the 1960s, beet sugar processing was described as consisting of these steps.<ref name="Montana1970" />

* Harvesting and storage in a way that preserves the beet while they wait to be processed
* Washing and scrubbing to remove soil and debris
* Slicing the beet in small pieces called cossettes or chips
* Removing the sugar from the beet in an osmosis process, resulting in raw juice and beet pulp.<ref name="Montana1970" /> 

Nowadays, most sugar factories then refine the raw juice themselves, without moving it to a sugar refinery. The beet pulp is processed on site to become cattle fodder.

=== Sugar refinery ===
{{Main|Sugar refinery}}
[[File:Chelsea_Sugar_Refinery_ship.JPG|thumb|The [[Chelsea Sugar Refinery]] in [[New Zealand]] ]]
The next steps to produce white sugar are not specific for producing sugar from sugar beet. They also apply to producing white sugar from sugar cane. As such, they belong to the sugar refining process, not to the beet sugar production process per se.

* Purification, the raw juice undergoes a chemical process to remove impurities and create thin juice.<ref name="Koyikkal2013" />
* Evaporation, the thin juice is concentrated by evaporation to make a "thick juice", roughly 60% sucrose by weight.
* Crystallization, by boiling under reduced pressure the sugar liquor is turned into crystals and remaining liquor.<ref name="sugarnutritionresource/refining-cane" /> 
* Centrifugation, in a centrifuge the white sugar crystals are separated from the remaining sugar liquor.<ref name="silverwedge" />
* The remaining liquor is then boiled and centrifuged, producing a lower grade of crystallised sugar (which is redissolved to feed the white sugar pans) and molasses.<ref name="silverwedge" />
* Further sugar can be recovered from the molasses by methods such as the Steffen Process.

== Ethanol and alcohol ==

=== From molasses ===
[[File:Božkov_speciál_mandlový_01.jpg|thumb|''[[Tuzemák]]'', a sugar-beet-based alcohol from Czechia]]
There are two obvious methods to produce alcohol ([[ethanol]]) from sugar beet. The first method produces alcohol as a byproduct of manufacturing sugar. It is about fermenting the sugar beet molasses that are left after (the second) centrifugation.<ref name="Levi1870" /> This strongly resembles the manufacture of [[rum]] from sugar cane molasses. In a number of countries, notably the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]], this analogy led to making a rum-like [[distilled spirit]] called ''[[Tuzemak]]''.<ref name="Czechs" /> On the [[Åland|Åland Islands]], a similar drink is made under the brand name ''Kobba Libre''.

=== From sugar beet ===
The second method to produce alcohol from sugar beet is to ferment the sugar beet themselves. I.e. without attempting to produce sugar. The idea to distill sugar from the beet came up soon after the first beet sugar factory was established.<ref name="Levi1870" /> Between 1852 and 1854 Champonnois devised a good system to distill alcohol from sugar beet.<ref name="Aligny1869" /> Within a few years a large sugar distilling industry was created in France.<ref name="Levi1870" /> The current process to produce alcohol by fermenting and distilling sugar beet consists of these steps:<ref name="TereosDistill" />

* Adding [[Starch production|Starch]] milk
* [[Liquefaction]] and [[Saccharification]]
* [[Ethanol fermentation|Fermentation]] in fermentation vats
* [[Distillation]]
* Dehydration, this results in Bioethanol
* [[Rectified spirit|Rectification]]
* Refining, the result is a highly pure alcohol  

Large sugar beet distilleries remain limited to Europe. In 2023 [[Tereos]] had 8 beet sugar distilleries, located in France, Czechia and Romania.<ref name="Tereos8" /> 

In many European countries rectified spirit from sugar beet is used to make [[Liquor]], e.g. [[vodka]], [[Gin]] etc..

== Other uses ==
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2012}}

=== Sugary syrup ===
[[File:Stroop_houten_lepel.jpeg|thumb|Traditional Dutch stroop and the bottled version]]
An unrefined sugary syrup can be produced directly from sugar beet. This thick, dark syrup is produced by cooking shredded sugar beet for several hours, then pressing the resulting mash and concentrating the juice produced until it has a consistency similar to that of [[honey]]. No other ingredients are used. 

In Germany, particularly the [[Rhineland]] area, and in the Netherlands, this sugar beet syrup (called ''Zuckerrüben-Sirup'' or ''Zapp'' in German, or ''Suikerstroop'' in Dutch) is used as a spread for sandwiches, as well as for sweetening sauces, cakes and desserts. Dutch people generally top their [[pancake]]s with stroop.

Suikerstroop made according to the Dutch tradition is a [[Traditional Speciality Guaranteed]] under EU and UK law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32018R0048|access-date=16 October 2021|title=Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/48 of 11 January 2018 entering a name in the register of traditional specialities guaranteed [Suikerstroop (TSG)]}}</ref> Commercially, if the syrup has a [[Dextrose equivalent|dextrose equivalency (DE)]] above 30, the product has to be [[hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]] and converted to a high-fructose syrup, much like [[high-fructose corn syrup]], or isoglucose syrup in the EU.

=== Uridine ===
[[Uridine]] can be isolated from sugar beet.

=== Alternative fuel ===
[[BP]] and [[Associated British Foods]] plan to use agricultural surpluses of sugar beet to produce [[biobutanol]] in [[East Anglia]] in the United Kingdom.

The feedstock-to-yield ratio for sugarbeet is 56:9. Therefore, it takes 6.22&nbsp;kg of sugar beet to produce 1&nbsp;kg of ethanol (approximately 1.27 L at room temperature). In 2006 it was found that producing ethanol from sugar beet or cane became profitable when the market price for ethanol were close to $4 per U.S. gallon.<ref name="Gustafson" /> According to Atlantic Biomass president Robert Kozak, a study at the University of Maryland Eastern Shore, indicates sugar beets appear capable of producing {{convert|860|to|900|usgal|L}} of ethanol per acre (400 m2).<ref name="WWWCP" />

=== Cattle feed ===
In New Zealand, sugar beet is widely grown and harvested as feed for dairy cattle. It is regarded as superior to [[fodder beet]], because it has a lower water content (resulting in better storage properties). Both the beet bulb and the leaves (with 25% protein) are fed to cattle. Although long considered toxic to cattle, harvested beet bulbs can be fed to cattle if they are appropriately transitioned to their new diet. Dairy cattle in New Zealand can thrive on just pasture and beets, without [[silage]] or other supplementary feed. The crop is also now grown in some parts of Australia as cattle feed.<ref name="Wonder" /><ref name="RuralNews" />

=== Monosodium glutamate ===
Molasses can serve to produce [[monosodium glutamate]] (MSG).

== Agriculture ==
[[File:Dammanbau Zuckerruebe.svg|thumb|Sugar beet farming using dam culture method. Used in [[Brazil]]; [[Russia]]; [[Germany]], [[France]]; Ukraine; [[Turkey]]; [[China]];P.R.Ch.:, [[Poland]], and sometimes [[Egypt]].]]

Sugar beets are an important part of a [[crop rotation]] cycle.

Sugar beet plants are susceptible to ''[[Beet necrotic yellow vein virus|Rhizomania]]'' ("root madness"), which turns the bulbous tap root into many small roots, making the crop economically unprocessable. Strict controls are enforced in European countries to prevent the spread, but it is already present in some areas. It is also susceptible to both the [[beet leaf curl virus]], which causes crinkling and stunting of the leaves and [[beet yellows virus]].

Continual research looks for varieties with resistance, as well as increased sugar yield. Sugar beet breeding research in the United States is most prominently conducted at various [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] Agricultural Research Stations, including one in [[Fort Collins, Colorado]], headed by Linda Hanson and Leonard Panella; one in [[Fargo, North Dakota]], headed by John Wieland; and one at [[Michigan State University]] in [[East Lansing, Michigan]], headed by Rachel Naegele.

Other economically important members of the subfamily [[Chenopodioideae]]:
* [[Beetroot]]
* [[Chard]]
* ''[[Mangelwurzel]]'' or fodder beet

===Genetic modification===
{{Main|Genetically modified sugar beet}}
In the United States, genetically modified sugar beets, engineered for resistance to [[glyphosate]], a [[herbicide]] marketed as Roundup, were developed by [[Monsanto]] as a [[genetically modified crop]]. In 2005, the US Department of Agriculture-Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ([[USDA]]-[[APHIS]]) deregulated glyphosate-resistant sugar beets after it conducted an environmental assessment and determined glyphosate-resistant sugar beets were highly unlikely to become a plant pest.<ref name="Roundup Ready Sugarbeets"/><ref name=APHIS-history/> Sugar from glyphosate-resistant sugar beets has been approved for human and animal consumption in multiple countries, but commercial production of biotech beets has been approved only in the United States and Canada. Studies have concluded the sugar from glyphosate-resistant sugar beets has the same nutritional value as sugar from conventional sugar beets.<ref name=AppealDecision2011 /> After deregulation in 2005, glyphosate-resistant sugar beets were extensively adopted in the United States. About 95% of sugar beet acres in the US were planted with glyphosate-resistant seed in 2011.<ref name=James2011/>

Weeds may be chemically controlled using [[glyphosate]] without harming the crop. After planting sugar beet seed, weeds emerge in fields and growers apply glyphosate to control them. Glyphosate is commonly used in field crops because it controls a broad spectrum of weed species<ref name=michsug/> and has a low [[toxicity]].<ref name=usda3/> A study from the UK<ref name=nih/> suggests yields of genetically modified beet were greater than conventional, while another from the North Dakota State University extension service found lower yields.<ref name=nlpw/> The introduction of glyphosate-resistant sugar beets may contribute to the growing number of glyphosate-resistant weeds, so Monsanto has developed a program to encourage growers to use different herbicide modes of action to control their weeds.<ref name="New Releases"/>

In 2008, the [[Center for Food Safety]], the [[Sierra Club]], the Organic Seed Alliance and High Mowing Seeds filed a lawsuit against USDA-APHIS regarding their decision to deregulate glyphosate-resistant sugar beets in 2005. The organizations expressed concerns regarding glyphosate-resistant sugar beets' ability to potentially [[cross-pollinate]] with conventional sugar beets.<ref name="Roundup Ready Sugar Beet Case: Timeline"/> U.S. District Judge [[Jeffrey White|Jeffrey S. White]], [[United States District Court for the Northern District of California|US District Court for the Northern District of California]], revoked the deregulation of glyphosate-resistant sugar beets and declared it unlawful for growers to plant glyphosate-resistant sugar beets in the spring of 2011.<ref name="Roundup Ready Sugar Beet Case: Timeline"/><ref name=usda5/> Believing a sugar shortage would occur USDA-APHIS developed three options in the environmental assessment to address the concerns of environmentalists.<ref name="USDA Prepares Draft Environmental Assessment on Regulatory Options for Roundup Ready Sugar Beets"/> In 2011, a federal appeals court for the Northern district of California in San Francisco overturned the ruling.<ref name=AppealDecision2011/> In July 2012, after completing an environmental impact assessment and a plant pest risk assessment the USDA deregulated Monsanto's Roundup Ready sugar beets.<ref name=usda6/>

{{anchor|Genome|Genetics|Packaging of genome into chromosomes}}

== Genome and genetics ==
The sugar beet genome shares a triplication event somewhere super-Caryophyllales and at or sub-[[Eudicot]]s. It has been sequenced and two reference genome sequences have already been generated.<ref name="Dohm-et-al-2013" /> The genome size of the sugar beet is approximately 731 (714–758)<ref name="Dohm-et-al-2013" /> Megabases, and sugar beet DNA is packaged in 18 metacentric chromosomes (2n=2x=18).<ref name="Paesold" /> All sugar beet centromeres are made up of a single [[satellite DNA]] family<ref name="Zakrzewski" /> and centromere-specific [[LTR retrotransposon]]s.<ref name="Weber2013" /> More than 60% of sugar beet's DNA is repetitive, mostly distributed in a dispersed way along the chromosomes.<ref name="Weber2010" /><ref name="Wollrab" /><ref name="Heitkam" /><ref name="Schwichtenberg" />

Crop wild beet populations (''B. vulgaris'' ssp. ''maritima'') have been sequenced as well, allowing for identification of the resistance gene ''Rz2'' in the wild progenitor.<ref name="Capistrano-Gossmann" /> ''Rz2'' confers resistance to rhizomania, commonly known as the sugar beet root madness disease.

==Breeding==
Sugar beets have been bred for increased sugar content, from 8% to 18% in the 200 years {{as of|2013|alt=up to 2013}}, resistance to [[viral plant disease|viral]] and [[fungal plant disease|fungal]] diseases, increased taproot size, [[monogerm]]y, and less [[bolting (horticulture)|bolting]]. Breeding has been eased by discovery of a [[cytoplasmic male sterility]] line – this has especially been useful in yield breeding.<ref name="Dohm-et-al-2013" />

==References==
{{Reflist|33em|refs=

<ref name="springer">{{cite book|title=Beta Maritima: The Origin of Beets|year=2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4614-0841-3|quote=The volume will be completely devoted to the sea beet, that is, the ancestor of all the cultivated beets. The wild plant, growing mainly on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, remains very important as source of useful traits for beet breeding.|url=https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/plant+sciences/book/978-1-4614-0841-3}}</ref>

<ref name="usda">{{cite web|title=Sugar:World Markets and Trade|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture: FAS Information|year=2011|url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/sugar/2011/SugarMay2011.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005151718/http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/sugar/2011/SugarMay2011.pdf|archive-date=October 5, 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="usda2">{{cite web|url=http://www.nass.usda.gov/QuickStats/index2.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003083617/http://www.nass.usda.gov/QuickStats/index2.jsp |archive-date=3 October 2006 |title=NASS – Statistics by Subject – Crops & Plants – Field Crops – Sugarbeets |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date= 2 October 2006 }}<!-- Java content not archived --></ref>

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<ref name="respons">{{cite web|title=Agribusiness Handbooks, vol. 4: Sugar Beets / White Sugar|year=1999|url=http://www.responsibleagroinvestment.org/rai/sites/responsibleagroinvestment.org/files/FAO_Agbiz%20handbook_White%20Sugar_0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006232501/http://www.responsibleagroinvestment.org/sites/responsibleagroinvestment.org/files/FAO_Agbiz%20handbook_White%20Sugar_0.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name="worldcat">{{cite book|title=Histoire Centennale du Sucre de Betterave|author=Jules Hélot|publisher=Fortier et Marotte|year=1912|oclc=11941819}}</ref>

<ref name="margg">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |chapter=Experiences chimiques faites dans le dessein de tirer un veritable sucre de diverses plantes, qui croissent dans nos contrées (Chemical experiments made with the intention of extracting real sugar from diverse plants that grow in our lands) |title=Histoire de l'académie royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Berlin |year= 1749 |publisher=Marggraf (1747) |pages=79–90 }}</ref>

<ref name="gr1">{{cite book|title=Something about sugar: its history, growth, manufacture and distribution|author=George Rolph|year=1873|url=https://archive.org/details/somethingaboutsu00rolprich|publisher=San Francisco, J. J. Newbegin}}</ref>

<ref name="voices">{{cite web |url=http://voices.yahoo.com/de-icing-highways-roads-using-sugar-beet-juice-5234321.html |title=De-icing Highways and Roads Using Sugar Beet Juice |publisher=[[Yahoo!]] |access-date=2 November 2012 |archive-date=10 February 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130210092741/http://voices.yahoo.com/de-icing-highways-roads-using-sugar-beet-juice-5234321.html }}<!-- No archive --></ref>

<ref name="fao">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=Crops and livestock products |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization}}</ref>

<!-- <ref name="fao2">{{cite web|title=FAOSTAT: Production, Crops, Sugar beet, 2010 data |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |year=2011 |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114151638/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567 |archive-date=14 January 2013 }}</ref> -->

<ref name="sasta">{{cite journal|title=THE EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION OF AGRICULTURAL R&D OUTPUT IN THE UK BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY|author=Limb Re|journal=Proc South African Sugar Technology Association|year=2008|volume=81|pages=107–115|url=http://www.sasta.co.za/wp-content/uploads/Proceedings/2000s/2008_%20Limb_the%20effective%20communication%20.pdf|access-date=2012-02-07|archive-date=2013-02-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130206081803/http://www.sasta.co.za/wp-content/uploads/Proceedings/2000s/2008_%20Limb_the%20effective%20communication%20.pdf}}</ref>

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<ref name="Roundup Ready Sugarbeets">{{cite web|last=Monsanto|title=Roundup Ready Sugarbeets|url=http://www.monsanto.com/products/Pages/roundup-ready-sugarbeets.aspx}}</ref>

<ref name="APHIS-history">{{cite web|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/sugarbeet_case.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017000748/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/sugarbeet_case.shtml |archive-date=17 October 2010 |title=Roundup Ready® Sugar Beet Case – Timeline |publisher=APHIS |date= 7 September 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="James2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp |title=Brief 43-2011. Executive Summary: Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2011 |publisher=ISAAA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210025832/http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/43/executivesummary/default.asp |archive-date=10 February 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name="michsug">{{cite web|last=Michigan Sugar Company|title=2010 Growers' Guide for Producing Quality Sugarbeets|url=http://www.michigansugar.com/agriculture/guide.php|access-date=2011-04-05|archive-date=2013-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809170900/http://michigansugar.com/agriculture/guide.php}}</ref>

<ref name="MMPND">{{cite web|url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Beta.html |title=Sorting Beta names |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504173112/http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Beta.html |website=Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database |date=4 May 2013 |archive-date=4 May 2013 }}</ref>

<ref name="usda3">{{cite web |url=http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/17918/PDF |author1=Stephen O Duke |author2=Stephen B Powles |name-list-style=amp |title=Glyphosate: a once-in-a-century herbicide: Mini-review |publisher=Pest Management Science Pest Manag Sci 64:319–325 |date=2008 |access-date=2012-11-02 |archive-date=2019-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702211642/https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/17918/PDF }}</ref>

<ref name="nih">{{cite journal|pmc=1634958 |author=May, MJ|title= Management of genetically modified herbicide-tolerant sugar beet for spring and autumn environmental benefit|volume=27 |issue=1559 |date=2005 |pages= 111–119|display-authors=etal |pmid=15695200 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.2948 |journal=Proc Biol Sci}}</ref>

<ref name="nlpw">{{cite web|url=http://www.nlpwessex.org/docs/fwsugarbeettext.htm |author=Mike Abrams |title=Roundup Ready Crops Prove to be a Hit in the USA |publisher=Farmers Weekly |date=6 February 2009 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20111124093827/http://www.nlpwessex.org/docs/fwsugarbeettext.htm|archive-date =24 November 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="New Releases">{{cite web|url=http://monsanto.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=27632&item=77230 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622014411/http://monsanto.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=27632&item=77230 |archive-date=22 June 2012 |title=Press Release: Monsanto Outlines New Weed Management Platform Under the Roundup Ready PLUS™ Brand|publisher=monsanto |date=19 October 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="Roundup Ready Sugar Beet Case: Timeline">{{cite web|last=USDA-APHIS |title=Roundup Ready Sugar Beet Case: Timeline|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/sugarbeet_case.shtml|archive-date=1 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130701195326/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/sugarbeet_case.shtml|date=4 February 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="usda5">{{cite web|last=USDA-APHIS|title=Environmental Compliance|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/regulations/compliance/environmental_quality_1502.shtml|date=29 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006081332/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/regulations/compliance/environmental_quality_1502.shtml|archive-date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

<ref name="USDA Prepares Draft Environmental Assessment on Regulatory Options for Roundup Ready Sugar Beets">{{cite web|last=USDA-APHIS|title=USDA Prepares Draft Environmental Assessment on Regulatory Options for Roundup Ready Sugar Beets|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/content/2010/11/enviro_sugar_beets.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101106001117/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/newsroom/content/2010/11/enviro_sugar_beets.shtml|archive-date=6 November 2010}}</ref>

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<ref name="usda6">{{cite web|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/sugarbeet.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101013130952/http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/sugarbeet.shtml |archive-date=13 October 2010 |title=Roundup Ready® Sugar Beet News |publisher=USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service |date=7 August 2012 |access-date=28 July 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name="Montana1970">{{cite web|url=https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1/4350/31762100108123.pdf?sequence=1 |title=An economic study of the beet sugar industry in Montana |publisher=Montana State University |date=1 March 1969 |access-date=20 January 2023 }}</ref>

<ref name="WWWCP">{{cite web|url=https://wwwcp.umes.edu/pr/sugar-beets-a-reliable-source-of-biofuel/ |title=Sugar beets ~ a reliable source of biofuel? |publisher=University of Maryland |date=21 October 2016 |access-date=5 August 2024 }}</ref>

<ref name="Gustafson">{{Cite web|author= Cole Gustafson |year= 2010 |title=Economics of Sugar Beet and Cane Biofuel — Energy|url=https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/energy/biofuels/energy-briefs/economics-of-sugar-beet-and-cane-biofuel|access-date=2023-02-08|website=North Dakota State University}}</ref>

<ref name="Langer" >{{cite book |author1=Hill, G. |author2=Langer, R. H. M. |author-link=George Hill (agronomist) |author-link2=Reinhart Langer |title=Agricultural plants |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1991 |pages= [https://books.google.com/books?id=trtkCN7OIWMC&pg=PA197 197–199] |isbn=978-0-521-40563-8 }}</ref>

<ref name="ucdsugar">[http://sugarbeet.ucdavis.edu/sbchap.html Sugarbeet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090120002450/https://sugarbeet.ucdavis.edu/sbchap.html |date=20 January 2009 }} from a [[University of California, Davis]] website</ref> 

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<ref name="Wonder">{{Cite web|date=24 June 2014|title=Grower lauds sugar beet 'wonder fuel'|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/farming/cropping/10191791/Grower-lauds-sugar-beet-wonder-fuel|access-date=25 September 2021|website=Stuff|language=en}}</ref>

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<ref name="Louisiana">{{cite news |newspaper=The Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer |title=Supplement to the Chronicle of the Beet Sugar Industry |location=New Orleans |date=November 18, 1897 |volume=XIX |number=20 |page=312 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ACw_AQAAMAAJ }}</ref>

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<ref name="Czechs">{{cite web|url=http://www.tresbohemes.com/2017/02/czechs-and-their-billion-dollar-beets/|title=Czechs and Their Billion Dollar Beets |publisher=Tres Bohemes |access-date=2023-03-17 |date=2017-02-09}}</ref>

<ref name="Tereos8">{{Cite web|title=Raw Material, Sugar Beet|url=https://tereos.com/en/activities-and-products/raw-materials/sugar-beets/ |access-date=19 March 2023|website=Tereos}}</ref>

<ref name="TereosDistill">{{Cite web|title=Alcohol and ethanol |url=https://tereos.com/en/activities-and-products/product-lines/alcohol-ethanol/ |access-date=19 March 2023|website=Tereos}}</ref>

}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sugar beets}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.sucrose.com/lbeet.html How Beet Sugar is Made]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/climatechange/story/0,,1802296,00.html ''Guardian (UK)'' article on how sugar beet can be used for fuel]
* [https://digital.library.unt.edu/permalink/meta-dc-1503:1 ''Sugar beet culture in the northern Great Plains area''] hosted by the [https://digital.library.unt.edu/browse/department/govdocs/ University of North Texas Government Documents Department]
* [http://www.gmo-safety.eu/news/1221.court-bans-sugar-beet-cultivation-under-controlled-conditions.html US court bans GM sugar beet: Cultivation to take place under controlled conditions?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213065400/http://www.gmo-safety.eu/news/1221.court-bans-sugar-beet-cultivation-under-controlled-conditions.html |date=13 December 2010 }}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=IikDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Science+1932+plane&pg=PA38 "Sugar From Beets"] ''Popular Science Monthly'', March 1935
*{{cite web|title=Beet Sugar|url=https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=ti%3A%22beet+sugar%22+&acc=off&wc=on&fc=off&group=none|publisher=[[JSTOR]]}}

{{Sugar}}
{{Bioenergy}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q151964}}

[[Category:Beta (plant)|Beta vulgaris]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Phytoremediation plants]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Sugar]]