View source for Suharto

{{Short description|President of Indonesia from 1967 to 1998}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025|cs1-dates=ly}}
{{Indonesian name}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image               = President Suharto, 1993.jpg
| caption             = Official portrait, 1993
| order               = 2nd
| office              = President of Indonesia
| term_start          = 12 March 1967
| term_end            = 21 May 1998{{efn|On 11 March 1966, [[Sukarno]] transferred key presidential powers to Suharto in a letter of authority known as ''[[Supersemar]]''. On 20 February 1967, Sukarno surrendered his powers, but he was not formally relieved of his presidential title by the [[People's Consultative Assembly|provisional parliament]] (MPRS) until 12 March 1967.}}<br>[[Acting presidency of Suharto|Acting]] until 27 March 1968
| vicepresident       = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}
| ''Vacant'' {{nowrap|(1967–1973)}}
| [[Hamengkubuwono IX]] {{nowrap|(1973–1978)}}
| [[Adam Malik]] {{nowrap|(1978–1983)}}
| [[Umar Wirahadikusumah]] {{nowrap|(1983–1988)}}
| [[Sudharmono]] {{nowrap|(1988–1993)}}
| [[Try Sutrisno]] {{nowrap|(1993–1998)}}
| B. J. Habibie (1998)}}
| predecessor         = [[Sukarno]]
| successor           = [[B. J.  Habibie]]
| office2             = [[Ampera Cabinet#Cabinet Presidium|Chairman of the Cabinet Presidium]]
| term_start2         = 25 July 1966
| term_end2           = 17 October 1967
| president2          = {{ubl|Sukarno|''Himself'' (acting)}}
| predecessor2        = Sukarno (as [[Prime Minister of Indonesia|Prime Minister]])
| successor2          = ''Office abolished''
| order3              = 13th
| office3             = List of ministers of defense (Indonesia){{!}}Minister of Defense and Security
| term_start3         = 28 March 1966
| term_end3           = 9 September 1971
| president3          = {{ubl|Sukarno|''Himself''}}
| predecessor3        = {{ill|Sarbini Martodihardjo|id|M. Sarbini|v=ib}}
| successor3          = [[Maraden Panggabean]]
| order4              = 16th
| office4             = Non-Aligned Movement#Chair{{!}}Secretary-General of the {{nowrap|Non-Aligned Movement}}
| term_start4         = 7 September 1992
| term_end4           = 20 October 1995
| predecessor4        = [[Dobrica Ćosić]]
| successor4          = [[Ernesto Samper]]
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Military offices|titlestyle=border:1px dashed lightgrey;}}
| order5              = 1st and 4th
| office5             = Kopkamtib#Commanders{{!}}Commander of Kopkamtib
| term_start5         = 28 January 1974
| term_end5           = 17 April 1978
| president5          = ''Himself''
| predecessor5        = General [[Sumitro|Sumitro Sastrodihardjo]]
| successor5          = Admiral [[Sudomo]]
| term_start6         = 5 October 1965
| term_end6           = 19 November 1969
| president56         = {{ubl|Sukarno|''Himself''}}
| predecessor6        = ''Office established''
| successor6          = General Maraden Panggabean
| order7              = 5th
| office7             = Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces{{!}}Commander of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia
| term_start7         = 6 June 1968
| term_end7           = 28 March 1973
| president7          = ''Himself''
| predecessor7        = General [[Abdul Haris Nasution]]&nbsp;(1966)
| successor7          = General Maraden Panggabean
| order8              = 7th
| office8             = Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Army
| term_start8         = 16 October 1965
| term_end8           = 1 May 1968
| president8          = {{ubl|Sukarno|''Himself''}}
| predecessor8        = {{ubl|Lt. Gen. [[Ahmad Yani]]|Maj. Gen. [[Pranoto Reksosamudro]]&nbsp;(acting)}}
| successor8          = General Maraden Panggabean
| order9              = 1st
| office9             = Commander of Army Strategic Reserve Command{{!}}Commander of the Strategic Reserve
| term_start9         = 6 March 1961
| term_end9           = 2 December 1965
| president9          = Sukarno
| predecessor9        = ''Office established''
| successor9          = Maj. Gen. [[Umar Wirahadikusumah]]
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1921|06|08|df=y}}
| birth_place         = [[Bantul Regency|Bantoel]], [[Dutch East Indies]]
| death_date          = {{death date and age|2008|01|27|1921|06|08|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[Jakarta]], Indonesia
| resting_place       = [[Astana Giribangun]]
| party               = [[Golkar]]
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Siti Hartinah]]|26 December 1947|28 April 1996|end=died}}
| children            = 6, including [[Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana|Tutut]], [[Titiek Suharto|Titiek]], {{nowrap|and [[Tommy Suharto]]}}
| father              = Kertosudiro
| mother              = Sukirah
| alma_mater          = KNIL Kadetschool
| occupation          = {{hlist|Politician|military officer}}
| signature           = Suharto signature.svg
| nickname            = {{hlist|Pak Harto|Smiling General}}
| allegiance          = {{ubl|[[Dutch East Indies]]|[[Empire of Japan]]|[[Indonesia]]}}
| branch              = {{ubl|[[Dutch East Indies Army]]|[[Defenders of the Homeland]]|[[Indonesian Army]]}}
| serviceyears        = 1940–1974
| rank                = [[Grand general (Indonesia)|Grand general]]
| unit                = [[Infantry]] ([[Kostrad]])
| commands            = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}
| [[Kodam IV/Diponegoro]]
| [[Kostrad]]/Caduad
| [[Indonesian Army]]
| [[Kopkamtib]]
| [[Indonesian Armed Forces]]}}
| battles             = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}
|{{tree list}}
* [[Indonesian National Revolution]]
** [[Battle of Kotabaru]]
** [[Battle of Ambarawa]]
** [[Operation Product]]
** [[Madiun Affair]]
** [[Operation Kraai]]
** [[General Offensive of 1 March 1949|March offensive]]
* [[Darul Islam rebellion]]
** [[426 Battalion rebellion]]
* [[Makassar uprising]]
* [[Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia|PRRI rebellion]]
* [[Permesta|Permesta rebellion]]
* [[West New Guinea dispute]]
** [[Operation Trikora]]
* [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation|Operation Dwikora]]
* [[30 September Movement]]
* [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|Indonesian mass killings]]
{{tree list/end}}}}
| mawards             = {{ubl|[[National Hero of Indonesia|National Hero]] (2025)|[[#Honours|''List of awards'']]}}
| military_blank1     = [[Central Registration Number|Service no.]]
| military_data1      = 10684<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4728173/sekondan-soeharto-di-pusaran-g30spki/2 |title=Sekondan Soeharto di Pusaran G30S/PKI |date=30 September 2019 |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=detikNews |last=Mappapa |first=Pasti Liberti |quote=Latief sendiri mengaku anak buah langsung Soeharto sejak bertugas di Yogyakarta. [[Central Registration Number|Nomor Registrasi Pokok]] (NRP) keduanya berurutan. "NRP saya 10685, sedangkan NRP Pak Harto 10684, jadi saya selalu menempel di belakangnya. |language=id}}</ref>
| module              = {{listen|embed=yes|filename=President Suharto announces his resignation.ogg|title=Suharto's voice|type=speech|description=Suharto announcing [[Fall of Suharto|his resignation]] following the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]] and the [[May 1998 riots]]<br>Recorded 21 May 1998}}
}}
{{Suharto series}}
'''Suharto'''{{efn|English pronunciation: {{IPAc-en|s|uː|ˈ|h|ɑr|t|oʊ}} {{respell|soo|HAR|toh}}, {{IPA|id|suˈharto||Id-Suharto.ogg|small=no}}; [[Van Ophuijsen Spelling System|EVO]]: '''Soeharto'''.}} (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian military general and politician who served as the country's second and longest-serving [[president of Indonesia|president]]. Widely regarded as a [[military dictator]] by international observers, Suharto led Indonesia as an [[authoritarian regime]] from 1967 until [[Fall of Suharto|his resignation]] in 1998 following [[May 1998 riots of Indonesia|nationwide unrest]].{{r|NYTobituary}}<ref name="Gittings">{{cite web | title = Obituary: Suharto, former Indonesian dictator: 1921–2008 | date = 28 January 2008 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings | work = The Guardian | last = Gittings | first = John | access-date = 17 December 2016 | archive-date = 14 December 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181214164141/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="SCMP">{{cite web | title = Is Indonesia's Reformasi a success, 20 years after Suharto? | date = 19 May 2018 | work = South China Morning Post | last = Hutton | first = Jeffrey | url = https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2146838/indonesias-reformasi-success-20-years-after-suharto | quote = ...would topple the dictator Suharto. | access-date = 14 December 2018 | archive-date = 13 April 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220413020721/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2146838/indonesias-reformasi-success-20-years-after-suharto | url-status = live }}</ref> His 31-year dictatorship is considered one of the most brutal and corrupt of the 20th century: he was central to the [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|perpetration of mass killings]] against alleged [[Communism|communists]] and subsequent [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|persecution of ethnic Chinese]], irreligious people, and trade unionists.<ref name="NYTobituary">{{Cite news |last=Berger |first=Marilyn |date=28 January 2008 |title=Suharto Dies at 86; Indonesian Dictator Brought Order and Bloodshed |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/28/world/asia/28suharto.html |access-date= |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=2 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202231503/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/28/world/asia/28suharto.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Wiranto|2011| p = 24}}</ref><ref name="Forrester">{{cite book | last1 = Forrester | first1 = Geoff | last2 = May | first2 = R.J. | title = The Fall of Soeharto | date = 1998 | publisher = C. Hurst and Co. | location = Bathurst, Australia | isbn = 1-86333-168-9}}</ref><ref name="HRW">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/08/07/indonesia-again-silences-1965-massacre-victims|title=Indonesia Again Silences 1965 Massacre Victims|last=Kine|first=Phelim |date=2017 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|quote=Over the next few months, at least 500,000 people were killed (the total may be as high as one million). The victims included members of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI), ethnic Chinese, trade unionists, teachers, activists, and artists.}}</ref>

Suharto was born in [[Kemusuk]], near the city of [[Yogyakarta]], during the [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch colonial]] era.{{sfnp|Dwipayana|Karta Hadimadja|1989| p = 13}} He grew up in humble circumstances.<ref>See the details in Chapter 2, 'Akar saya dari desa' (My village roots), in {{harvp|Dwipayana|Karta Hadimadja|1989| p = 14}}.</ref> His [[Javanese people|Javanese]] Muslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he lived with foster parents for much of his childhood. During the [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|Japanese occupation]], Suharto served in the Japanese-organized Indonesian security forces. During [[Indonesian National Revolution|Indonesia's independence struggle]], he joined the newly formed [[Indonesian Army]] and rose to the rank of [[major general]] some time after full Indonesian independence was achieved. [[30 September Movement|An attempted coup]] on 30 September and 1 October 1965 was countered by Suharto-led troops. The army subsequently led a nationwide [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|violent anti-communist purge]].<ref name="HRW"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Melvin |first=Jess |date=2018 |title=There's now proof that Soeharto orchestrated the 1965 killings |url=https://indonesiaatmelbourne.unimelb.edu.au/theres-now-clear-proof-that-soeharto-orchestrated-the-1965-killings/ |website=Indonesia at Melbourne at the [[University of Melbourne]] |access-date=2025-02-23 |ref=none}}</ref> In March 1967, the [[People's Consultative Assembly|MPRS]] appointed Suharto as acting President, and he was appointed President the following year.<ref>{{harvnb|Dake|2006|p=495}}: "In March, 1967 the MPRS appointed Suharto as acting President. On March 27, 1968 he was appointed President of the Republic of Indonesia."</ref> When Suharto came to power, [[inflation]] was running at over 650%. He appointed [[Berkeley Mafia|an economic advisory group]] that implemented [[free market]] policies, and by 1969 the country entered a period of price stability.{{sfnp|Abdulgani-Knapp|2007|p=79-93}} Suharto ordered an [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invasion of East Timor]] in 1975, followed by a 23-year [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|occupation of the country]] and [[East Timor genocide|genocide]].{{sfnp|Bevins|2020|p=213}}

Under his "[[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]]" regime, Suharto established a strong, centralised government dominated by the military, evolving from an initial [[Oligarchy|oligarchic]] military dictatorship into a deeply [[authoritarian]] state centred on a [[cult of personality]] that elevated him as the nation's undisputed leader.<ref>{{Citation |last=Slater |first=Dan |title=Altering Authoritarianism: Institutional Complexity and Autocratic Agency in Indonesia |date=2009 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/explaining-institutional-change/altering-authoritarianism-institutional-complexity-and-autocratic-agency-in-indonesia/61E94A0738ABFBC285F4262F685EDACD |work=Explaining Institutional Change: Ambiguity, Agency, and Power |pages=132–167 |editor-last=Mahoney |editor-first=James |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-11883-5 |editor2-last=Thelen |editor2-first=Kathleen |access-date=9 June 2022 |archive-date=June 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615023205/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/explaining-institutional-change/altering-authoritarianism-institutional-complexity-and-autocratic-agency-in-indonesia/61E94A0738ABFBC285F4262F685EDACD |url-status=live}}</ref> His staunch [[anti-communist]] stance and ability to maintain political stability across Indonesia's vast and diverse archipelago secured significant economic and diplomatic backing from Western powers, particularly the [[United States]], during the [[Cold War]].<ref>{{cite conference |author1=Edward Miguel |author2=Paul Gertler |author3=David I. Levine |title=Does Social Capital Promote Industrialization? Evidence from a Rapid Industrializer |book-title=Econometrics Software Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley |date=January 2005}}</ref><ref name=McDonaldSMH_28012008>{{cite news |last=McDonald |first=Hamish |author-link=Hamish McDonald |title=No End to Ambition |newspaper=Sydney Morning Herald |date=28 January 2008 |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/no-end-to-ambition/2008/01/27/1201368944638.html |access-date=2008-01-31 |archive-date=March 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315124604/https://www.smh.com.au/news/world/no-end-to-ambition/2008/01/27/1201368944638.html |url-status=live}}</ref> During much of his presidency, Indonesia underwent rapid industrialisation, sustained economic growth (with GDP growing at around 7% per annum,<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Hoffman, Bert |author2=Rodrick-Jones, Ella |author3=Thee, Kian Wie |title=Indonesia: rapid growth, weak institutions |url=https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/576941468774895009 |access-date=2025-09-03 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref>) improved education, and a rise in domestic entrepreneurship, developments that led the [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (MPR) to name him "Father of Development" ({{langx|id|Bapak Pembangunan}}) in 1982.{{sfnp|Abdulgani-Knapp|2007|p=159}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edukasi.okezone.com/read/2022/11/28/624/2715991/ini-7-julukan-presiden-indonesia-dari-soekarno-sampai-jokowi?page=2 |title=Ini 7 Julukan Presiden Indonesia, Dari Soekarno Sampai Jokowi : Okezone Edukasi |date=28 November 2022 |access-date=2023-04-23 |archive-date=2023-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423005345/https://edukasi.okezone.com/read/2022/11/28/624/2715991/ini-7-julukan-presiden-indonesia-dari-soekarno-sampai-jokowi?page=2 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1986, he was awarded the Ceres Medal by the [[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) for achieving self-sufficiency in [[rice production]].<ref>{{cite web |work=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) |title=Celebrating 40 Years in Indonesia |date=2018 |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/fffa9bf2-d312-4ee5-9b64-691acfc9725e/content |location=Rome, Italy}}</ref> However, by the 1990s, his regime's increasing authoritarianism and [[Corruption in Indonesia#Corruption charges against Suharto|widespread corruption]] fueled public dissatisfaction, which reached a breaking point during the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]] that plunged the country into economic turmoil and [[May 1998 riots of Indonesia|widespread unrest]].<ref>Estimates of government funds misappropriated by the Suharto family range from US$1.5&nbsp;billion and US$5&nbsp;billion.({{cite magazine |last=Ignatius |first=Adi |url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1660967,00.html?iid=sphere-inline-sidebar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080202171758/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1660967,00.html?iid=sphere-inline-sidebar |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-02-02 |title=Mulls Indonesia Court Ruling |magazine=Time |date=11 September 2007 |access-date=2009-08-09}}).</ref><ref name=HaskinGlobe>{{cite news |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/suharto-dead-at-86/article18443280/ |title=Suharto dead at 86 |last=Haskin |first=Colin |date=27 January 2008 |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Jakarta |access-date=2023-02-03 |archive-date=2023-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203170219/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/suharto-dead-at-86/article18443280/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Under immense pressure, Suharto [[Fall of Suharto|resigned in May 1998]] after more than three decades in power. 

Suharto died in January 2008 and received a state military funeral with full honors. The Indonesian government declared a week of national mourning.<ref name="royalcity">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/world/indonesias-suharto-has-state-funeral-in-royal-city-idUSJAK198004/ |title=Indonesia's Suharto has state funeral in royal city |work=Reuters |date=28 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-884672/soeharto-wafat-ditetapkan-7-hari-berkabung |title=Soeharto Wafat, Ditetapkan 7 Hari Berkabung |work=Detik.com |date=27 January 2008}}</ref> Suharto's 32-year presidency and legacy are highly divisive, and he remains a controversial figure within the Indonesian general public. He has been praised for making Indonesia into an economic success story, bringing stability to the region particularly during the [[Cold War]] period, and led Indonesia when it played a significant role in international affairs.<ref name="royalcity"/><ref name="bankimoon">{{cite web |url=https://press.un.org/en/2008/sgsm11390.doc.htm |title=Secretary-General Mourns Former Indonesian President Suharto |work=United Nations |date=28 January 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/indonesia-43499324 |title=Dari 1965 hingga slogan 'piye kabare enak jamanku toh': Suharto dibenci, Suharto dirindukan (In Indonesian) |website=www.bbc.com |date=24 May 2018}}</ref> However, others have denounced his [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian rule]],{{r|NYTobituary}}<ref name="Gittings"/><ref name="SCMP"/> widespread corruption,{{efn|According to [[Transparency International]], Suharto was one of the most corrupt leaders in modern history, having [[Corruption charges against Suharto|embezzled]] an alleged US$15–35&nbsp;billion during his rule.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/indonesia/indonesia-43499324 |title=Dari 1965 hingga slogan 'piye kabare enak jamanku toh': Suharto dibenci, Suharto dirindukan (In Indonesian) |website=www.bbc.com |date=24 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Global Corruption Report 2004: Political Corruption by Transparency International – Issue |url=https://issuu.com/transparencyinternational/docs/2004_gcr_politicalcorruption_en?mode=window&backgroundColor=%23222222 |publisher=Pluto Press |date=2004 |via=Issuu.com |page=13 |isbn=0-7453-2231-X |access-date=2020-05-08 |archive-date=2020-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112024456/https://issuu.com/transparencyinternational/docs/2004_gcr_politicalcorruption_en?mode=window |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BBC_20040325">{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm |title=Suharto tops corruption rankings |work=BBC News |date=25 March 2004 |access-date=2006-02-04 |archive-date=2020-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113042444/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm |url-status=live}}</ref>}} and extensive human rights violations (such as [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|a violent anti-communist purge]] prior to his rule and subsequent [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|repression of Chinese culture in Indonesia]]).<ref name=NYTobituary/><ref name="Forrester"/><ref name="HRW"/> Plans to award the status of [[National Hero of Indonesia|National Hero]] to Suharto are being considered by the [[Government of Indonesia|Indonesian government]] and have been debated vigorously.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.triaspolitica.net/full-indonesia-lawyers-club-pro-kontra-soeharto-pahlawan-nasional/ |title=Pro Kontra Soeharto Pahlawan Nasional |work=Trias Politica |date=26 May 2016 |access-date=2016-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923165121/http://www.triaspolitica.net/full-indonesia-lawyers-club-pro-kontra-soeharto-pahlawan-nasional/ |archive-date=2016-09-23 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all |language=id}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.detik.com/jatim/berita/d-7628149/golkar-jatim-usulkan-soeharto-dapat-gelar-pahlawan-nasional |title=Golkar Jatim Usulkan Soeharto Dapat Gelar Pahlawan Nasional |work=Detik.com |date=8 November 2024}}</ref> Such plans were subsequently acknowledged, with Suharto being granted the National Hero status on 10 November 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-11-10 |title=Prabowo Resmi Anugerahkan Soeharto sebagai Pahlawan Nasional |url=https://www.tempo.co/politik/prabowo-resmi-anugerahkan-soeharto-sebagai-pahlawan-nasional-2088080 |access-date=2025-11-10 |website=Tempo |language=id}}</ref> This decision sparked nationwide controversy and debate regarding his status. While many argue his contributions led to the exceeding development of Indonesia and it’s economic stability, others argue his political actions, especially his countless human rights violations during his regime, should have been taken into consideration.

==Name==
Like many [[Javanese people|Javanese]], Suharto had [[Javanese name|only one name]].{{r|HaskinGlobe}} The spelling "Suharto" reflects modern Indonesian orthography, although the general approach in Indonesia is to rely on the spelling preferred by the person concerned. At the time of his birth, the [[Van Ophuijsen Spelling System|standard transcription]] was "Soeharto", and he used the original spelling throughout his life. The international English-language press generally uses the spelling "Suharto", while the Indonesian government and media use "Soeharto".<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Romano |first=Angela Rose |title=Politics and the Press in Indonesia |date=2003 |isbn=0-7007-1745-5 |page=ix |publisher=Psychology Press}}</ref>

After completing the [[Hajj]] in 1991, he was given the [[Islam]]ic name "[[Mohammad (name)|Mohammad]]" by [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd of Saudi Arabia]] and received the honorific title ''[[Hajji]]''. Throughout the 1990s and until his death, Suharto used the name "Haji Mohammad Suharto".<ref>{{cite web |work=SindoNews.com |title=Ketika Pak Harto Naik Haji dan Tradisi Ganti Nama |date=9 June 2021 |last=Yusufpati |first=Miftah |url=https://kalam.sindonews.com/read/449770/786/ketika-pak-harto-naik-haji-dan-tradisi-ganti-nama-1623150368 |language=id}}</ref>

==Early life and family==
{{Main|Early life and career of Suharto}}

Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 in a plaited-bamboo-walled house in the hamlet of [[Kemusuk]], a part of the larger village of Godean, then part of the [[Dutch East Indies]]. The village is {{convert|15|km|mi|0|abbr=}} west of [[Yogyakarta (city)|Yogyakarta]], the cultural heartland of the [[Javanese people|Javanese]].{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}}<ref>Tom Lansford. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=O2IYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 Historical Dictionary of U.S. Diplomacy since the Cold War]''. Scarecrow Press; 10 September 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-8108-6432-0}}. p. 260.</ref> Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the only child of his father's second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage and was a village irrigation official. His mother, Sukirah, a local woman, was distantly related to [[Hamengkubuwono V]] by his first concubine.<ref>''Tempo'' (Jakarta), 11 November 1974.</ref> Five weeks after Suharto's birth, his mother suffered a [[nervous breakdown]]; he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt, Kromodirjo as a result.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=10}} Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto's life and both later remarried. At the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=10}} In 1929, Suharto's father took him to live with his sister, who was married to an agricultural supervisor, Prawirowihardjo, in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low-yielding farming area near [[Wonogiri]]. Over the following two years, he was taken back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=11}}

[[File:Sukirah, Mother of President Suharto.jpg|thumb|200px|Sukirah, Suharto's mother. Painting from the collection of [[National Library of Indonesia]].]]

Prawirowihardjo took to raising the boy as his own, which provided Suharto with a father-figure and a stable home in Wuryantoro. In 1931, he moved to the town of Wonogiri to attend the primary school, living first with Prawirohardjo's son Sulardi, and later with his father's relative Hardjowijono. While living with Hardjowijono, Suharto became acquainted with Darjatmo, a {{lang|id|dukun}} ("shaman") of Javanese mystical arts and faith healing. The experience deeply affected him and later, as president, Suharto surrounded himself with powerful symbolic language.{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}} Difficulties in paying the fees for his education in Wonogiri resulted in another move back to his father in Kemusuk, where he continued studying at a lower-fee Schakel [[Muhammadiyah]] (middle school) in the city of [[Yogyakarta]] until 1938.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=11}}{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=1–6}} Suharto's upbringing contrasts with that of leading Indonesian nationalists such as [[Sukarno]] in that he is believed to have had little interest in [[anti-colonialism]], or political concerns beyond his immediate surroundings. Unlike Sukarno and his circle, Suharto had little or no contact with European colonisers. Consequently, he did not learn to speak [[Dutch language|Dutch]] or other European languages in his youth. He learned to speak Dutch after his induction into the Dutch military in 1940.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=1–6}}

==Military service==
{{Main|Early life and career of Suharto}}

===Japanese occupation period===
{{See also|Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies}}
Suharto finished middle school at the age of 18 and took a clerical job at a bank in Wuryantaro. He was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|pp=12–3}} Following a spell of unemployment, he joined the [[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army]] (KNIL) in June 1940 and undertook basic training in [[Gombong]] near Yogyakarta. With the Netherlands under German occupation and the Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies, the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=13}} Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal, graduated from a short training course at {{lang|nl|KNIL Kadetschool}} in [[Gombong]] to become a sergeant, and was posted to a KNIL reserve battalion in [[Cisarua]].{{sfnp|Elson|2001|p=8}} Following the Dutch surrender to the [[Dutch East Indies Campaign|invading Japanese forces]] in March 1942, Suharto abandoned his KNIL uniform and went back to Wurjantoro. After months of unemployment, he then became one of the thousands of Indonesians who took the opportunity to join Japanese-organized security forces by joining the Yogyakarta police force.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=13}}

In October 1943, Suharto was transferred from the police force to the newly formed Japanese-sponsored militia, the {{lang|id|[[Defenders of the Homeland|Pembela Tanah Air]]}} (PETA) in which Indonesians served as officers. In his training to serve with the rank of {{lang|ja-Latn|shodancho}} (platoon commander) he encountered a localised version of the Japanese {{lang|ja-Latn|[[bushido]]}}, or "way of the warrior," used to indoctrinate troops. This training encouraged an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist thought, although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists. The encounter with a nationalistic and militarist ideology is believed to have profoundly influenced Suharto's own way of thinking.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|p=9}} Suharto was posted to a PETA coastal defense battalion at [[Wates, Kulon Progo|Wates]], south of Yogyakarta until he was admitted for training for {{lang|ja-Latn|chudancho}} (company commander) in [[Bogor]] from April to August 1944. As company commander, he conducted training for new PETA recruits in [[Surakarta]], [[Jakarta]], and [[Madiun]]. The Japanese surrender and [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence]] in August 1945 occurred while Suharto was posted to the remote Brebeg area (on the slopes of [[Mount Wilis]]) to train new NCOs to replace those executed by the Japanese in the aftermath of the failed February [[1945 PETA Revolt in Blitar]], led by [[Supriyadi]].

===Indonesian National Revolution===
{{See also|Indonesian National Revolution}}
[[File:Lieutenant Colonel Suharto.jpg|thumb|160px|left|Lieutenant Colonel Suharto, {{circa|1947}}]]
Two days after the Japanese surrender in the Pacific, independence leaders [[Sukarno]] and [[Mohammad Hatta|Hatta]] [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|declared Indonesian independence]] and were appointed president and vice-president respectively of the new Republic. Suharto disbanded his regiment under orders from the Japanese command and returned to Yogyakarta.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=14}} As republican groups rose to assert Indonesian independence, Suharto joined a new unit of the newly formed Indonesian army. Based on his PETA experience, he was appointed deputy commander, and subsequently, a battalion commander when the republican forces were formally organized in October 1945.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=14}} Suharto was involved in fighting against Allied troops around [[Magelang]] and [[Semarang]] and was subsequently appointed the head of a brigade as lieutenant-colonel, having earned respect as a field commander.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=16}} In the early years of the war, he organized local armed forces into Battalion X of Regiment I; Suharto was promoted to Major and became Battalion X's leader.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=14–5}} The arrival of the Allies, under a mandate to return the situation to the ''[[status quo ante bellum]]'', quickly led to clashes between Indonesian republicans and Allied forces, i.e. returning Dutch and assisting British forces.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=15–7}}

Suharto led his Division X troops to halt an advance by the Dutch T ("Tiger") Brigade on 17 May 1946. It earned him the respect of Lieutenant-Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirjo, who invited him to draft the working guidelines for the Battle Leadership Headquarters (MPP), a body created to organize and unify the command structure of the Indonesian Nationalist forces.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=15–7}} The military forces of the still infant Republic of Indonesia were constantly restructuring. By August 1946, Suharto was head of the 22nd Regiment of Division III (the "[[Kodam IV/Diponegoro|Diponegoro Division]]") stationed in Yogyakarta. In late 1946, the Diponegoro Division assumed responsibility for the defence of the west and southwest of [[Yogyakarta]] from Dutch forces. Conditions at the time are reported by Dutch sources as miserable; Suharto himself is reported as assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport of [[opium]] through the territory he controlled, to generate income. In September 1948, Suharto was dispatched to meet [[Musso]], chairman of the [[Indonesian Communist Party]] (PKI) in an unsuccessful attempt at a peaceful reconciliation of the [[Madiun Affair|communist uprising in Madiun]].{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=20–5, 28–9}}

[[File:Suharto and Ibu Tien.jpg|thumb|180px|Portrait of Suharto and [[Siti Hartinah]], date unknown]]
In December 1948, the Dutch launched "[[Operation Kraai]]," which resulted in the capture of Sukarno and Hatta and the capital [[Yogyakarta]]. Suharto was appointed to lead the ''Wehrkreise III'', consisting of two battalions, which waged guerrilla warfare against the Dutch from the hills south of [[Yogyakarta]].{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=20–5, 28–9}} In dawn raids on 1 March 1949, Suharto's forces and local militia recaptured the city, holding it until noon.{{sfnp|Dwipayana|Karta Hadimadja|1989|pp=61–2}} Suharto's later accounts had him as the lone plotter, although other sources say Sultan [[Hamengkubuwono IX]] of Yogyakarta, and the Panglima of the Third Division ordered the attack. However, General [[Abdul Haris Nasution|Abdul Nasution]] said that Suharto took great care in preparing the "General Offensive" ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Serangan Umum''). Civilians sympathetic to the Republican cause within the city had been galvanised by the show of force which proved that the Dutch had failed to win the guerrilla war. Internationally, the United Nations Security Council pressured the Dutch to cease the military offensive and to recommence negotiations, which eventually led to the Dutch withdrawal from the Yogyakarta area in June 1949 and to complete transfer of sovereignty in December 1949. Suharto was responsible for the takeover of Yogyakarta city from the withdrawing Dutch in June 1949.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=29–38, 42–4}}

During the Revolution, Suharto married [[Siti Hartinah]] (known as Tien), the daughter of a minor noble in the [[Mangkunegaran]] royal house of [[Surakarta|Solo]].{{sfnp|Dwipayana|Karta Hadimadja|1989|p=36}} The arranged marriage was enduring and supportive, lasting until Tien's death in 1996.{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}} The couple had six children: [[Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana]] (Tutut, born 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953), [[Titiek Suharto|Siti Hediati Hariyadi]] (Titiek, born 1959), [[Tommy Suharto|Hutomo Mandala Putra]] (Tommy, born 1962), and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish (Mamiek, born 1964). It was characteristic of a military family’s life that three of their children were born when Suharto was on duty and away from his family. Their first child was born when Suharto was fighting in a [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] outside of [[Yogyakarta]]. He did not see their first daughter for three months after her birth. Their second child, a son, was born while Suharto was serving in [[South Sulawesi]]. Another, their fifth child (and third son), was born when he was leading the [[Operation Trikora|Mandala Command for the Liberation of West Irian]].{{sfnp|Roeder|1976|p=196}}

===Post-independence career===
[[File:Suharto family.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Suharto with his wife and six children, {{circa|1967}}]]
In the years following Indonesian independence, Suharto served in the [[Indonesian National Armed Forces|Indonesian National Army]], primarily in [[Java]]. In 1950, as a colonel, he led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing the [[Makassar uprising]], a rebellion of former colonial soldiers who supported the Dutch-established [[State of East Indonesia]] and its federal entity, the [[United States of Indonesia]].{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|pp=24–5}} During his year in [[Makassar]], Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours, the Habibie family, whose eldest son [[Jusuf Habibie|BJ Habibie]] was later Suharto's vice-president, and went on to succeed him as president. In 1951–1952, Suharto led his troops in defeating the Islamic-inspired [[Battalion 426 rebellion|rebellion of Battalion 426]] in the [[Klaten Regency|Klaten]] area of [[Central Java]].{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=25}} Appointed to lead four battalions in early 1953, he organized their participation in battling Darul Islam insurgents in northwestern Central Java and anti-bandit operations in the [[Mount Merapi]] area. He also sought to stem leftist sympathies among his troops. His experience in this period left Suharto with a deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=52–5}}

Between 1956 and 1959, he served in the important position of commander of Diponegoro Division based in [[Semarang]], responsible for Central Java and [[Yogyakarta]] provinces. His relationship with prominent businessmen [[Sudono Salim|Liem Sioe Liong]] and [[Bob Hasan]], which extended throughout his presidency, began in Central Java, where he was involved in a series of "profit-generating" enterprises conducted primarily to keep the poorly funded military unit functioning.{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|pp=30–1}} Army anti-corruption investigations implicated Suharto in a 1959 smuggling scandal. Relieved of his position, he was transferred to the army's Staff and Command School ({{lang|id|Seskoad}}) in the city of [[Bandung]].{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|pp=31–2}}

[[File:Suharto as the commander of Kostrad.jpg|240px|thumb|In his office as the head of the Strategic Reserve, {{circa|1963}}]]
While in Bandung, he was promoted to brigadier-general, and in late 1960, promoted to army deputy chief of staff.{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}} On 6 March 1961, he was given an additional command, as head of the army's new Strategic Reserve ({{lang|id|Korps Tentara I Cadangan Umum AD}}, later [[Kostrad]]), a ready-reaction air-mobile force based in [[Jakarta]].{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Sejarah: Kostrad |language=id |website=Kostrad |url=http://kostrad.mil.id/sejarah/ |access-date=2018-07-26 |archive-date=2018-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726135019/http://kostrad.mil.id/sejarah/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In January 1962, Suharto was promoted to the rank of [[major general]] and appointed to lead Operation Mandala, a joint army-navy-air force command based in [[Makassar]]. This formed the military side of the campaign to win [[western New Guinea]] from the Dutch, who were preparing it for its own independence, separate from Indonesia.{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}} In 1965, Suharto was assigned operational command of Sukarno's {{lang|id|[[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation|Konfrontasi]]}}, against the newly formed Malaysia. Fearful that the {{lang|id|Konfrontasi}} would leave Java thinly covered by the army and hand control to the 2&nbsp;million-strong [[Indonesian Communist Party]] (PKI), he authorised a Kostrad intelligence officer, [[Ali Murtopo]], to open secret contacts with the British and Malaysians.{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}}

==Rise to power==
{{Main|Transition to the New Order}}

===Background===
{{See also|Guided Democracy in Indonesia}}
[[File:Sukarno with Guntur at Disneyland, Bung Karno Penjambung Lidah Rakjat 243.jpg|thumb|240px|left|President [[Sukarno]] (with glasses) 
in [[Disneyland]], {{circa|1961}}]]
Tensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when Sukarno endorsed the immediate implementation of the PKI's proposal for a "fifth armed force" consisting of armed peasants and workers. However, this idea was rejected by the army's leadership as being tantamount to the PKI establishing its own armed forces. In May, the "[[Gilchrist Document]]" aroused Sukarno's fear of a military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he repeatedly mentioned during the next few months. On his independence day speech in August, Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti-imperialist alliance with China and other communist countries and warned the army not to interfere.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dake, Antonie |date=2006 |title=The Sukarno file, 1965–1967 : chronology of a defeat |publisher=Yayasan Obor}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=March 2021}}

While Sukarno devoted his energy for domestic and international politics, the economy of Indonesia deteriorated rapidly with worsening widespread poverty and hunger, while foreign debt obligations became unmanageable and infrastructure crumbled.  Sukarno's Guided Democracy stood on fragile grounds due to the inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars, the military and the communists. The military, nationalists, and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno's protection. They feared the imminent establishment of a communist state in Indonesia. By 1965, the PKI had three million members and was particularly strong in Central Java and Bali. The party had become the most potent political party in Indonesia.

===Abortive coup and anti-communist purge===
{{Main|30 September Movement|Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66}}

{{Anti-communism}}
[[File:Suharto at funeral.jpg|thumb|240px|Major General Suharto (''at right, in the foreground'') attending the funeral for the assassinated generals, 5 October 1965]]
Before dawn on 1 October 1965, six army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by soldiers from the Presidential Guard, Diponegoro Division, and Brawidjaja Division.{{sfnp|Ricklefs|1991|p=281}} Soldiers occupied Merdeka Square including the areas in front of the Presidential Palace, the national radio station, and telecommunications centre. At 7:10&nbsp;am [[Untung Syamsuri|Untung bin Syamsuri]] announced on the radio that the "[[30 September Movement]]" had forestalled a coup attempt on [[Sukarno]] by "[[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]-backed power-mad generals," and that it was "an internal army affair". The movement never made any attempt on Suharto's life.{{sfnp|Vickers|2005|p=156}} Suharto had been in Jakarta army hospital that evening with his three-year-old son [[Tommy Suharto|Tommy]] who had a scalding injury. It was here that he was visited by Colonel Abdul Latief, a key member of the Movement and close family friend of Suharto. According to Latief's later testimony, the conspirators assumed Suharto to be a Sukarno-loyalist; hence Latief went to inform him of the impending kidnapping plan to save Sukarno from treacherous generals, upon which Suharto seemed to offer his neutrality.{{sfnp|Friend|2003|p=104}}

Upon being told of the killings, Suharto went to [[Kostrad]] headquarters just before dawn from where he could see soldiers occupying Merdeka Square. He mobilised Kostrad and RPKAD (now [[Kopassus]]) special forces to seize control of the centre of Jakarta, capturing key strategic sites including the radio station without resistance. Suharto announced over the radio at 9:00&nbsp;pm that six generals had been kidnapped by "counter-revolutionaries" and that the 30 September Movement actually intended to overthrow Sukarno. He said he was in control of the army, and that he would crush the Movement and safeguard Sukarno.{{sfnp|Ricklefs|1991|p=282}} Suharto issued an ultimatum to [[Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport|Halim Air Force Base]], where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno, air force commander [[Omar Dhani]] and PKI chairman [[Dipa Nusantara Aidit]] had gathered, causing them to disperse before Suhartoist soldiers occupied the airbase on 2 October after short fighting.{{sfnp|Ricklefs|1991|pp=281–2}} With the failure of the poorly organized coup,{{sfnp|Ricklefs|1991|pp=281–2}} and having secured authority from the president to restore order and security, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of the army by 2 October (he was officially appointed army commander on 14 October). On 5 October, Suharto led a dramatic public ceremony to bury the generals' bodies.

Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organizers and their aims. The army's version, and subsequently that of the "[[Orde Baru|New Order]]," was that the PKI was solely responsible. A propaganda campaign by the army and Islamic and [[Catholic Church in Indonesia|Catholic]] student groups convinced both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a communist coup attempt, and that the killings were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes.{{sfnp|Vickers|2005|p=157}} The army in alliance with civilian religious groups, and backed by the United States and other Western powers, led a [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|campaign of mass killings]] to purge Indonesian society, government, and armed forces of the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] and other leftist organizations.{{sfnp|Vickers|2005|p=157}}{{sfnp|Simpson|2010|p=193}}{{sfnp|Robinson|2018|p=177}}{{sfnp|Bevins|2020|p=157}} The purge spread from Jakarta to much of the rest of the country.{{sfnp|Ricklefs|1991|p=287}} The most widely accepted estimates are that at least 500,000 to over 1 million were killed.{{sfnp|Ricklefs|1991|p=288}}{{sfnp|Friend|2003|p=113}}{{sfnp|Vickers|2005|p=159}}<ref>
{{cite journal |author=Robert Cribb |date=2002 |title=Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=550–63 |doi=10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550 |jstor=3038872 |s2cid=145646994}}</ref>{{sfnp|Aarons|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA80 p. 80]}}{{sfnp|Melvin|2018|p=1}} As many as 1.5&nbsp;million were imprisoned at one stage or another.{{sfnp|Vickers|2005|pp=159–60}} As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party, was effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam.{{sfnp|Schwarz|1994|pp=2, 22}} The CIA described the purge as "one of the worst [[mass murder]]s of the 20th century."{{sfnp|Aarons|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA81 p. 81]}}

===Power struggle===
{{See also|Supersemar}}
Sukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population, and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of the 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats.{{sfnp|Vickers|2005|p=160}} In January 1966, university students under the banner of [[KAMI (Indonesia)|KAMI]], began demonstrations against the Sukarno government voicing demands for the disbandment of the PKI and control of hyperinflation. The students received support and protection from the army. Street fights broke out between the students and pro-Sukarno loyalists with the pro-Suharto students prevailing due to army protection.{{sfnp|Ricklefs|1991|pp=288–90}}

In February 1966, Sukarno promoted Suharto to lieutenant-general (and to full general in July 1966).{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=130–5}} The killing of a student demonstrator and Sukarno's order for the disbandment of [[KAMI (Indonesia)|KAMI]] in February 1966 further galvanised public opinion against the president. On 11 March 1966, the appearance of unidentified troops around [[Merdeka Palace]] during a cabinet meeting (which Suharto had not attended) forced Sukarno to flee to [[Bogor Palace]] (60&nbsp;km away) by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals, Major General [[Basuki Rahmat]], Brigadier General [[M. Jusuf]], and Brigadier General [[Amir Machmud]] went to Bogor to meet Sukarno. There, they persuaded and secured a presidential decree from Sukarno (see ''[[Supersemar]]'') that gave Suharto authority to take any action necessary to maintain security.{{sfnp|Vickers|2005|p=160}} Using the ''Supersemar'' letter, Suharto ordered the banning of the PKI the following day and proceeded to purge pro-Sukarno elements from the parliament, the government and military, accusing them of being communist sympathisers.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=130–5}}

The army arrested 15 cabinet ministers and forced Sukarno to appoint [[Second Revised Dwikora Cabinet|a new cabinet]] consisting of Suharto supporters. The army arrested pro-Sukarno and pro-communist members of the [[People's Consultative Assembly|MPRS]] (parliament), and Suharto replaced chiefs of the navy, air force, and the police force with his supporters, who then began an extensive purge within each service.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=130–5}} In June 1966, the now-purged parliament passed 24 resolutions including the banning of [[Marxism–Leninism]], ratifying the ''Supersemar'', and stripping Sukarno of his title of President for Life. Crucially, it also resolved that if Sukarno were unable to carry out his duties, the holder of the ''Supersemar''—Suharto—would become acting president. Against the wishes of Sukarno, the government ended the ''Konfrontasi'' with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations<ref name="Hughes 2002, pages 267-270" >{{harvnb|Hughes|2002| pages = 267–270 }}</ref> (Sukarno had removed Indonesia from the UN in the previous year).<ref name="Hughes 2002, page 107" >{{harvnb|Hughes|2002| page = 107 }}</ref> Suharto did not seek Sukarno's outright removal at this MPRS session due to the remaining support for the president among some elements of the armed forces.{{sfnp|Schwarz|1994|p=25}} By January 1967, Suharto felt confident that he had removed all significant support for Sukarno within the armed forces. After Sukarno gave his version of events, the MPRS concluded that he had been derelict in his duties and decided to hold another session to impeach him. On 20 February 1967, facing an increasingly untenable situation, Sukarno announced he would resign from the presidency. Later, the MPRS session stripped him of his remaining power on 12 March and named Suharto [[Acting presidency of Suharto|acting president]].{{sfnp|McDonald|1980|p=60}} Sukarno was placed under house arrest in [[Bogor Palace]]; little more was heard from him, and he died in June 1970.{{sfnp|Schwarz|1994|p=2}} On 27 March 1968, the MPRS [[1968 Indonesian presidential election|elected]] Suharto for a full five-year term as president.{{sfnp|Ricklefs|1991|p=295}}

==New Order (1967–1998)==
{{Main|New Order (Indonesia)}}

===Ideology===
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Suharto promoted his "New Order," as opposed to [[Sukarno]]'s "Old Order," as a society based on the [[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]] ideology. After initially being careful not to offend sensitivities of Islamic scholars who feared Pancasila might develop into a quasi-religious cult, Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1983 which obliged all organizations in Indonesia to adhere to Pancasila as a fundamental principle. He also instituted mandatory Pancasila training programs for all Indonesians, from primary school students to office workers. In practice, however, the vagueness of Pancasila was exploited by Suharto's government to justify their actions and to condemn their opponents as "anti-Pancasila."<ref>{{cite book |last=Ward |first=Ken |date=2010 |chapter=2 Soeharto's Javanese Pancasila |editor1=Edward Aspinall |editor2=Greg Fealy |title=Soeharto's New Order and its Legacy: Essays in honour of Harold Crouch |location=[[Canberra]] AU |publisher=The Anu E Press |isbn=9781921666469 |url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Soeharto%E2%80%99s+New+Order+and+its+Legacy%3A+Essays+in+honour+of+Harold+Crouch/5331/ch02.xhtml#toc-anchor |access-date=2013-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514025044/http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Soeharto%E2%80%99s+New+Order+and+its+Legacy%3A+Essays+in+honour+of+Harold+Crouch/5331/ch02.xhtml#toc-anchor |archive-date=2013-05-14 |quote=([[Harold Crouch]])}}</ref> The New Order also implemented the ''[[Dwifungsi]]'' ("Dual Function") policy which enabled the military to have an active role in all levels of the Indonesian government, economy, and society.

===Economic policy===
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| footer            = [[Ali Wardhana]] (left) and [[Widjojo Nitisastro]] (right), both members of the "[[Berkeley Mafia]]"
}}

Until the mid-1960s, Indonesia was known as the poorest country in Asia and amongst the poorest in the world. When Suharto came to power, inflation reached 650% per year. Suharto understood that if he wanted to defeat communism, he had to beat poverty.{{sfnp|Abdulgani-Knapp|2007|p=79}} To stabilise the economy, he appointed an economic advisory group consisting of mostly US-educated intellectuals from the Economic Faculty of the [[University of Indonesia]], dubbed the "[[Berkeley Mafia]]", to formulate significant changes in economic policy.{{sfnp|Abdulgani-Knapp|2007|p=80}}<ref name=panglaykim/> Amongst the members of the economic group were [[Widjojo Nitisastro]], [[Ali Wardhana]] and [[Emil Salim]]. The group implemented [[free market]] policies; a complete reversal from Sukarno’s policies which tightly regulated manufacturing and trade.{{sfnp|Abdulgani-Knapp|2007|p=80}} In addition, by cutting subsidies, decreasing government debt, and reforming the exchange rate mechanism, inflation was lowered from 660% in 1966 to 19% in 1969.<ref name=panglaykim/> With the economic group, Suharto was not an autocratic leader. He was willing to learn and rarely imposed his will on the team.{{sfnp|Abdulgani-Knapp|2007|p=82-84}} The threat of famine was alleviated by the influx of [[USAID]] rice aid shipments from 1967 to 1968.<ref name=panglaykim>J. Panglaykim and K.D. Thomas, "The New Order and the Economy," Indonesia, April 1967, p. 73.</ref>

With a lack of domestic capital that was required for economic growth, the New Order reversed Sukarno's economic self-sufficiency policies and opened selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment through the 1967 Foreign Investment Law. Suharto travelled to Western Europe and Japan to promote investment in Indonesia. The first foreign investors to re-enter Indonesia included mining companies [[Freeport-McMoran|Freeport Sulphur Company]] / [[International Nickel Company]]. Following government regulatory frameworks, domestic entrepreneurs (mostly Chinese-Indonesians) emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the import-substitution light-manufacturing sector such as [[Astra Group]] and [[Salim Group]].<ref name=Robinson2012_178203>{{harvp|Robinson|2018|pp=178–203}}.</ref>

From 1967, the government secured low-interest foreign aid from ten countries grouped under the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) to cover its budget deficit.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=170–2}} With the IGGI funds and the later jump in oil export revenue from the [[1973 oil crisis]], the government invested in infrastructure under a series of five-year plans, dubbed [[Five-year Development Plans of Indonesia|REPELITA]] (''Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun'') I to VI from 1969 to 1998.{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}}{{r|Robinson2012_178203}}<ref>{{cite news |last=Sheridan |first=Greg |date=28 January 2008 |title=Farewell to Jakarta's Man of Steel |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/farewell-to-jakartas-man-of-steel/story-e6frg6v6-1111115412423 |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225015054/http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/farewell-to-jakartas-man-of-steel/story-e6frg6v6-1111115412423 |archive-date=2012-02-25 |access-date=2010-04-14 |work=The Australian}}</ref>

===Consolidation of power===
{{See also|Acting presidency of Suharto|First inauguration of Suharto}}
[[File:Suhartoappointedpresident.jpg|thumb|270px|Suharto taking the presidential oath of office, 27 March 1968]]
Having been appointed president, Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mere ''[[primus inter pares]]'', and Islamic and student groups who participated in the anti-communist purge. Suharto, aided by his "Office of Personal Assistants" ({{lang|id|[[Aspri]]}}) clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division, particularly [[Ali Murtopo]], began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sitompul |first=Martin |title=Persekutuan Jenderal dan Pengusaha |url=https://www.historia.id/article/persekutuan-jenderal-dan-pengusaha |accessdate=9 September 2025 |work=Historia.id |date=15 August 2018 |language=id}}</ref> Having successfully stood-down MPRS chairman General [[Abdul Haris Nasution]]'s 1968 attempt to introduce a bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority, Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972. In 1967, generals [[Hartono Rekso Dharsono]], [[Kemal Idris]], and [[Sarwo Edhie Wibowo]] (dubbed "New Order radicals") opposed Suharto's decision to allow participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of a non-ideological two-party system similar to those found in many Western countries. Suharto sent Dharsono overseas as an ambassador, while Idris and Wibowo were sent to distant [[North Sumatra]] and [[South Sulawesi]] as regional commanders.{{sfnp|Wanandi|2012|pp=56–9}}

===Domestic policy and political stability===
[[File:Ali Moertopo closing Indonesian Film Festival, Festival Film Indonesia (1982), 1983, p67.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Suharto's right-hand man [[Ali Murtopo]], {{circa|1982}}]]
To placate demands from civilian politicians for the holding of elections, as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967, Suharto government formulated a series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations. The law provided for a [[People's Consultative Assembly|parliament]] ({{lang|id|Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat}}, MPR) with the power to elect presidents, consisting of the [[House of Representatives (Indonesia)|House of Representatives]] ({{lang|id|Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat}}, DPR) and regional representatives. 100 of the 460 members of DPR would be directly appointed by the government, while the remaining seats were allocated to political organizations based on results of the general election. This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs, particularly the appointment of presidents.{{sfnp|Ricklefs|1991|pp=76–7}}{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=184–6}}

To participate in the elections, Suharto realised the need to align himself with a political party. After initially considering alignment with Sukarno's old party, the [[Indonesian National Party|PNI]], in 1969 Suharto decided to take over control of an obscure military-run federation of NGOs called [[Golkar]] ("Functional Groups") and transform it into his electoral vehicle under the coordination of his right-hand man [[Ali Murtopo]]. The [[1971 Indonesian legislative election|first general election]] was held on 3 July 1971 with ten participants; consisting of [[Golkar]], four Islamic parties, as well as five nationalist and Christian parties. Campaigning on a non-ideological platform of "development," and aided by official government support and subtle intimidation tactics, [[Golkar]] managed to secure 62.8% of the popular vote. The [[1971 Indonesian legislative election#Presidential election|March 1973 general session]] of newly elected MPR promptly elected Suharto to a second-term in office, with Sultan [[Hamengkubuwono IX]] as his vice president.{{sfnp|Schwarz|1994|p=32}}

{{Blockquote|text="It is not the military strength of the Communists, but their fanaticism and ideology which is the principal element of their strength. To consider this, each country in the area needs an ideology of its own with which to counter the Communists. But a national ideology is not enough by itself. The well being of the people must be improved so that it strengthens and supports the national ideology."|author=Suharto speaking to President Ford in 1975<ref>[[:File:Ford, Kissinger, Indonesian President Suharto - July 5, 1975(Gerald Ford Library)(1553151).pdf]], p. 2</ref> |source= }}

On 5 January 1973, to allow better control, the government forced the four Islamic parties to merge into [[United Development Party|PPP]] ({{lang|id|Partai Persatuan Pembangunan}}, United Development Party) while the five non-Islamic parties were fused into [[Indonesian Democratic Party|PDI]] ({{lang|id|Partai Demokrasi Indonesia}}, Indonesian Democratic Party). The government ensured that these parties never developed effective opposition by controlling their leadership while establishing the "re-call" system to remove any outspoken legislators from their positions. Using this system, dubbed  "[[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]] Democracy," Suharto was re-elected unopposed by the MPR in [[1977 Indonesian legislative election#Presidential election|1978]], [[1982 Indonesian legislative election#Presidential election|1983]], [[1987 Indonesian legislative election#Presidential election|1988]], [[1992 Indonesian legislative election#Presidential election|1993]], and [[1997 Indonesian legislative election#Presidential election|1998]].{{sfnp|Schwarz|1994|p=32}} Golkar won landslide majorities in the MPR at every election, ensuring that Suharto would be able to pass his agenda with virtually no opposition.

Suharto took great care to make it appear that his regime appeared to observe the tenets of the constitution. On paper, the president was the "mandatary of the MPR," responsible for implementing the "Broad Lines of State Policy" (GBHN) developed by the MPR. Near the end of each of his terms, Suharto delivered "accountability speeches" to the MPR that outlined the achievements of his administration and demonstrated how he had adhered to the GBHN. Additionally, the president had the power to issue regulations in lieu of law, but such regulations had to be approved by the [[People's Representative Council|House of People's Representatives]] (DPR) to remain in effect. In practice, however, Golkar's landslide majorities in the DPR and MPR made such approval a mere formality. Combined with the DPR's infrequent sessions (it usually sat for only one session per year), Suharto was able to effectively rule by decree for most of his tenure.

Suharto also proceeded with various social engineering projects designed to transform Indonesian society into a de-politicised "floating mass" supportive of the national mission of "development", a concept similar to [[corporatism]]. The government formed various civil society groups to unite the populace in support of government programs. For instance, the government created the [[KORPRI]] ({{lang|id|Korps Pegawai Republik Indonesia}}) in November 1971 as union of civil servants to ensure their loyalty, organized the FBSI ({{lang|id|Federasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia}}) as the only legal labour union in February 1973, and established the [[Indonesian Ulema Council|MUI]] in 1975 to control Islamic clerics.{{sfnp|Schwarz|1994|p=106}}

===Social policy and programs===
When the Indonesian government launched its family planning program (''Keluarga Berencana/KB'') in the early 1970s, Suharto and his wife travelled around the country to promote the benefits of [[family planning]].{{sfnp|Abdulgani-Knapp|2007|p=108}} The program, administrated by [[Ministry of Population and Family Development|''Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana Nasional'' (the Family Planning Co-ordinating Board)]], combined outreach methods, education, and expanded access to several methods of [[birth control]].{{sfnp|Abdulgani-Knapp|2007|p=107-108}} Suharto not only provided the program with funding, but also moral support.{{sfnp|Abdulgani-Knapp|2007|p=108}}

A lasting legacy from this period is the [[Enhanced Indonesian Spelling System|spelling reform of Indonesian language]] decreed by Suharto on 17 August 1972.{{sfnp|Schwarz|1994|p=106}}

Suharto government's health-care programs (such as the ''Puskesmas'' program) increased life expectancy from 47 years (1966) to 67 years (1997) while cutting infant mortality rate by more than 60%. The government's ''Inpres'' program launched in 1973 resulted in primary school enrolment ratio reaching 90% by 1983 while almost eliminating the education gap between boys and girls. Sustained support for agriculture resulted in Indonesia achieving rice self-sufficiency by 1984, an unprecedented achievement which earned Suharto a gold medal from the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)]] in November 1985.{{sfnp|Rock|2003|p=4}}

===Internal security===
{{See also|Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians}}
{{multiple image
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| image1            = Free Aceh Movement women soldiers.jpg
| caption1          = Women soldiers of the [[Free Aceh Movement]], {{circa|1999}}
| image2            = Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Indonesia from 1973, obverse.jpg
| caption2          = [[Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia|SBKRI]] from 1973, showing the portrait, fingerprints, and signature of the holder on the obverse
}}

Additionally, Suharto relied on the military to ruthlessly maintain domestic security, organized by the [[Kopkamtib]] (Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order) and [[State Intelligence Agency (Indonesia)|BAKIN]] (State Intelligence Coordination Agency). To maintain strict control over the country, Suharto expanded the army's territorial system down to village-level, while military officers were appointed as regional heads under the rubric of the ''[[Dwifungsi]]'' ("Dual Function") of the military. By 1969, 70% of Indonesia's provincial governors and more than half of its district chiefs were active military officers. Suharto authorised ''Operasi Trisula'' which destroyed PKI remnants trying to organize a guerrilla base in the [[Blitar]] area in 1968 and ordered several military operations that ended the communist PGRS-Paraku insurgency in [[West Kalimantan]] (1967–1972). Attacks on oil workers by the first incarnation of [[Free Aceh Movement]] separatists under [[Hasan di Tiro]] in 1977 led to the dispatch of small special forces detachments who quickly either killed or forced the movement's members to flee abroad.{{sfnp|Conboy|2003|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C&pg=PA262 pp. 262–5]}} Notably, in March 1981, Suharto authorised a successful special forces mission to end [[Garuda Indonesia Flight 206|hijacking of a Garuda Indonesia flight]] by Islamic extremists at [[Don Mueang International Airport]] in [[Bangkok]].{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=177–8}}

To promote [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] of the influential [[Chinese Indonesians|Chinese-Indonesians]], the Suharto government passed [[Legislation on Chinese Indonesians|several laws]] as part of the so-called "Basic Policy for the Solution of Chinese Problem", whereby only one Chinese-language publication (controlled by the Army) was allowed to continue, all Chinese cultural and religious expressions (including the display of Chinese characters) were [[Anti-Chinese sentiment|prohibited]] from public space, Chinese schools were seized and turned into [[State school#Indonesia|Indonesian-language public schools]], and the ethnic-Chinese were [[Chinese Indonesian surname#1966–1998|forced to take-up Indonesian-sounding names]]; creating a systematic [[cultural genocide]]. In 1978, the government began requiring a [[Certificate of Citizenship (Indonesia)|Letter of Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia]] ({{langx|id|Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia}}, or SBKRI). Although the SBKRI was legally required for all citizens of foreign descent, in practice it was generally applied only to Chinese descent. This led to [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|difficulties for Chinese Indonesians]] when enrolling in state universities, applying to be civil servants, or joining the military or police.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Effendi |first1=Wahyu |last2=Prasetyadji |first2=P. |date=2008 |language=id |title=Tionghoa dalam Cengkeraman SBKRI |trans-title=The Chinese in the Grip of the SBKRI |publisher=Visimedia |location=Jakarta |isbn=9789791044110}}</ref>

===Foreign policy===
[[File:Suharto, Ford, Newsom and Kissinger.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Suharto with US president [[Gerald Ford]] and Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]] in Jakarta on 6 December 1975]]
[[File:Foto bersama Presiden Soeharto dan Ibu Tien Soeharto saat menerima kunjungan Perdana Menteri Malaysia Mahathir Mohammad dan istri di teras Istana Negara, 16 Maret 1985.jpg|thumb|Suharto and his wife, [[Siti Hartinah]], welcoming [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Malaysian prime minister]] [[Mahathir Mohamad]] and his wife, [[Siti Hasmah Mohamad Ali]], at [[Istana Negara (Jakarta)|Istana Negara]] on 16 March 1985]]
Upon assuming power, Suharto's government adopted a policy of neutrality in the [[Cold War]] but was nevertheless quietly aligned with the Western bloc (including Japan and [[South Korea]]) to secure support for Indonesia's economic recovery. Western countries, impressed by Suharto's strong anti-communist credentials, were quick to offer their support. [[China-Indonesia relations|Diplomatic relations]] with China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in the [[30 September Movement]] (diplomatic relations were only restored in 1990). Due to Suharto's destruction of the PKI, the [[Soviet Union]] embargoed military sales to Indonesia. However, from 1967 to 1970 foreign minister [[Adam Malik]] managed to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from the Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states. Regionally, having ended confrontation with [[Malaysia]] in August 1966, Indonesia became a founding member of the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) in August 1967. This organization is designed to establish a peaceful relationship between Southeast Asian countries free from conflicts such as the ongoing [[Vietnam War]].{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}}

====East Timor====
{{See also|Indonesian invasion of East Timor|East Timor genocide}}
[[File:Re-enactment Santa Cruz massacre.jpg|thumb|240px|right|A re-enactment of the [[Santa Cruz massacre]] of at least 250 East Timorese pro-independence demonstrators during the [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor]], {{circa|1998}}]]
In 1974, the neighbouring colony of [[Portuguese Timor]] descended [[East Timorese civil war|into civil war]] after the withdrawal of Portuguese authority following the [[Carnation Revolution]], whereby the left-wing populist [[Fretilin]] ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente'') emerged triumphant. With approval from Western countries (including from U.S. president [[Gerald Ford]] and Australian prime minister [[Gough Whitlam]] during their visits to Indonesia), Suharto decided to intervene. He claimed the move was to prevent the establishment of a communist state. After an unsuccessful attempt of covert support to Timorese groups [[Timorese Democratic Union|UDT]] and [[Timorese Popular Democratic Association|APODETI]], Suharto authorised a full-scale [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invasion]] of the colony on 7 December 1975 followed with its official annexation as Indonesia's 27th province of [[East Timor (province)|East Timor]] in July 1976. The "encirclement and annihilation" campaigns of 1977–1979 broke the back of Fretilin control over the hinterlands, although continuing guerrilla resistance caused the government to maintain a strong military force in the half-island until 1999. An estimated minimum of 90,800 and maximum of 213,600 conflict-related deaths occurred in East Timor during [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|Indonesian rule (1974–1999)]]; namely, 17,600–19,600 killings and 73,200 to 194,000 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness; Indonesian forces were responsible for about 70% of the violent deaths.<ref>{{cite web |author=Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group |title=The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste, 1974–1999 |work=A Report to the Commission on Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste |publisher=Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG) |date=9 February 2006 |url=http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529004414/http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml |archive-date=2012-05-29}}</ref>

Indonesia's [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invasion]] and [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|occupation]] of [[East Timor]] during Suharto's presidency resulted in at least 100,000 deaths.<ref>[[Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor]] {{cite web |author=Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group |title=The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste, 1974–1999 |work=A Report to the Commission on Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste |publisher=Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG) |date=9 February 2006 |url=http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120529004414/http://www.hrdag.org/resources/timor_chapter_graphs/timor_chapter_page_02.shtml |archive-date=2012-05-29}}</ref> To comply with the [[New York Agreement]] of 1962 which required a plebiscite on the integration of [[Western New Guinea|West Irian]] into Indonesia before the end of 1969, the Suharto government begin organizing for a so-called "[[Act of Free Choice]]" scheduled for July–August 1969. The government sent RPKAD special forces under [[Sarwo Edhie Wibowo]] which secured the surrender of several bands of former Dutch-organized militia (''[[Papuan Volunteer Corps|Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps / PVK]]'') at large in the jungles since the Indonesian takeover in 1963 while sending Catholic volunteers under [[Jusuf Wanandi]] to distribute consumer goods to promote pro-Indonesian sentiments. In March 1969, it was agreed that the plebiscite would be channelled via 1,025 tribal chiefs, citing the logistical challenge and political ignorance of the population. Using the above strategy, the plebiscite produced a unanimous decision for integration with Indonesia, which was duly noted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in November 1969.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=178–9}}

===Socio-economic progress===
[[File:Presiden Soeharto dengan PM. Malaysia Mahathir Mohammad berbicara tentang Produksi Mobil Proton di rumah kediaman Jl. Cendana, Jakarta. 8 Oktober 1985.jpg|thumb|Suharto and [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Malaysian Prime Minister]] [[Mahathir Mohamad]], 8 October 1985]]
Real socio-economic progress sustained support for Suharto's regime across three decades. By 1996, Indonesia's poverty rate had dropped to around 11% compared with 45% in 1970. From 1966 to 1997, Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5.03% pa, pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US$806 to US$4,114. In 1966, the manufacturing sector made up less than 10% of GDP (mostly industries related to oil and agriculture). By 1997, manufacturing had risen to 25% of GDP, and 53% of exports consisted of manufactured products. The government invested in massive infrastructure development (notably the launching of a series of [[Palapa]] telecommunication satellites); consequently, Indonesian infrastructure in the mid-1990s was considered at par with China. Suharto was keen to capitalize on such achievements to justify his presidency, and the [[People's Consultative Assembly|parliament]] (MPR) on 9 March 1983 granted him the title of "Father of Development".{{sfnp|Rock|2003|p=3}}

In the early 1980s, Suharto government responded to the fall in oil exports due to the [[1980s oil glut]] by successfully shifting the basis of the economy to export-oriented labour-intensive manufacturing, made globally competitive by Indonesia's low wages and a series of currency devaluations. Industrialisation was mostly undertaken by [[Chinese Indonesian|Chinese-Indonesian]] companies which evolved into large conglomerates dominating the nation's economy.{{sfnp|Rock|2003|p=17}}

{{multiple image
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| caption2          = Official portrait, 1983
}}

The largest of these conglomerates were the [[Salim Group]] led by [[Liem Sioe Liong|Liem Sioe Liong (Sudono Salim)]], [[Sinar Mas Group]] led by [[Eka Tjipta Widjaja|Oei Ek Tjong (Eka Tjipta Widjaja)]], [[Astra Group]] led by [[William Soeryadjaya|Tjia Han Poen (William Soeryadjaya)]], [[Lippo Group]] led by [[Mochtar Riady|Lie Mo Tie (Mochtar Riady)]], Barito Pacific Group led by [[Prajogo Pangestu|Pang Djun Phen (Prajogo Pangestu)]], and Nusamba Group led by [[Bob Hasan]]. Suharto decided to support the growth of a small number of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates since they would not pose a political challenge due to their ethnic-minority status, but from his experience, he deemed them to possess the skills and capital needed to create real growth for the country. In exchange for Suharto's patronage, the conglomerates provided vital financing for his "regime maintenance" activities.{{sfnp|Rock|2003|p=17}}

In the late 1980s, the Suharto government decided to de-regulate the banking sector to encourage savings and providing a domestic source of financing required for growth. Suharto decreed the "October Package of 1988" (''PAKTO 88'') which eased requirements for establishing banks and extending credit; resulting in a 50% increase in the number of banks from 1989 to 1991. To promote savings, the government introduced the ''TABANAS'' program to the populace. The [[Jakarta Stock Exchange]], re-opened in 1977, recorded a "bull run", due to a spree of domestic [[Initial public offering|IPOs]] and an influx of foreign funds after the deregulation in 1990. The sudden availability of credit fuelled robust economic growth in the early 1990s, but the weak regulatory environment of the financial sector sowed the seeds of the catastrophic crisis in 1997, which eventually lead to the end of Suharto's presidency.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bi.go.id/NR/rdonlyres/A6011CBA-1B4E-49B1-9DDC-CB01AB6C60D0/19386/SejarahPerbankanPeriode19831997.pdf |title=Bank Indonesia |publisher=Bi.go.id |access-date=2014-11-28 |archive-date=2011-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408234358/http://www.bi.go.id/NR/rdonlyres/A6011CBA-1B4E-49B1-9DDC-CB01AB6C60D0/19386/SejarahPerbankanPeriode19831997.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Scandals and controversies===

====Pertamina scandal====
In 1975, the state-owned oil company, [[Pertamina]], defaulted on its foreign loans as a result of mismanagement and corruption under the leadership of Suharto's close ally, [[Ibnu Sutowo]]. The government bail-out of the company nearly doubled the national debt.{{sfnp|Schwarz|1994}}{{Page needed|date=March 2021}}

====Internal dissent====
Suharto's previously strong relationship with the student movement soured over the increasing authoritarianism and corruption of his administration. While many original leaders of the 1966 student movement ({{lang|id|Angkatan '66}}) were successfully co-opted into the regime, Suharto was faced with large student demonstrations challenging the legitimacy of 1971 elections ({{lang|id|Golput}} movement), the costly construction of the [[Taman Mini Indonesia Indah]] theme park (1972), the domination of foreign capitalists ([[Malari Incident]] of 1974), and the lack of term limits of Suharto's presidency (1978). The regime responded by imprisoning many student activists (such as future national figures [[Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti]], [[Adnan Buyung Nasution]], Hariman Siregar, and [[Syahrir]]), and even sending  troops to occupy the campus of ITB ([[Bandung Institute of Technology]]) from January–March 1978. In April 1978, Suharto moved decisively by issuing a decree on "Normalisation of Campus Life" (NKK) which prohibited political activities on-campus not related to academic pursuits.{{sfnp|Wanandi|2012|pp=60–8}}{{sfnp|Aspinall|Klinken|Feith|1999|p=ii}}

On 15–16 January 1974, Suharto faced a significant challenge when violent riots broke out in [[Jakarta]] during a visit by the Japanese prime minister [[Kakuei Tanaka]]. Students demonstrating against increasing dominance of Japanese investors were encouraged by General [[Sumitro]], deputy commander of the armed forces. Sumitro was an ambitious general who disliked the strong influence of Suharto's Aspri inner circle. Suharto learned that the riots were engineered by Sumitro to destabilise the government, resulting in Sumitro's dismissal and forced retirement. This incident is referred to as the [[Malari incident]] ({{lang|id|Malapetaka Lima Belas Januari}}, Disaster of 15 January). However, Suharto also disbanded {{lang|id|Aspri}} to appease popular dissent.<ref>{{cite web |title=Beban Sejarah Umat Islam Indonesia |website=Pikiran Rakyat |url=http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0904/18/0802.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050507025707/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0904/18/0802.htm |archive-date=2005-05-07}}</ref> In 1980, fifty prominent political figures signed the [[Petition of Fifty]], which criticised Suharto's use of Pancasila to silence his critics. Suharto refused to address the petitioners' concerns, and some of them were imprisoned with others having restrictions imposed on their movements.{{sfnp|Wanandi|2012|pp=86–8}}

====Growing corruption====
The growth of the economy coincided with the rapid expansion of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (''Korupsi, Kolusi, dan Nepotisme / KKN''). In the early 1980s, Suharto's children, particularly [[Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana]] ("Tutut"), [[Tommy Suharto|Hutomo Mandala Putra]] ("Tommy"), and Bambang Trihatmodjo, had grown into greedy adults. Their companies were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include the [[List of toll roads in Indonesia|toll-expressway]] market which was monopolised by Tutut, the national car project monopolised by Bambang and Tommy, and even the cinema market, monopolised by [[21 Cineplex]] (owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about 36,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000&nbsp;m<sup>2</sup> of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land in East Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish "strategic partnerships" with Suharto family companies. Meanwhile, the myriad of ''yayasan''s run by the Suharto family grew even larger, levying millions of dollars in "donations" from the public and private sectors each year.<ref name="BBC_20040325" /><ref name="Global Corruption Report">{{cite web |url=http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4459/26786/file/Introduction_to_political_corruption.pdf |title=Global Corruption Report |publisher=Transparency International |access-date=2009-08-06 |archive-date=2007-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704093500/http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4459/26786/file/Introduction_to_political_corruption.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Suharto created a network of charitable organizations (''yayasan'') run by the military and his family members, which extracted "donations" from domestic and foreign enterprises in exchange for necessary government support and permits. While some proceeds were used for charitable purposes, much of the money was recycled as a slush fund to reward political allies and to maintain support for the New Order.{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Koerner |first=Brendan |date=26 March 2004 |title=How Did Suharto Steal $35 Billion? |website=Slate |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2097858 |access-date=2006-02-04 |archive-date=2011-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907010407/http://www.slate.com/id/2097858 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1997, ''[[Forbes]]'' listed Suharto as the fourth richest person in the world with an individual net worth of $16&nbsp;billion, despite drawing an annual salary in his last peak year of only $21,000. The Suharto family owned or controlled 3.6&nbsp;million hectares of prime Indonesian land, an area comparable to all of [[Belgium]], and directly owned or had controlling equity in at least 564 companies, with no Indonesian economic sector untouched. With $100,000 of seed capital, Tommy Suharto got his start in 1984 at age 22. Within ten weeks his [[Tommy Suharto|Humpuss Group]] already had twenty subsidiaries, which soon ballooned to sixty. A year later he acquired Perta Oil Marketing, a subsidiary of the state oil company [[Pertamina]], instantly making him a major crude-oil broker and transporter. Perta generated profits of $1&nbsp;million per month. Most of Indonesia's toll roads were built and operated by the stateowned firm [[List of toll roads in Indonesia|Jasa Marga]], with untold markups and opportunities for skimming and theft for oligarchs as the projects were completed. In 1989, Suharto issued a decree granting his daughter Tutut 75% of profits from all toll roads her group operated jointly with Jasa Marga, driving costs up still further. Bambang positioned his group as a partner of major foreign power companies and forced the state-run power company, [[Perusahaan Listrik Negara|PLN]], to buy electricity at inflated rates. According to one estimate from the 24 May 1999 cover story in the international issue of [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]], the total wealth amassed by the Suharto family over three decades in power was $73.24&nbsp;billion. Setting aside $9&nbsp;billion earned from interest on deposits, three-fourths of this wealth was derived from grabbing the country's oil, gas, and mining resources, or muscling in on state corporations and major government contracts. The entrepreneurial value added from these Suharto family companies was, by all accounts, almost zero.<ref>{{Citation |last=Winters |first=Jeffrey A. |title=Oligarchy |date=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trsFIM5h3P8C&pg=PA167 |pages=167–169 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-18298-0}}</ref>

In early 2004, the German anti-corruption NGO Transparency International released a list of what it believed to be the ten most self-enriching leaders in the previous two decades; in order of amount allegedly stolen in USD, the highest-ranking of these was Suharto and his family who are alleged to have embezzled $15&nbsp;billion – $35&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4450/26759/file/GCR_2004_press_release_FINAL.pdf |title=Plundering politicians and bribing multinationals undermine economic development, says TI |publisher=Transparency International |date=25 March 2004 |access-date=2016-12-21 |archive-date=2007-06-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621044111/http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4450/26759/file/GCR_2004_press_release_FINAL.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Later presidency (the 1980s and 1990s)===
[[File:President Suharto, 1988.jpg|thumb|185px|Official portrait, 1988]]
By the 1980s, Suharto's grip on power was maintained by the emasculation of civil society, engineered elections, and use of the military's coercive powers. Upon his retirement from the military in June 1976, Suharto undertook a re-organization of the armed forces that concentrated power away from commanders to the president. In March 1983, he appointed General [[L. B. Moerdani|Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani]] as head of the armed forces who adopted a hard-line approach on elements who challenged the administration. As a Roman Catholic, he was not a political threat to Suharto.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=457–60}} From 1983 to 1985, army squads killed up to 10,000 suspected criminals in response to a spike in the crime rate (see "[[Petrus killings]]"). Suharto's imposition of Pancasila as the sole ideology caused protests from conservative Islamic groups who considered Islamic law to be above all other conceptions.{{sfnp|Aspinall|Klinken|Feith|1999|pp=ii–iii}}

The [[Tanjung Priok massacre]] saw the army kill up to 100 conservative Muslim protesters in September 1984. A retaliatory series of small bombings, including the bombing of [[Borobudur]], led to arrests of hundreds of conservative Islamic activists, including future parliamentary leader AM Fatwa and [[Abu Bakar Bashir]] (later leader of [[Jemaah Islamiyah]]). Attacks on police by a resurgent [[Free Aceh Movement]] in 1989 led to a military operation which killed 2,000 people and ended the insurgency by 1992. In 1984, the Suharto government sought increased control over the press by issuing a law requiring all media to possess a press operating  license (''Surat Izin Usaha Penerbitan Pers, SIUPP'') which could be revoked at any time by Ministry of Information.{{sfnp|Aspinall|Klinken|Feith|1999|pp=ii–iii}}
[[File:Suharto and wife after hajj.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Suharto and his wife in Islamic attire after performing the [[hajj]] in 1991]]
[[File:APEC Summit 1993 - Leaders' Group Photo (1).jpg|thumb|Suharto standing next to the right of [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] [[Bill Clinton]] during 1993 [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC Summit]] in [[Seattle]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]]]]
[[File:Suharto and Tomiichi Murayama 199411.gif|thumb|Suharto with [[Prime Minister of Japan|Japanese prime minister]] [[Tomiichi Murayama]] in 1994]]
With the end of communism and the [[Cold War]], Suharto's human rights record came under greater international scrutiny, particularly following the 1991 [[Santa Cruz massacre]] in East Timor. Suharto was elected as head of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] in 1992, while Indonesia became a founding member of [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]] in 1989 and host to the [[Bogor]] APEC Summit in 1994.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=510–1}} Domestically, the business dealings of Suharto's family created discontent among the military who lost access to power and lucrative rent-seeking opportunities. The March 1988 [[People's Consultative Assembly|MPR]] session, military legislators attempted to pressure Suharto by unsuccessfully seeking to block the nomination of [[Sudharmono]], a Suharto-loyalist, as vice-president. Moerdani's criticism of the Suharto family's corruption saw the president dismiss him from the position of military chief. Suharto proceeded to slowly "de-militarise" his regime; he dissolved the powerful [[Kopkamtib]] in September 1988 and ensured key military positions were held by loyalists.{{sfnp|Dijk|2001|loc=chapter 5}}

In an attempt to diversify his power base away from the military, Suharto began courting support from Islamic elements. He undertook a much-publicised [[hajj]] pilgrimage in 1991, took up the name of Haji Mohammad Suharto, and promoted Islamic values and the careers of Islamic-oriented generals. To win support from the nascent Muslim business community who resented the dominance of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates, Suharto formed the [[Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals]] (ICMI) in November 1990, which was led by his protégé [[B.J. Habibie]], the Minister for Research and Technology since 1978. During this period, race riots against ethnic-Chinese begin to occur quite regularly, beginning with the April 1994 riot in [[Medan]].{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=211–4}} By the 1990s, Suharto's government came to be dominated by civilian politicians such as [[B. J. Habibie|Habibie]], [[Harmoko]], [[Ginandjar Kartasasmita]], and [[Akbar Tanjung]], who owed their position solely to Suharto. As a sign of Habibie's growing clout, when two prominent Indonesian magazines and a tabloid newspaper reported on criticism over Habibie's purchase of almost the entire fleet of the disbanded [[East German Navy]] in 1993 (most of the vessels were of scrap-value), the Ministry of Information ordered the offending publications be closed down on 21 June 1994.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Steele |first1=Janet |title=Wars Within: The Story of Tempo, an Independent Magazine in Soeharto's Indonesia |date=2005 |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9793780088 |pages=234–235 |edition=First}}</ref> In 1993, the [[Purna Bhakti Pertiwi Museum]] was opened on the initiative of Tien Suharto. It houses and displays Suharto collections including artworks and souvenirs, received from various world leaders and Indonesian people.

In the 1990s, elements within the growing Indonesian middle class created by Suharto's economic development were becoming restless with his [[autocracy]] and the corruption of his children, fuelling demands for "[[Post-Suharto era|Reformasi]]" (reform) of the almost 30-year-old New Order government. A significant element of the middle class had no memory of the events leading up to Suharto's rise to power. By 1996, Sukarno's daughter, [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]], chairwoman of the normally compliant [[Indonesian Democratic Party|PDI]], was becoming an opposition figure for this growing discontent. In response, Suharto backed a co-opted faction of PDI led by [[Suryadi (politician)|Suryadi]], which ousted Megawati as PDI leader. On 27 July 1996, [[27 July 1996 incident|an attack]] by soldiers and hired thugs led by Lieutenant-General [[Sutiyoso]] on demonstrating Megawati supporters in Jakarta resulted in fatal riots and looting. This incident was followed by the arrest of 200 democracy activists, 23 of whom were kidnapped, and some killed, by army squads led by Suharto's son-in-law, Major-General [[Prabowo Subianto]].{{sfnp|Elson|2001|pp=284–7}} In 1995, Suharto released a special 1,54 troy ounce [[gold coin]] [[Coins of the rupiah#Commemorative coins|worth of 850,000 rupiah]] with his face on one side of the coin in the celebration of 50th anniversary of [[Indonesian Independence]]. On 5 October 1997, he awarded himself and generals [[Sudirman]] and [[Abdul Haris Nasution]] the honorary rank of five-star "[[General of the Army (Indonesia)|grand general]]."<ref>{{cite book |publisher=NIAS Press |date=1999 |isbn=8787062690 |title=Indonesian Politics in Crisis: The Long Fall of Suharto, 1996-1998 |page=104 |first=Stefan |last=Eklöf}}</ref>

==Economic crisis and downfall==
{{Main|Fall of Suharto}}

===Asian financial crisis===
{{See also|1997 Asian financial crisis}}
[[File:Suharto 1998.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Official portrait, 1998]]
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]]. From mid-1997 there were large capital outflows and against the US dollar. Due to poor bank lending practices, many Indonesian companies borrowed cheaper US dollar loans while their income is mainly in Indonesian rupiah. The weakening rupiah spurred panic buying of US dollar by these companies, causing the [[Indonesian rupiah]] to drop in value from a pre-crisis level of Rp. 2,600 to a low point in early 1998 of around Rp. 17,000. Consequently, many companies were bankrupted and the economy shrank by 13.7%, leading to sharp increases in unemployment and poverty across the country.<ref name="CountryBrief">{{cite web |title=Indonesia: Country Brief |work=Indonesia:Key Development Data & Statistics |publisher=The World Bank |date=September 2006 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |access-date=2013-06-14 |archive-date=2012-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101135702/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20095968~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Efforts by the [[Bank Indonesia|central bank]] to defend the rupiah proved futile and only drained the country's dollar reserves. In exchange for US$43&nbsp;billion in liquidity aid, between October 1997 and the following April, Suharto signed three letters of intent with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) for an economic reform process. In January 1998, the government was forced to provide emergency liquidity assistance (BLBI), issue blanket guarantees for bank deposits and set-up the [[Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency]] to take over management of troubled banks to prevent the collapse of the financial system. Among the steps taken on IMF recommendation, the government raised an interest rate up to 70% pa in February 1998, which further worsened the contraction of the economy. In December 1997, Suharto did not attend an ASEAN presidents' summit for the first time, which was later revealed to be due to a minor stroke, creating speculation about his health and the immediate future of his presidency. In mid-December, as the crisis swept through Indonesia and an estimated $150&nbsp;billion of capital was being withdrawn from the country, he appeared at a press conference to re-assert his authority and to urge people to trust the government and the collapsing rupiah.{{sfnp|Friend|2003|p=313}}

However, his attempts to re-instil confidence had little effect. Evidence suggested that his family and associates were being spared the most stringent requirements of the IMF reform process, further undermining confidence in the economy and his leadership.{{sfnp|Aspinall|Klinken|Feith|1999|pp=ii–iii}} The economic meltdown was accompanied by increasing political tension. Anti-Chinese riots occurred in [[Situbondo]] (1996), [[Tasikmalaya]] (1996), [[Banjarmasin]] (1997), and [[Makassar]] (1997); violent ethnic clashes broke out between the [[Dayak people|Dayak]] and [[Madurese people|Madurese]] settlers in [[Central Kalimantan]] in 1997. [[Golkar]] won the rigged [[1997 Indonesian elections|1997 election]], and in March 1998, Suharto was voted unanimously to another five-year term. He nominated his protégé [[B. J. Habibie]] as vice president then stacking the [[Seventh Development Cabinet|cabinet]] with his own family and business associates, including his eldest daughter [[Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana|Tutut]] as Minister of Social Affairs. The appointments and the government's unrealistic 1998 budget created further currency instability,{{sfnp|Friend|2003|p=314}} rumours, and panic; which led to a run on stores and pushed up prices.<ref>{{harvp|Friend|2003|p=314}}.<br>{{harvp|Aspinall|Klinken|Feith|1999|pp=ii–iii}}.</ref> The government increased the fuel prices further by 70% in May 1998, which triggered another wave of riots in [[Medan]].{{sfnp|Purdey|2006|p=115}}

===Fall and resignation===
[[File:Suharto resigns.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Suharto reading his resignation speech at Merdeka Palace on 21 May 1998. His vice president and successor, [[B. J. Habibie]], stands on his left hand side.]]
With Suharto increasingly seen as the source of the country's mounting economic and political crises, prominent political figures, including Muslim politician [[Amien Rais]], spoke out against his presidency, and in January 1998 university students began organizing nationwide demonstrations.{{sfnp|Elson|2001|p=267}} The crisis climaxed while Suharto was on a state visit to Egypt on 12 May 1998, when security forces [[Trisakti shootings|killed four demonstrators]] from Jakarta's [[Trisakti University]]. [[Indonesian riots of May 1998|Rioting and looting across Jakarta and other cities]] over the following days destroyed thousands of buildings and killed over 1,000 people. Ethnic Chinese and their businesses were particular targets in the violence. Theories on the origin of the violence include rivalry between military chief General [[Wiranto]] and [[Commander of Army Strategic Command (Indonesia)|Army Strategic Commander]] Lt. Gen. [[Prabowo Subianto]], and the suggestion of deliberate provocation by Suharto to divert blame for the crisis to the ethnic-Chinese and discredit the student movement.{{sfnp|Purdey|2006|pp=148–50}}

On 16 May, tens of thousands of university students demanded Suharto's resignation, and occupied the grounds and roof of [[DPR/MPR Building|the parliament building]]. Upon Suharto's return to Jakarta, he offered to resign in 2003 and to reshuffle his cabinet. These efforts failed when his political allies deserted him by refusing to join the proposed new cabinet. According to Wiranto, on 18 May, Suharto issued a decree which provided authority to him to take any measures to restore security; however, Wiranto decided not to enforce the decree to prevent conflict with the population.{{sfnp|Wiranto|2011|p=67-9}} On 21 May 1998, Suharto announced his resignation, upon which vice-president Habibie assumed the presidency in accordance with the constitution.{{r|McDonaldSMH_28012008}}{{sfnp|Vickers|2005|pp=203–7}}{{sfnp|Aspinall|Klinken|Feith|1999|pp=iv–vii}} Documents from the United States Department of State indicate that the Clinton Administration sought to maintain close ties with the Indonesian military in the aftermath of Suharto's fall from power.<ref>{{cite web |title=US Promoted Close Ties to Indonesian Military as Suharto's Rule Came to an End in Spring 1998 |editor=Brad Simpson |publisher=[[National Security Archive]] |url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/indonesia/2018-07-24/us-promoted-close-ties-indonesian-military-suhartos-rule-came-end |access-date=2018-08-02 |date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=2018-08-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803014349/https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/indonesia/2018-07-24/us-promoted-close-ties-indonesian-military-suhartos-rule-came-end |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Post-presidency (1998–2008)==

===Corruption charges===
{{See also|Corruption charges against Suharto}}
After resigning from the presidency, Suharto became a recluse in his family's compound in the [[Menteng]] area of Jakarta, protected by soldiers and rarely making public appearances. Suharto's family spent much of their time fending off corruption investigations. However, Suharto himself was protected from grave prosecution by politicians who owed their positions to the former president, as indicated in the leaked telephone conversation between President [[BJ Habibie|Habibie]] and attorney-general Andi Muhammad Ghalib in February 1999.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.minihub.org/siarlist/msg02067.html |title=Rekaman Habibie-Ghalib |publisher=Minihub.org |access-date=2013-12-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116055010/http://www.minihub.org/siarlist/msg02067.html |archive-date=2013-01-16}}</ref> In May 1999, [[Time (magazine)|''Time Asia'']] estimated Suharto's family fortune at US$15&nbsp;billion in cash, [[shares]], corporate assets, real estate, jewellery and fine art. Suharto sued the magazine seeking more than US$27&nbsp;billion in damages for [[libel]] over the article.<ref>{{cite news |date=10 September 2007 |title=Suharto wins $128m in damages |newspaper=[[Herald Sun]] |access-date=2009-08-09 |url=http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,22396808-5005961,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071017221608/http://news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0%2C21985%2C22396808-5005961%2C00.html |archive-date=2007-10-17}}</ref> On 10 September 2007, Indonesia's Supreme Court awarded Suharto [[damages]] against ''[[Time (magazine)|Time Asia]]'' [[News magazine|magazine]], ordering it to pay him one trillion [[Indonesian rupiah|rupiah]] ($128.59&nbsp;million). The High Court reversed the [[judgment (law)|judgment]] of an [[appellate court]] and [[Central Jakarta]] [[district court]] (made in 2000 and 2001).{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}

Suharto was placed highest on [[Transparency International]]'s list of corrupt leaders with alleged misappropriation of between US$15–35&nbsp;billion during his 32-year presidency.<ref name="BBC_20040325"/><ref name="Global Corruption Report"/> On 29 May 2000, Suharto was placed under [[house arrest]] when Indonesian authorities began to investigate the corruption during his presidency. In July 2000, it was announced that he was to be accused of embezzling US$571&nbsp;million of government donations to one of several foundations under his control and then using the money to finance family investments. However, in September court-appointed doctors announced that he could not stand trial because of his declining health. State prosecutors tried again in 2002, but then doctors cited an unspecified brain disease. On 26 March 2008, a civil court judge acquitted Suharto of corruption but ordered his charitable foundation, Supersemar, to pay US$110&nbsp;million (£55&nbsp;million).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7315976.stm |title=Suharto charity told to pay $110&nbsp;m |work=BBC News |date=27 March 2008 |access-date=2010-01-06 |archive-date=2009-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327173831/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7315976.stm |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2002, Suharto's son [[Tommy Suharto]] was sentenced to 15 years' jail for ordering the killing of a judge (who had previously convicted him of corruption), illegal weapons possession, and fleeing justice. In 2006, he was paroled on "conditional release".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6098010.stm |title=Tommy Suharto freed from prison |work=BBC News |date=30 October 2006 |access-date=2009-08-09 |archive-date=2009-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828111205/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6098010.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2003, Suharto's half-brother [[Probosutedjo]] was tried and convicted for corruption and the loss of $10&nbsp;million from the Indonesian state. He was sentenced to four years in jail. He later won a reduction of his sentence to two years, initiating a probe by the [[Corruption Eradication Commission]] into the alleged scandal of the "judicial mafia" which uncovered offers of $600,000 to various judges. Probosutedjo confessed to the scheme in October 2005, leading to the arrest of his lawyers. His full four-year term was reinstated.<ref>{{cite news |title=Suharto's half-brother fined, jailed for four years |url=https://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2005-11-30/suhartos-half-brother-fined-jailed-for-four-years/751268 |access-date=2020-09-15 |agency=AFP |work=ABC News |date=29 November 2005 |archive-date=2020-11-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126192134/https://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2005-11-30/suhartos-half-brother-fined-jailed-for-four-years/751268 |url-status=live}}</ref> After a brief standoff at a hospital, in which he was reportedly protected by a group of police officers, he was arrested on 30 November 2005.<ref>{{cite news |title=Probosutedjo dipenjara |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesian/news/story/2005/11/printable/051130_probojailed.shtml |access-date=2020-09-15 |publisher=BBC Indonesia |date=30 November 2005 |archive-date=2022-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123082754/https://www.bbc.co.uk/indonesian/news/story/2005/11/printable/051130_probojailed.shtml |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Probosutedjo Dijebloskan ke Cipinang |url=https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/113388/probosutedjo-dijebloskan-ke-cipinang |access-date=2020-09-15 |publisher=Liputan6.com |date=30 November 2005 |archive-date=2021-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211010165149/https://www.liputan6.com/news/read/113388/probosutedjo-dijebloskan-ke-cipinang |url-status=live}}</ref> On 9 July 2007, Indonesian prosecutors filed a civil lawsuit against Suharto, to recover state funds ($440&nbsp;million or £219&nbsp;million, which allegedly disappeared from a scholarship fund, and a further $1.1&nbsp;billion in damages).<ref name="BBC_9July">{{cite news |title=Civil suit filed against Suharto |date=9 July 2007 |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6283322.stm |access-date=2007-07-09 |archive-date=2007-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813105545/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6283322.stm |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Illness and death===
After resigning from the presidency, Suharto was hospitalised repeatedly for [[Cerebrovascular accident|stroke]], heart, and intestinal problems. His declining health hindered attempts to prosecute him as his lawyers successfully claimed that his condition rendered him unfit for trial. Moreover, there was little support within Indonesia for any attempts to prosecute him. In 2006, Attorney General Abdurrahman announced that a team of twenty doctors would be asked to evaluate Suharto's health and fitness for trial. One physician, Brigadier-General Dr Marjo Subiandono, stated his doubts about by noting that "[Suharto] has two permanent cerebral defects."<ref name="AP">{{cite news |title=Former Indonesian dictator unfit to stand trial&nbsp;— doctor |date=23 April 2006 |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/former-indonesian-dictator-unfit-to-stand-trial--doctor/2006/04/22/1145344319571.html |work=Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=2006-04-24 |archive-date=2012-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103200940/http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/former-indonesian-dictator-unfit-to-stand-trial--doctor/2006/04/22/1145344319571.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In a later ''[[Financial Times]]'' report, Attorney General Abdurrahman discussed the re-examination, and called it part of a "last opportunity" to prosecute Suharto criminally. Attorney General Abdurrahman left open the possibility of filing suit against the Suharto estate.<ref name="FT">{{cite news |last=Donnan |first=Shawn |title=Jakarta makes final attempt to pursue Suharto charges |date=28 April 2006 |work=[[Financial Times]] |url=http://news.ft.com/cms/s/9bd74ff6-d652-11da-8b3a-0000779e2340.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070521050607/http://news.ft.com/cms/s/9bd74ff6-d652-11da-8b3a-0000779e2340.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-05-21}}</ref>

On 4 January 2008, Suharto was taken to the [[Pertamina Central Hospital]], Jakarta with complications arising from poor health, swelling of limbs and stomach, and partial renal failure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arabtimesonline.com/client/pagesdetails.asp?nid=10341&ccid=18 |title=Indonesia's ailing Suharto 'getting worse': doctors |work=The Times |location=UK |date=5 January 2008 |access-date=2009-08-09 |archive-date=2022-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612143909/http://www.arabtimesonline.com/client/pagesdetails.asp?nid=10341 |url-status=live}}</ref> His health fluctuated for several weeks but progressively worsened with [[anaemia]] and low [[blood pressure]] due to heart and kidney complications, internal bleeding, fluid on his lungs, and blood in his faeces and urine which caused a [[haemoglobin]] drop.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7176176.stm |title=Suharto condition 'deteriorating' |work=BBC News |date=8 January 2008 |access-date=2009-08-09 |archive-date=2008-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109061501/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7176176.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> On 23 January, Suharto's health worsened further, as a [[sepsis]] infection spread through his body.<ref>{{cite web |author=Niniek Karmini |date=23 January 2008 |title=Suharto's health deteriorates, infection spreads |website=[[The Irrawaddy]] |url=https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=10010 |access-date=2021-03-10 |archive-date=2021-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320030614/https://www2.irrawaddy.com/article.php?art_id=10010 |url-status=live}}</ref> His family consented to the removal of life support machines if his condition did not improve, and he died on 27 January at 1:09&nbsp;pm.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7211565.stm |title=Indonesia ex-leader Suharto dies |work=BBC News |date=27 January 2008 |access-date=2009-08-09 |archive-date=2009-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324051752/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7211565.stm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=14 January 2008 |title=Suharto has multiple organ failure |website=Al Jazeera English |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2008/1/14/suharto-has-multiple-organ-failure |access-date=2010-04-14 |archive-date=2021-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105080252/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2008/1/14/suharto-has-multiple-organ-failure |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=NYTobituary/>

Minutes after his death, then-Indonesian President [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] held a news conference declaring Suharto as one of Indonesia's "best sons" and invited the country to give the highest respect and honour to the ex-president.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2008/01/27/055116274/soeharto-meninggal-sby-batalkan-kunjungan-ke-bali |title=Soeharto Meninggal, SBY Batalkan Kunjungan Ke Bali |publisher=Tempo |date=27 January 2008 |access-date=2016-07-28 |archive-date=2016-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807151724/https://m.tempo.co/read/news/2008/01/27/055116274/soeharto-meninggal-sby-batalkan-kunjungan-ke-bali |url-status=live}}</ref> Suharto's body was taken from Jakarta to the [[Astana Giribangun]] mausoleum complex in [[Karanganyar Regency]], near the Central Java city of [[Surakarta|Solo]]. He was buried alongside his late wife in a state military funeral with full honours, with the [[Kopassus]] elite forces and [[KOSTRAD]] commandos as the honour guard and pallbearers and Commander of Group II Kopassus Surakarta Lt. Colonel Asep Subarkah.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/nasional/2008/01/28/brk,20080128-116371,id.html |title=— Presiden Tiba di Astana Giribangun |publisher=Tempointeraktif.com |access-date=2009-08-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810143854/http://www.tempointeraktif.com/hg/nasional/2008/01/28/brk,20080128-116371,id.html |archive-date=2009-08-10}}</ref> In attendance were President Yudhoyono, who presided over the ceremony, as well as the vice-president, government ministers, and armed forces chiefs of staff. Tens of thousands of people lined the streets to see the convoy.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Tedjasukmana |first=Jason |date=29 January 2008 |title=Indonesia Bids Farewell to Suharto |magazine=Time |access-date=2009-08-09 |url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1707754,00.html |archive-date=2014-07-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725182043/http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1707754,00.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Condolences were offered by many regional heads of state. President Yudhoyono that afternoon declared a week of official mourning starting from Suharto's day of death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/01/27/2147555.htm |title=Geoff Thompson, ''Suharto's body arrives home'', ABC News January 27, 2008 |publisher=ABC |location=Australia |date=27 January 2008 |access-date=2009-08-09 |archive-date=2009-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113164831/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/01/27/2147555.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref> During this period, all flags of Indonesia were flown at [[half-mast]].

==Legacy and political rehabilitation==
{{Conservatism in Indonesia}}
Starting in the early 2010s, the [[Javanese language]] slogan {{lang|jv|Piye kabare, penak jamanku to?}} ({{lit|How are you doing? It was better in my time, right?}}) featuring pictures of Suharto was heavily distributed around Indonesia in many forms, such as stickers, t-shirts and on the internet. The slogan can also be found on political campaign billboards and affixed to public transportation, such as minibuses as well as trucks and pedicabs.<ref name="Pontororing">{{cite journal |last1=Pontororing |first1=Angela |date=July 2016 |title=Sebuah Upaya Pembacaan Poskolonial dengan Metode Dialog Imajinatif Antara Foto Soeharto "Piye Kabare, Penak Jamanku To?" dan Teks Keluaran 14:10-12; 16:1-3; 17:3 |url=https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/318086-sebuah-upaya-pembacaan-poskolonial-denga-f187bae4.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Indonesian Journal of Theology |volume=4/1 |pages=1–44 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220207170158/https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/318086-sebuah-upaya-pembacaan-poskolonial-denga-f187bae4.pdf |archive-date=2022-02-07 |access-date=2022-02-07}}</ref>

Surveys of Indonesians done in 2011 and 2018 have found Suharto to be the most successful in carrying out his duties as president.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 May 2018 |title=Survei Indo Barometer Sebut Soeharto Presiden Paling Berhasil |url=https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20180520154614-32-299770/survei-indo-barometer-sebut-soeharto-presiden-paling-berhasil |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524093811/https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20180520154614-32-299770/survei-indo-barometer-sebut-soeharto-presiden-paling-berhasil |archive-date=2018-05-24 |work=CNN Indonesia |language=id}}</ref>

On 25 September 2024, in one of its last acts for the 2019–2024 period, the [[People's Consultative Assembly]] repealed Clause 4 of MPR Resolution No. XI/MPR/1998, which had accused Suharto and his cronies of acts of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (Clause 4 specifically named Suharto). The stated reason for this was because Suharto was never put on trial for these accusations before his death in 2008. This move has reignited debate as to whether Suharto should be awarded the National Hero status.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rahmawati |first=Dwi |title=MPR Cabut Nama Soeharto dari Tap MPR 11/1998 soal KKN, Ini Alasannya |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-7557661/mpr-cabut-nama-soeharto-dari-tap-mpr-11-1998-soal-kkn-ini-alasannya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925084002/https://news.detik.com/berita/d-7557661/mpr-cabut-nama-soeharto-dari-tap-mpr-11-1998-soal-kkn-ini-alasannya |archive-date=2024-09-25 |work=detiknews |language=Indonesian}}</ref> 

On 10 November 2025, Suharto was named as a National Hero, along with nine other names in a ceremony presided by [[Prabowo Subianto]], the president of Indonesia since 2024 and Suharto's former son-in-law. In response, around 100 people gathered in Jakarta and more than 16,000 people signed an online petition to protest against the nomination.<ref>{{cite news|title= Indonesia names ex-dictator Suharto a 'national hero'|url= https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cn40p2vwyn7o|work=BBC News|date=10 November 2025|last=Head|first=Jonathan|access-date=10 November 2025}}</ref>

===Places and statue===
Suharto's childhood house in Kemusuk is currently a memorial museum, called ''Memorial Jenderal Besar HM Soeharto''. A statue of him stands in front of the museum. It was built by Probosutedjo and was inaugurated in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Prabowo |date=7 June 2016 |title=Tempat Kelahiran Soeharto Kini Lebih Hidup |url=https://news.okezone.com/read/2015/06/07/510/1161394/tempat-kelahiran-soeharto-kini-lebih-hidup |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218010520/https://news.okezone.com/read/2015/06/07/510/1161394/tempat-kelahiran-soeharto-kini-lebih-hidup |archive-date=2017-02-18 |access-date=2021-10-12 |website=Okezone.com}}</ref>

[[FELDA Soeharto]], a village in [[Selangor]], is named after him. He visited the village in 1970 as part of a momentous visit to normalize the [[Indonesia–Malaysia relations]].<ref name="hubungan">{{cite news |date=16 June 2011 |title=Kampong Soeharto, Bukti Hubungan Baik Indonesia-Malaysia |url=https://www.tribunnews.com/internasional/2011/06/14/kampong-soeharto-bukti-hubungan-baik-indonesia-malaysia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220619194947/https://www.tribunnews.com/internasional/2011/06/14/kampong-soeharto-bukti-hubungan-baik-indonesia-malaysia |archive-date=2022-06-19 |work=Tribun News |language=id}}</ref>

[[Istiklal Mosque, Sarajevo|Istiklal Mosque]] in [[Sarajevo]] was initiated by Suharto as a gift for the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina, to replace the hundreds of mosques destroyed during the [[Bosnian War]]. Suharto famously visited Sarajevo in 1995 to help mediate the ongoing conflict (even though a UN-owned aircraft that passed through Bosnia was shot down two days earlier). The mosque is sometimes referred by locals as the ''Suharto Mosque''.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 March 2019 |title=When Heart of Bosnian Ambassador Captivated by Surabaya |url=https://en.tempo.co/read/1184483/when-heart-of-bosnian-ambassador-captivated-by-surabaya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401074924/https://en.tempo.co/read/1184483/when-heart-of-bosnian-ambassador-captivated-by-surabaya#google_vignette |archive-date=2019-04-01 |access-date=2025-02-14 |website=Tempo}}</ref>

==Honours==

===National honours===
[[File:Suharto with military uniform, 1997.jpg|thumb|Suharto in full military uniform with some of his decorations, 1997]]
As an officer in the [[Indonesian Army]] (1940–1974), and then as president of Indonesia (1967–1998), he received several civilian and military [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Indonesia|Star Decorations]] from Indonesia, namely:<ref name="Soeharto">{{Cite web |url=https://gmic.co.uk/topic/50166-soeharto-odm/ |title=Soeharto ODM |date=10 July 2011}}</ref>
* [[File:Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna rib.svg|70px]] [[Star of the Republic of Indonesia]], 1st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna|Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna]]}})<ref>{{cite web |date=7 January 2020 |title=Daftar WNI yang Menerima Tanda Kehormatan Republik Indonesia Tahun 1959–sekarang |url=https://cdn.setneg.go.id/_multimedia/document/20200107/3822wni_penerima_tanda_kehormatan_bintang_republik_indonesia_1959_sekarang.pdf |publisher=Kementerian Sekretariat Negara Republik Indonesia |access-date=2021-08-12 |archive-date=2021-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729004106/https://cdn.setneg.go.id/_multimedia/document/20200107/3822wni_penerima_tanda_kehormatan_bintang_republik_indonesia_1959_sekarang.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Mahaputera"/>
* [[File:Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna rib.svg|70px]] Star of Mahaputera, 1st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna|Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna]]}})<ref name="Mahaputera">{{cite book |title=Daftar WNI yang Mendapat Tanda Kehormatan Bintang Mahaputera tahun 1959 s.d. 2003 |url=https://cdn.setneg.go.id/_multimedia/document/20180910/41462-Bintang_Mahaputera_tahun_1959-2003.pdf |access-date=2021-10-04}}</ref>
* [[File:Bintang Jasa Utama rib.svg|70px]] Star of Merit, 1st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Jasa|Bintang Jasa Utama]]}})<ref name="Mahaputera"/>
* [[File:Bintang Sakti rib.svg|70px]] The Sacred Star ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Sakti|Bintang Sakti]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Dharma rib.svg|70px]] Star of Meritorious Service ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Dharma|Bintang Dharma]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Gerilya rib.svg|70px]] Guerrilla Star ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Gerilya|Bintang Gerilya]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Budaya Parama Dharma rib.svg|70px]] Star of Culture Parama Dharma ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Budaya Parama Dharma|Bintang Budaya Parama Dharma]]}})<ref name="Mahaputera"/>
* [[File:Bintang Yudha Dharma Utama rib.svg|70px]] Star of Yudha Dharma, 1st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Yudha Dharma|Bintang Yudha Dharma Utama]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Utama rib.svg|70px]] Star of Kartika Eka Paksi, 1st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi|Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Utama]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Pratama rib.svg|70px]] Star of Kartika Eka Paksi, 2st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi|Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Pratama]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Nararya rib.svg|70px]] Star of Kartika Eka Paksi, 3st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi|Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Nararya]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Jalasena Utama rib.svg|70px]] Star of Jalasena, 1st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Jalasena|Bintang Jalasena Utama]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Swa Bhuwana Paksa Utama rib.svg|70px]] Star of Swa Bhuwana Paksa, 1st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Swa Bhuwana Paksa|Bintang Swa Bhuwana Paksa Utama]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Bhayangkara Utama rib.svg|70px]] Star of Bhayangkara, 1st Class ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Bhayangkara|Bintang Bhayangkara Utama]]}})
* [[File:Bintang Garuda.gif|70px]] Garuda Star ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Garuda|Bintang Garuda]]}})
* [[File:Indonesian Armed Forces "8 Years" Service Star (1945-1953).gif|70px]] Indonesian Armed Forces 8 Years of Service Star ({{langx|id|[[:id:Bintang Sewindu Angkatan Perang Republik Indonesia|Bintang Sewindu Angkatan Perang]]}})
* [[File:Satyalencana Kesetiaan XVI.gif|70px]] Military Long Service Medal, 16 Years Service ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana Kesetiaan|Satyalancana Kesetiaan 16 Tahun]]}})
* [[File:Satyalancana Teladan.svg|70px]] Military Campaign Medal ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana Teladan|Satyalancana Teladan]]}})
* [[File:Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan I.gif|70px]] [[Operation Product|1st Campaign Commemoration Medal]] ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan I|Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan I]]}})
* [[File:Satya Lencana Perang Kemerderkaan II.gif|70px]] [[Operation Kraai|2nd Campaign Commemoration Medal]] ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan II|Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan II]]}})
* [[File:Satya Lencana GOM I.gif|70px]] [[Madiun Affair|1st Military Operations Service Medal]] ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana G.O.M I|Satyalancana G.O.M I]]}})
* [[File:Satyalencana G.O.M. II.gif|70px]] [[APRA coup d'état|2nd Military Operations Service Medal]] ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana G.O.M II|Satyalancana G.O.M II]]}})
* [[File:Satyalencana G.O.M. III.gif|70px]] [[Invasion of Ambon|3rd Military Operations Service Medal]] ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana G.O.M III|Satyalancana G.O.M III]]}})
* [[File:Satyalencana G.O.M. IV.gif|70px]] [[Darul Islam rebellion|4th Military Operations Service Medal]] ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana G.O.M IV|Satyalancana G.O.M IV]]}})
* [[File:Satyalencana Satya Dharma.png|70px]] [[West New Guinea dispute|West New Guinea Military Campaign Medal]] ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana Satya Dharma|Satyalancana Satya Dharma]]}})
* [[File:Satyalencana Wira Dharma (1963).gif|70px]] [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation|Northern Borneo Military Campaign Medal]] ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana Wira Dharma|Satyalancana Wira Dharma]]}})
* [[File:Satya Lencana Penegak.gif|70px]] [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66|Medal for Combat Against Communists]] ({{langx|id|[[:id:Satyalancana Penegak|Satyalancana Penegak]]}})

===Foreign honours===
In addition, he also received several foreign decorations:<ref name="Soeharto"/><br>
{{flag|Argentina}}:
* [[File:ARG Order of the Liberator San Martin - Grand Cross BAR.png|70px]] Collar of the [[Order of the Liberator General San Martín]] (1972)
{{flag|Austria}}:
* [[File:AUT Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria - 1st Class BAR.png|70px]] Grand Star of the [[Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria]] (1973)
{{flag|Belgium}}:
* [[File:BEL - Order of Leopold - Grand Cordon bar.svg|70px]] Grand Cordon of the [[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]] (1973)
{{flag|Brunei}}:
* [[File:Family Order of Laila Utama with rosette.svg|70x70px]] Recipient of the Most Esteemed [[Family Order of Laila Utama]] (DK) (1988)
{{flag|Cambodia}}:
* [[File:KHM National Independence Medal.png|70px]] Grand Collar of the National Order of Independence (1968)
{{flag|Egypt}}:
* [[File:EGY Order of the Nile - Grand Cordon BAR.png|70px]] Grand Collar of the [[Order of the Nile]] (1977)
{{flagcountry|Ethiopian Empire}}:
* [[File:Order of The Queen of Sheba (Ethiopia) ribbon.gif|70px]] Grand Cordon and Collar of the [[Order of the Queen of Sheba]] (1968)
{{flag|France}}:
* [[File:Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg|70px]] Grand Cross of the [[Legion of Honour|National Order of the Legion of Honour]] (1972)
{{flagcountry|Pahlavi Iran}}:
* [[File:Order of Pahlavi Ribbon Bar - Imperial Iran.svg|70px]] First Class of the [[Order of Pahlavi]]
* [[File:Medal of the 25th Century of the Monarchy.gif|70px]] Recipient of the [[2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire|Commemorative Medal of the 2,500-year Celebration of the Persian Empire]] (1971)
{{flag|Italy}}:
* [[File:Cordone di gran Croce di Gran Cordone OMRI BAR.svg|70px]] Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the [[Order of Merit of the Italian Republic]] (OMRI) (1972)<ref>[http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/DettaglioOnorificenze.aspx?decorato=34742 Sito web del Quirinale: dettaglio decorato.]</ref>
{{flag|Japan}}:
* [[File:JPN Daikun'i kikkasho BAR.svg|70px]] Grand Cordon of the Supreme [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]] (1968)
{{flag|Jordan}}:
* [[File:JOR Al-Hussein ibn Ali Order BAR.svg|70px]] Grand Cordon with Collar of the [[Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali]] (1986)
{{flag|Kuwait}}:
* [[File:KUW Order of Mubarak the Great ribbon.svg|70px]] Collar of the [[Order of Mubarak the Great]] (1977)
{{flag|Malaysia}}:
* [[File:MY Darjah Utama Seri Mahkota Negara (Crown of the Realm) - DMN.svg|70px]] Honorary Recipient of the Most Exalted [[Order of the Crown of the Realm]] (DMN) (1988)
* {{flag|Johor}}:
** [[File:Most Esteemed Royal Family Order of Johor - ribbon bar.svg|70px]] Grand Commander of the Most Esteemed [[Royal Family Order of Johor]] (DK Johor) (1990)
* {{flag|Perak}}:
** [[File:MY-PERA Royal Family Order of Perak - DK (before 2001).svg|70px]] Recipient Member of the Most Esteemed [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Perak|Royal Family Order of Perak]] (DK Perak) (1988) 
{{Flag|Mexico}}:
* [[File:MEX Order of the Aztec Eagle 2Class BAR.png|70px]] Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Aztec Eagle]] 
{{flag|Netherlands}}:
* [[File:Order of the Netherlands Lion ribbon - Knight Grand Cross.svg|70px]] Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Netherlands Lion]] (1970)
{{flag|Pakistan}}:
* [[File:Nishan-e-Pakistan ribbon bar.svg|70px]] [[Nishan-e-Pakistan]] (NPk) (1982)
{{flag|Philippines}}:
* [[File:PHI Order of Sikatuna 2003 Grand Collar BAR.svg|70px]] Grand Collar (''Raja'') of the [[Order of Sikatuna]] (GCS) (1968)
* [[File:PHI Order of the Golden Heart var2 Grand Collar BAR.svg|70px]] Grand Collar (''Maringal na Kuwintas'') of the [[Order of the Golden Heart (Philippines)|Order of the Golden Heart]] (GCGH) (1968)
{{flag|Qatar}}:
* [[File:Order of Independence (Qatar) - ribbon bar.gif|70px]] Collar of the Order of the Independence (1977)
{{flagcountry|Socialist Republic of Romania}}:
* [[File:Order of the Star of Romania - Ribbon bar.svg|70px]] First Class of the [[Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic]] (1982)
{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}:
* [[File:Decoration without ribbon - en.svg|70px]] Great Chain of the Badr (1977)
{{flag|Singapore}}:
* [[File:Darjah Utama Temasek ribbon (1962–1996) ribbon.png|70px]] Recipient of the [[Darjah Utama Temasek|Order of Temasek]] (DUT) (1974)
{{flag|South Africa}}:
* [[File:Ord.GoodHope-ribbon.gif|70px]] Grand Cross of the [[Order of Good Hope]] (1997)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Elenco dei premiati dell'anno 1997. |url=http://www.v1.sahistory.org.za/pages/artsmediaculture/culture%20%26%20heritage/national-orders/1997.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110142631/http://www.v1.sahistory.org.za/pages/artsmediaculture/culture%20%26%20heritage/national-orders/1997.htm |archive-date=10 November 2014 |access-date=2019-09-19}}</ref>
{{flag|South Korea}}:
* [[File:Grand Order of Mugunghwa (South Korea) - ribbon bar.svg|70px]] [[Grand Order of Mugunghwa]] (1981)
{{flag|Spain}}:
* [[File:Order of Isabella the Catholic - Sash of Collar.svg|70px]] Grand Cross with Collar of the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]] (CYC) (1980)<ref>{{cite web |title=Bollettino Ufficiale di Stato |url=https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1981/06/15/pdfs/A13615-13615.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312075707/https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1981/06/15/pdfs/A13615-13615.pdf |archive-date=2017-03-12}}</ref>
{{flag|Syria}}:
* [[File:Order Of Ummayad (Syria) - ribbon bar.gif|70px]] Member 1st Class of the [[Order of the Umayyads]] (1977)
{{flag|Thailand}}:
* [[File:Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (Thailand) ribbon.svg|70px]] Knight of the Most Auspicious [[Order of the Rajamitrabhorn]] (KRM) (1970)
{{flag|Tunisia}}:
* [[File:Order of the Republic (Tunisia) - ribbon bar.gif|Order of the Republic (Tunisia) – ribbon bar|70px]] Grand Cordon of the [[Order of the Republic (Tunisia)|Order of the Republic]] (1995)
{{flag|Ukraine}}:
* [[File:Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise 1st 2nd and 3rd Class of Ukraine.png|70px]] First Class of the [[Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise]] (1997)
{{flag|United Arab Emirates}} :
* [[File:Ribbon bar of the Order of the Union (United Arab Emirates).svg|70px]] Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of Unity (1977)
{{Flag|United Kingdom}}:
* [[File:Order of the Bath UK ribbon.svg|70px]] Honorary Knight Grand Cross ''(Military Division)'' of the [[Order of the Bath]] (GCB) (1974)
{{flag|Venezuela}}:
* [[File:VEN Order of the Liberator - Grand Cordon BAR.png|70px]] Grand Cordon with Collar of the [[Order of the Liberator]] (1988)
{{flag|West Germany}}:
* [[File:GER Bundesverdienstkreuz 9 Sond des Grosskreuzes.svg|70px]] Grand Cross Special Class of the [[Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany]] (1970)
{{flag|Yemen}}:
* [[File:Pasador Emblema de la República.svg|70px]] Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Republic<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 July 2022 |title=Penghargaan – Situs Web Kepustakaan Presiden-Presiden Republik Indonesia |url=https://kepustakaan-presiden.perpusnas.go.id/award/?box=detail&id=89&from_box=list&hlm=1&search_ruas=&search_keyword=&activation_status=&presiden_id=2&presiden=suharto |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713115431/https://kepustakaan-presiden.perpusnas.go.id/award/?box=detail&id=89&from_box=list&hlm=1&search_ruas=&search_keyword=&activation_status=&presiden_id=2&presiden=suharto |access-date=2023-04-13 |archive-date=2022-07-13}}</ref>
{{flag|Yugoslavia}}:
* [[File:Order of the Yugoslavian Great Star Rib.png|70px]] Yugoslav Star with Sash of the [[Order of the Yugoslav Star]] (1975)

==In popular culture==
Suharto has been portrayed by five Indonesian actors in several movies.<ref>{{cite web |author=Randy Wirayudha |date=17 April 2018 |title=Lima Aktor Pemeran Soeharto |url=https://historia.id/kultur/articles/lima-aktor-pemeran-soeharto-PekoW/page/1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227155447/https://historia.id/kultur/articles/lima-aktor-pemeran-soeharto-PekoW/page/1 |archive-date=2024-02-27 |access-date=2024-02-27 |website=Historia.id |language=id}}</ref>
* Kaharuddin Syah portrayed Suharto in the 1980 movie ''[[Janur Kuning]]'', directed by Alam Surawidjaja.
* Antonius Yacobus portrayed Suharto in the 1982 movie ''[[Serangan Fajar]]'', directed by [[Arifin C. Noer]].
* [[Amoroso Katamsi]] portrayed Suharto in the 1984 movie ''[[Pengkhianatan G30S/PKI]]'' and the 1988 movie ''Djakarta 66'', both directed by Arifin C. Noer. He also portrayed Suharto in the 2015 drama movie ''[[Behind 98|Di Balik 98]]'', directed by [[Lukman Sardi]].
* Marcell Siahaan portrayed Suharto in the 2010 comedic movie ''Laskar Pemimpi'', directed by [[Monty Tiwa]].
* [[Tio Pakusadewo]] portrayed Suharto in the 2012 biopic movie ''[[Habibie & Ainun]]'', directed by Faozan Rizal.

==See also==
{{Commons category|Suharto}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [[History of Indonesia]]
* [[List of high-ranking commanders of the Indonesian National Revolution|High-ranking commanders of the Indonesian National Revolution]]
* ''[[Asas tunggal Pancasila]]''

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist|25em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|25em}}
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* {{cite book |last=Aarons |first=Mark |date=2008 |chapter=Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dg0hWswKgTIC&pg=PA69 |editor1=David A. Blumenthal |editor2=Timothy L. H. McCormack |title=The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? |series=International Humanitarian Law |publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]] |isbn=978-9004156913}}
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* {{cite news |date=19 October 1965 |title=Army in Jakarta Imposes a Ban on Communists |newspaper=The New York Times |url-access=registration |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1965/10/19/archives/army-in-jakarta-imposes-a-ban-on-communists-extent-of-order-unclear.html |access-date=2021-03-09 |archive-date=2021-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829193148/https://www.nytimes.com/1965/10/19/archives/army-in-jakarta-imposes-a-ban-on-communists-extent-of-order-unclear.html |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |last=Conboy |first=Kenneth J. |date=2003 |title=Kopassus: Inside Indonesia's Special Forces |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789799589880 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |access-date=2021-04-20 |archive-date=2023-03-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323145048/https://books.google.com/books?id=lf5TUoHfeM8C |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite book |last=Dijk |first=Kees van |date=2001 |title=A country in despair : Indonesia between 1997 and 2000 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=KITLV Press |isbn=9789067181600}}
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* {{cite book |last=Hughes |first=John |title=The End of Sukarno – A Coup that Misfired: A Purge that Ran Wild |publisher=Archipelago Press |date=2002 |orig-year=1976 |isbn=981-4068-65-9}}
* {{cite news |title=Indonesia: Arrests, torture and intimidation: The Government's response to its critics |date=27 November 1996 |publisher=Amnesty International |url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-idn/index&start=391 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109023133/http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-idn/index |archive-date=2005-11-09}}
* {{cite web |title=Indonesia Economic |work=Commanding Heights |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/id/id_economic.html |access-date=2005-05-23 |archive-date=2012-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224182929/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/lo/countries/id/id_economic.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |title=Jakarta Cabinet Faces Challenge |work=The New York Times |date=16 December 1965}}
* {{cite news |title=Jakarta Leftist Out As Army Chief |work=[[New York Times]] |date=15 October 1965}}
* {{cite news |title=Jakarta Cabinet Faces Challenge |work=The New York Times |date=16 December 1965}}
* {{cite news |last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Oliver |first2=James |name-list-style=amp |title=MI6 Spread Lies to Put Killer in Power |work=The Independent |location=UK |date=16 April 2000}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lashmar |first1=Paul |last2=Oliver |first2=James |title=Britain's Secret Propaganda War |publisher=Sutton Pub Ltd |date=1999 |isbn=0-7509-1668-0}}
* {{cite book |last=McDonald |first=H. |author-link=Hamish McDonald |date=1980 |title=Suharto's Indonesia |location=[[Blackburn, Victoria|Blackburn]] AU |publisher=Fontana Books |isbn=0-00-635721-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Melvin |first=Jess |date=2018 |title=The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-138-57469-4 |access-date=2021-11-21 |archive-date=2019-06-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608032221/https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694 |url-status=live}}
*{{cite news |date=1993 |title=Public Expenditures, Prices and the Poor |publisher=World Bank |url=http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/2f56edbf2ef22ff185256b2100754284?OpenDocument |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323210822/http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/2f56edbf2ef22ff185256b2100754284?OpenDocument |archive-date=2007-03-23}}
* {{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M.C. |date=1991 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1300 |edition=2nd |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-333-57690-X}}
* {{cite book |last=Rock |first=Michael T. |date=2003 |title=The Politics of Development Policy and Development Policy Reform |others=William Davidson Institute Working Paper Number 632 |publisher=The University of Michigan Business School |url=http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/40018/wp632.pdf?sequence=3 |access-date=2013-06-11 |archive-date=2013-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212120254/http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/40018/wp632.pdf?sequence=3 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Purdey |first=Jemma |date=2006 |title=Anti-Chinese Violence in Indonesia, 1996–1999 |location=[[Honolulu]] HI |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |isbn=9780824830571}}
*{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Geoffrey B. |date=2018 |title=The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965-66 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=9781400888863 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW0wDwAAQBAJ}}
* John Roosa, Pretext for Mass Murder: 30 September Movement & Suharto's Coup D'état. The University of Wisconsin Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-299-22034-1}}.
* {{cite news |last=Simpson |first=Brad |title=Indonesia's 1969 Takeover of West Papua Not by "Free Choice" |date=9 July 2004 |publisher=National Security Archive |url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm |access-date=2005-06-17 |archive-date=2013-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130205191327/http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Schwarz |first=Adam |date=1994 |title=A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s |publisher=Westview Press |isbn=9780813388816 |url=https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw}}
* {{cite book |last=Simpson |first=Bradley |date=2010 |title=Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968 |url=https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |location= |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0804771825 |access-date=2021-11-21 |archive-date=2018-06-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625213245/https://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=7853 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm |title=Suharto tops corruption rankings |work=BBC News |date=25 March 2004 |access-date=2006-02-04 |archive-date=2020-11-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113042444/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3567745.stm |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |title=Sukarno Removes His Defense Chief |work=[[New York Times]] |date=22 February 1966}}
* {{cite news |title=Tapol Troubles: When Will They End? |date=April–June 1999 |publisher=Inside Indonesia |url=http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305190845/http://insideindonesia.org/index.php/component/content/693?task=view |archive-date=2012-03-05 |df=dmy-all}}
* {{cite book |author=Pramoedya Ananta Toer |title=The Mute's Soliloquy: A Memoir |publisher=Penguin |date=2000 |isbn=0-14-028904-6}}
* {{cite web |title=United Nations High Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/97: Situation in East Timor |url=http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument |publisher=United Nations |access-date=2006-02-04 |archive-date=2012-02-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204035327/http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/0/81427c9bacaf9847c1256c6800603ff2?Opendocument |url-status=live}}
*{{Cite book |last=Vickers |first=Adrian |date=2005 |title=A History of Modern Indonesia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521542623 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri}}
* {{cite book |last=Wanandi |first=Jusuf |author-link=Jusuf Wanandi |date=2012 |title=Shades of Grey: A Political Memoir of Modern Indonesia 1965–1998 |location=Singapore |publisher=Equinox Publishing |isbn=9789793780924}}
* {{cite book |title=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA |last=Weiner |first=Tim |publisher=Doubleday |place=New York |date=2007 |isbn=978-3-596-17865-0 |chapter=Chapter 15, CIA and Indonesia |title-link=Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wertheim |first1=W.F. |title=Whose plot?-New light on the 1965 events |journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia |date=1979 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=197–215 |doi=10.1080/00472337985390191}}
* {{cite book |last=Wiranto |author-link=Wiranto |date=2011 |title=7 Tahun Menggali Pemikiran dan Tindakan Pak Harto 1991–1997 |trans-title=7 Years Exploring the Thoughts and Actions of Pak Harto 1991–1997 |location=Jakarta |publisher=PT Citra Kharisma Bunda |isbn=9786028112123}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/2656797 |title=The Smiling General, President Soeharto of Indonesia |last1=Roeder |first1=O.G. |date=1969 |location=Jakarta |publisher=PT Gunung Agung |language=en}}
* {{cite book |url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/2618305 |title=Anak Desa: Biografi Presiden Soeharto |last1=Roeder |first1=O.G. |date=1976 |publisher=PT Gunung Agung |language=id |translator-last1=A. Bar |translator-first1=Salim |translator-last2=A. Hadi |translator-first2=Noor |location=Jakarta}}
*{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwVyAAAAMAAJ |last1=Dwipayana |first1=G. |last2=Karta Hadimadja |first2=Ramadhan |date=1989 |title=Soeharto: My Thoughts, Words and Deeds (An Autobiography) |location=Jakarta |publisher=PT Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada |isbn=979-8085-01-9 |language=en |translator-last1=Sumadi}}
* Elson, R.E. (2001). ''Suharto: A Political Biography'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0 521 77326 1}}
* McGlynn, John H. et al. (2007). ''Indonesia in the Soeharto years. Issue, incidents and images'', Jakarta, [[KITLV]]
* {{cite book |url=https://anyflip.com/fpdeq/pzxd/basic/101-150 |title=Soeharto: The Life and Legacy of Indonesia's Second President (An Authorised Biography) |isbn=978-981-261-340-0 |last1=Abdulgani-Knapp |first1=Retnowati |date=2007 |location=Singapore |publisher=Marshall Cavendish Editions}}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FrZUygAACAAJ |title=Pak Harto: The Untold Stories |isbn=978-979-22-7131-7 |last1=Ambarsari |first1=Anita Dewi |last2=Bakarudin |last3=Indria |first3=Donna Sita |last4=Waluyo |first4=Dwitri |last5=Mahpudi |date=2011 |language=id |location=Jakarta |publisher=PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama |display-authors=2}}

==External links==
* [https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/lee-kuan-yew-and-suharto-friends-till-the-end ''Lee Kuan Yew and Suharto: Friends till the end''] ''[[The Straits Times]]'' - 2015 article on the close friendship between Suharto and Singapore Prime Minister [[Lee Kuan Yew]], written by Singapore's Ambassador to Indonesia from 1986 to 1993
*[https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/search?search_api_fulltext=soeharto "Suharto (Ronald Reagan Presidential Library)"] ''[[Ronald Reagan Presidential Library]]'' - Archive records of Suharto from the library (speech transcripts, photographs, and video archives) that include his official visit to the United States in October 1982 and [[Ronald Reagan]]'s state visit to Indonesia in April–May 1986
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/4528925.stm "Life in pictures: Indonesia's Suharto"] [[BBC News]]&nbsp;- Photographs about Suharto's life, from his rise to power to his downfall and trial

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Sukarno]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of Indonesia]]|years=12 March 1967 – 21 May 1998}}
{{s-aft|after=[[B. J. Habibie|Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Sukarno]]|as=[[Prime Minister of Indonesia]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Ampera Cabinet#Cabinet Presidium|Chairman of the Cabinet Presidium]]|years=25 July 1966 – 17 October 1967}}
{{s-non|reason=Office abolished}}
{{s-bef|before=Sarbini Martodihardjo}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of ministers of defense (Indonesia)|Minister of Defense and Security]]|years=1966–1971}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Maraden Panggabean]]}}
{{s-mil}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Sumitro|Sumitro Sastrodihardjo]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Kopkamtib#Commanders|Commander of Kopkamtib]]|years=1974–1978}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Sudomo]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Abdul Haris Nasution]]|as=Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces|Commander of the Indonesian Armed Forces]]|years=1968–1973}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Maraden Panggabean]]|rows=3}}
{{s-new|command}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Kopkamtib#Commanders|Commander of Kopkamtib]]|years=1965–1969}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ahmad Yani]]|before2=[[Pranoto Reksosamudro]] (acting)}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Chief of Staff of the Indonesian Army]]|years=1965–1968}}
{{s-new|command}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commander of Army Strategic Reserve Command|Commander of Kostrad]]|years=1961–1965}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Umar Wirahadikusumah]]}}
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-new|office}}
{{s-ttl|title=Chairman of the Central Committee of [[Golkar]]|years=1983–1998}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Harmoko]]}}
{{s-dip}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Bill Clinton]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Chairperson of [[APEC]]|years=1994}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Tomiichi Murayama]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Dobrica Ćosić]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Non-Aligned Movement#Chair|Chair of the Non-Aligned Movement]]|years=1992–1995}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ernesto Samper]]}}
{{s-new|office}}
{{s-ttl|title=Chairperson of [[ASEAN]]|years=1976}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Hussein Onn]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Portal bar|Indonesia|History|Politics|Biography}}
{{Indonesia Presidents}}
{{Defense Ministers of Indonesia}}
{{Indonesia's New Order}}
{{National Heroes of Indonesia}}
{{Order of Sikatuna recipients}}
{{NAMSecretary-General}}
{{Anti-Chinese sentiment}}
{{Authority control}}

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