View source for Sulawesi

{{Short description|Region and island in Indonesia}}
{{Redirect|Celebes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox islands
| name               = Sulawesi
| image_name         = Sulawesi Topography.png
| image_caption      = Topographic map of Sulawesi
| native_name        = 
| native_name_link   = 
| other_names        = Celebes
| map_image          = Sulawesi map.PNG
| map_caption        = Provincial division of Sulawesi
| location           = [[Indonesia]]
| coordinates        = {{coord|02|S|121|E|type:isle_scale:5000000|display=inline,title}}
| archipelago        = [[Indonesian Archipelago]]
----
[[Greater Sunda Islands]]
| area_km2           = 174,416.16
| rank               = 11th
| highest_mount      = [[Mount Latimojong|Latimojong]]
| elevation_m        = 3,478
| country            = [[Indonesia]]
| country_admin_divisions_title = Provinces
| country_admin_divisions = {{ubl|[[North Sulawesi]]|[[Gorontalo]]|[[Central Sulawesi]]|[[West Sulawesi]]|[[South Sulawesi]]|[[Southeast Sulawesi]]}}
| country_largest_city = [[Makassar]] (pop. 1,432,200)
| population         = 20,568,411
| population_as_of   = mid 2023 estimate
| density_km2        = 110.5
| ethnic_groups      = [[Makassarese people|Makassarese]], [[Bugis|Buginese]], [[Mandar people|Mandar]], [[Minahasa]], [[Gorontaloan people|Gorontalo]], [[Kaili people|Kaili]], [[Toraja]], [[Mamasa people|Mamasa]], [[Butonese people|Butonese]], [[Muna people|Muna]], [[Tolaki people|Tolaki]], [[Bajau]], [[Mongondow people|Mongondow]], [[Sangihe people|Sangihe]], [[Napu people|Napu]]
}}
'''Sulawesi''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|uː|l|ə|ˈ|w|eɪ|s|i}} {{respell|SOO|lə|WAY|see}}, {{ipa|id|ˌsulaˈwesi|lang}}),<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|Sulawesi}}</ref> also known as '''Celebes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɛ|l|ɪ|b|iː|z|,_|s|ə|ˈ|l|iː|b|iː|z}} {{respell|SEL|ib|eez|,_|sə|LEE|beez}}),<ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|Celebes}}</ref> is an island in [[Indonesia]]. One of the four [[Greater Sunda Islands]], and the [[List of islands by area|world's 11th-largest island]], it is situated east of [[Borneo]], west of the [[Maluku Islands]], and south of [[Mindanao]] and the [[Sulu Archipelago]]. Within Indonesia, only [[Sumatra]], Borneo, and [[New Guinea|Papua]] are larger in territory, and only [[Java]] and Sumatra are more populous.

The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas: the northern [[Minahasa Peninsula]], the [[East Peninsula, Sulawesi|East Peninsula]], the [[South Peninsula, Sulawesi|South Peninsula]], and the [[Southeast Peninsula, Sulawesi|Southeast Peninsula]]. Three gulfs separate these peninsulas: the [[Gulf of Tomini]] between the northern Minahasa and East peninsulas, the [[Tolo Gulf]] between the East and Southeast peninsulas, and the [[Gulf of Boni]] between the South and Southeast peninsulas. The [[Strait of Makassar]] runs along the western side of the island and separates the island from [[Borneo]].

==Etymology==
The name ''Sulawesi'' possibly comes from the words ''sula'' ("island") and ''besi'' ("iron") and may refer to the historical export of [[iron]] from the rich [[Lake Matano]] [[Iron ore|iron deposits]].<ref>Watuseke, F. S. 1974. On the name Celebes. Sixth International Conference on Asian History, International Association of Historians of Asia, Yogyakarta, 26–30 August. Unpublished.</ref> The name came into common use in English following [[Indonesian independence]].

The name ''Celebes'' was originally given to the island by [[Portuguese explorers]]. While its direct translation is unclear, it might be considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name "Sulawesi".<ref>{{Cite book|title=The concise dictionary of world place-names|last=Everett-Heath|first=John|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2018|isbn=978-0-19-186632-6|edition= Fourth|location=[Oxford]|pages=1131|oclc=1053905476}}</ref>

==Geography==
Sulawesi is the [[List of islands by area|world's eleventh-largest island]],<ref>{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZhECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8| page=8| title=The Spectral Tarsier |first=Sharon L. |last=Gursky| publisher=[[Routledge]]|year= 2015 |isbn=978-1-317-34397-4}}</ref> covering an area of {{convert|186216.16|km2|0|abbr=on}} (including minor islands administered as part of Sulawesi). The central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the island's peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesi's peninsulas are, from north to south, the [[Bay of Tomini|Tomini]], the [[Bay of Tolo (Indonesia)|Tolo]] and the [[Gulf of Boni|Boni]].{{refn|group=n|Technically, Tomini{{sfnp|IHO|1953|loc=§48 (d)}} and Boni{{sfnp|IHO|1953|loc=§48 (k)}} are defined as gulfs by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]], while Tolo is considered a bay of the [[Molucca Sea]].{{sfnp|IHO|1953|loc=§48 (c)}}}} These separate the [[Minahasa_Peninsula|Minahasa or Northern Peninsula]], the [[East Peninsula, Sulawesi|East Peninsula]], the [[Southeast Peninsula, Sulawesi|Southeast Peninsula]] and the [[South Peninsula, Sulawesi|South Peninsula]].

The [[Strait of Makassar]] runs along the western side of the island.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Makassar-Strait |title=Makassar Strait |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=23 August 2017 }}</ref> The island is surrounded by [[Borneo]] to the west, by the [[Philippines]] to the north, by [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] to the east, and by [[Flores]] and [[Timor]] to the south.

=== Minor islands===
The [[Selayar Islands]] make up a chain stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the [[Flores Sea]] are administratively part of Sulawesi. The [[Sangihe Islands]] and [[Talaud Islands]] stretch northward from the northeastern tip of Sulawesi, while [[Buton]] and [[Muna Island]]s and their neighbors lie off its southeast peninsula, the [[Togian Islands]] are in the Gulf of Tomini, and [[Peleng Island]] and the [[Banggai Sea Regency|Banggai Islands]] form a cluster between Sulawesi and [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]]. All the above-mentioned islands and many smaller ones off the coasts of Sulawesi are administratively part of Sulawesi's six provinces.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stouheast Sulawesi |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Southeast-Sulawesi}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=South Sulawesi |date=22 August 2024 |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Sulawesi}}</ref>

==Geology==
[[File:Tangkoko National Park, North Sulawesi, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Tongkoko]] is a volcano in North Sulawesi]]

The island slopes up from the shores of the deep seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic, mountainous interior. Active volcanoes are found in the northern [[Minahasa Peninsula]], stretching north to the [[Sangihe Islands]]. The northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as [[Mount Lokon]], [[Mount Awu]], [[Soputan]] and [[Karangetang]].

According to [[plate reconstruction]]s, the island is believed to have been formed by the collision of [[terrane]]s from the [[Asian Plate]] (forming the west and southwest) and from the [[Australian Plate]] (forming the southeast and [[Banggai regency|Banggai]]), with [[island arc]]s previously in the Pacific (forming the north and east peninsulas).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anu.edu.au/news/all-news/researchers-find-biggest-exposed-fault-on-earth|title=Researchers find biggest exposed fault on Earth|work=ANU |date=28 November 2016}}</ref> Because of its several tectonic origins, various [[Fault (geology)|faults]] scar the land and as a result the island is prone to [[earthquake]]s, including the deadly [[2018 Sulawesi earthquake and tsunami|2018]] and [[2021 West Sulawesi earthquake|2021]] quakes.

Off the eastern coast of Sulawesi, the North Banda Sea was created through subduction rollback during the early Miocene. Evidence for this tectonic event lies with the extensive interconnected fault network found in the area, a volcanic seamount with its surrounding ridges, and an accretionary wedge. Off the coast of east Selawesti and Banggai is an accumulation of carbonate rocks from the late Miocene. These carbonates are likely pinnacle reefs and the carbonate platform has a total thickness of around 180–770 meters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Titu-Eki |first1=Adept |last2=Hall |first2=Robert |date=2020-11-06 |title=The Significance of the Banda Sea: Tectonic Deformation Review in Eastern Sulawesi |journal=Indonesian Journal on Geoscience |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=291–303 |doi=10.17014/ijog.7.3.291-303 |issn=2355-9306|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020InJGe...7..291T }}</ref>

Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the [[Biogeography|biogeographical]] region of [[Wallacea]], is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia [[collision zone]].{{sfnp|Von Rintelen & al.|2014}} Parts of the island were formerly attached to either the [[Asia]]n or [[Australia (continent)|Australian]] continental margin and became separated from these areas by [[Vicariance|vicariant processes]].{{sfnp|Von Rintelen & al.|2014}}  In the west, the opening of the [[Makassar Strait]] separated West Sulawesi from [[Sundaland]] in the [[Eocene]] c. 45 Mya.{{sfnp|Von Rintelen & al.|2014}}  In the east, the traditional view of collisions of multiple [[micro-continent]]al fragments sliced from New Guinea with an active volcanic margin in West Sulawesi at different times since the [[Early Miocene]] c. 20 Mya has recently been replaced by the hypothesis that extensional fragmentation has followed a single Miocene collision of West Sulawesi with the Sula Spur, the western end of an ancient folded belt of [[Variscan orogeny|Variscan origin]] in the Late Paleozoic.{{sfnp|Von Rintelen & al.|2014}}

=== Bone Basin ===
The Bone Basin lies between the south-eastern and southern arms of Sulawesi. According to recent studies, the basin has been opened up due to extensional forces.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Neogene history of Bone Gulf, Sulawesi, Indonesia |date=2014 |volume=57 |doi=10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.04.014 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264817214001548#fig16 |last1=Camplin |first1=David J. |last2=Hall |first2=Robert |journal=Marine and Petroleum Geology |page=88 |bibcode=2014MarPG..57...88C |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The basin is bounded by normal faults on each side of the basin with each side of the basin surrounded by uplifted basement rock with young sediments found in the middle.{{cn|date=August 2024}} The past geological history has allowed for a large accumulation of carbonates which could lead to a higher potential of oil and gas occurrences. However, the faults present in the basin makes it a very complicated system.{{cn|date=August 2024}}

== Prehistory ==
{{see also|Prehistoric Indonesia}}
The oldest evidence for humans on Sulawesi are stone tools produced by [[archaic humans]], dating to at least 1.04 million years ago and possibly as old as 1.48 million years ago, found at the Calio site near the village of Ujung in Lilirilau district of [[Soppeng Regency]], southwestern Sulawesi.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hakim |first1=Budianto |last2=Wibowo |first2=Unggul Prasetyo |last3=van den Bergh |first3=Gerrit D. |last4=Yurnaldi |first4=Dida |last5=Joannes-Boyau |first5=Renaud |last6=Duli |first6=Akin |last7=Suryatman |last8=Sardi |first8=Ratno |last9=Nurani |first9=Indah Asikin |last10=Puspaningrum |first10=Mika Rizki |last11=Mahmud |first11=Irfan |last12=Haris |first12=Afdalah |last13=Anshari |first13=Khairun Al |last14=Saiful |first14=Andi Muhammad |last15=Arman Bungaran |first15=P. |date=2025-08-06 |title=Hominins on Sulawesi during the Early Pleistocene |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09348-6 |journal=Nature |volume=646 |issue=8084 |pages=378–383 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s41586-025-09348-6 |pmid=40770096 |bibcode=2025Natur.646..378H |issn=0028-0836|url-access=subscription |pmc=12507672 }}</ref> Other archaic human produced stone tools, dating to over 200,000 to 100,000 years ago, have been found at the Talepu site near Cabenge village, which is also located in the Lilirilau district.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van den Bergh |first1=Gerrit D. |last2=Li |first2=Bo |last3=Brumm |first3=Adam |last4=Grün |first4=Rainer |last5=Yurnaldi |first5=Dida |last6=Moore |first6=Mark W. |last7=Kurniawan |first7=Iwan |last8=Setiawan |first8=Ruly |last9=Aziz |first9=Fachroel |last10=Roberts |first10=Richard G. |last11=Suyono |date=2016-01-14 |title=Earliest hominin occupation of Sulawesi, Indonesia |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature16448 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=529 |issue=7585 |pages=208–211 |doi=10.1038/nature16448 |pmid=26762458 |bibcode=2016Natur.529..208V |hdl=10072/142470 |s2cid=1756170 |issn=0028-0836|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to {{circa}} 30,000 BC on the basis of radiocarbon dates obtained from rock shelters in [[Maros]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Glover | first1 = Ian | title = Leang Burung 2: An Upper Palaeolithic rock shelter in South Sulawesi, Indonesia". ''Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia'' 6:1–38; David Bulbeck, Iwan Sumantri, Peter Hiscock, "Leang Sakapao 1: A second dated Pleistocene site from South Sulawesi, Indonesia" | journal = Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia | volume = 18 | pages = 111–28 }}</ref> No earlier evidence of human occupation had at that point been found, but the island almost certainly formed part of the land bridge used for the settlement of Australia and [[New Guinea]] by at least 40,000 BC.<ref>C.C. Macknight (1975) The emergence of civilization in South Celebes and elsewhere, in A. Reid and L. Castles (ed.) Pre-Colonial state systems in Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Branch of the [[Royal Asiatic Society]]: 126–135.</ref> There is no evidence of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' having reached Sulawesi; crude stone tools first discovered in 1947 on the right bank of the [[Walanae River]] at [[Barru Regency|Barru]] (now part of [[Bone Regency]]), which were thought to date to the Pleistocene on the basis of their association with vertebrate fossils,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bartstra | first1 = Gert-Jan | last2 = Keates | first2 = Susan | last3 = Basoek | last4 = Kallupa | first4 = Bahru | year = 1991 | title = On the dispersal of ''Homo sapiens'' in Eastern Indonesia: the Paleolithic of South Sulawesi | url = https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/66717477/2743781.pdf| journal = [[Current Anthropology]] | volume = 32 | issue = 3| pages = 317–21 | doi = 10.1086/203960 | s2cid = 144963750 }}</ref> are now thought to date to perhaps 50,000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bulbeck | first1 = David | last2 = Sumantri | first2 = Iwan | last3 = Hiscock | first3 = Peter | title = Leang Sakapao 1: A second dated Pleistocene site from South Sulawesi, Indonesia | journal = Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia | volume = 18 | pages = 111–28 }}</ref>

[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Paalwoning Sulawesi TMnr 10021564.jpg|thumb|A typical dwelling, taken between 1900 and 1940.]]
Following Peter Bellwood's model of a southward migration of [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian-speaking]] farmers (AN),<ref>Peter Bellwood,1997, ''The prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian archipelago''. (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press).</ref> radiocarbon dates from caves in Maros suggest a date in the mid-second millennium BC for the arrival of a group from east Borneo speaking a Proto-[[South Sulawesi languages|South Sulawesi language]] (PSS). Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sa'dan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested.<ref>Bulbeck, F.D. 1992. 'A tale of two kingdoms: The historical archaeology of Gowa and Tallok, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.' PhD thesis, [[The Australian National University]].</ref>

Subsequent migrations across the mountainous landscape resulted in the geographical isolation of PSS speakers and the evolution of their languages into the eight families of the South Sulawesi language group.<ref>[http://www.oxis.org.uk/SulSel1/Languages.html Languages of South Sulawesi<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081120004028/http://www.oxis.org.uk/SulSel1/Languages.html |date=20 November 2008 }}</ref> If each group can be said to have a homeland, that of the [[Bugis]] – today the most numerous group – was around lakes [[Lake Tempe|Témpé]] and [[Lake Sidenreng|Sidénréng]] in the Walennaé depression. Here for some 2,000 years lived the linguistic group that would become the modern Bugis; the archaic name of this group (which is preserved in other local languages) was Ugiq. Despite the fact that today they are closely linked with the [[Makassarese people|Makassarese]], the closest linguistic neighbors of the Bugis are the [[Torajan people|Torajans]].

[[File:Tokalalaea Megalith 2007.jpg|thumb|[[Megalith]] in [[Central Sulawesi]].]]
Pre-1200 Bugis society was most likely organized into [[chiefdoms]]. Some [[anthropologist]]s have speculated these chiefdoms would have warred and, in times of peace, interbred. Further, they have speculated that personal security would have been negligible and head-hunting an established cultural practice. The political economy would have been a mixture of hunting and gathering and swidden or shifting agriculture. Speculative planting of [[wet rice]] may have taken place along the margins of the lakes and rivers.

In Central Sulawesi, there are more than 400 granite [[megalith]]s (Behoa Valley [[Pokekea Megalithic Site]], [[Bada Valley|Bada]] and Napu valleys within the [[Lore Lindu National Park#Megaliths|Lore Lindu National Park]]), which various archaeological studies have dated to be from 3000 BC to AD 1300. They vary in size from a few centimeters to approximately {{convert|4.5|m|ft|sp=us}}. The original purpose of the megaliths is unknown. Approximately 30 of the megaliths represent human forms. Other megaliths are in form of large pots (''Kalamba'') and stone plates (''Tutu'na'').<ref name="National Geographic">{{cite web | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/12/1212_TVindomegaliths.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011214012133/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/12/1212_TVindomegaliths.html | archive-date=14 December 2001 | title=Explorer's Notebook: The Riddle of Indonesia's Ancient Statues | publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] | author = Jennifer Hile | date=12 December 2001 | access-date=11 December 2012}}</ref><ref name="Jakarta Post">[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2005/05/06/c-sulawesi039s-lore-lindu-park-home-biological-wealth.html Sangadji, Ruslan: ''C. Sulawesi's Lore Lindu park, home to biological wealth'', The Jakarta Post, 5 June 2005] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234549/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2005/05/06/c-sulawesi039s-lore-lindu-park-home-biological-wealth.html |date=3 March 2016 }}, retrieved 11 October 2010</ref>

A burial of a woman associated with the hunter-gatherer [[Toalean culture]] dating to 7,000 years ago has yielded DNA that has provided rare insight into early migrations in and through the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carlhoff|first1=Selina|last2=Duli|first2=Akin|last3=Nägele|first3=Kathrin|last4=Nur|first4=Muhammad|last5=Skov|first5=Laurits|last6=Sumantri|first6=Iwan|last7=Oktaviana|first7=Adhi Agus|last8=Hakim|first8=Budianto|last9=Burhan|first9=Basran|last10=Syahdar|first10=Fardi Ali|last11=McGahan|first11=David P.|date=2021-08-26|title=Genome of a middle Holocene hunter-gatherer from Wallacea|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=596|issue=7873|pages=543–547|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03823-6|issn=0028-0836|pmc=8387238|pmid=34433944|bibcode=2021Natur.596..543C }}</ref><ref>Nogrady, Bianca, ''[https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02319-7 First ancient human DNA found from key Asian migration route]'', [[Nature (journal)|Nature]], August 26, 2021</ref>

===Cave art===
In October 2014, it was announced that [[cave paintings]] in Maros had been dated as being approximately 40,000 years old. One of a hand was 39,900 years old,<ref name=Hoffmann2018 /> which brings it among the oldest known [[hand stencil]]s in the world (the record is detained so far by a 64,000 years-old stencil hand made by a [[Neanderthal]] in [[Cave of Maltravieso|Maltravieso cave]], [[Cáceres, Spain|Cáceres]], Spain).<ref name=Hoffmann2018>
{{cite journal |author1=D. L. Hoffmann |author2=C. D. Standish |author3=M. García-Diez |author4=P. B. Pettitt |author5=J. A. Milton |author6=J. Zilhão |author7=J. J. Alcolea-González |author8=P. Cantalejo-Duarte |author9=H. Collado |author10=R. de Balbín |author11=M. Lorblanchet |author12=J. Ramos-Muñoz |author13=G.-Ch. Weniger |author14=A. W. G. Pike |year=2018 |title=U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art |journal=Science |volume=359 |issue=6378 |pages=912–915 |doi=10.1126/science.aap7778|doi-access=free |pmid=29472483 |bibcode=2018Sci...359..912H |hdl=10498/21578 |hdl-access=free }} 
"we present dating results for three sites in Spain that show that cave art emerged in Iberia substantially earlier than previously thought. Uranium-thorium (U-Th) dates on carbonate crusts overlying paintings provide minimum ages for a red linear motif in La Pasiega (Cantabria), a hand stencil in [[Cave of Maltravieso|Maltravieso (Extremadura)]], and red-painted speleothems in Ardales (Andalucía). Collectively, these results show that cave art in Iberia is older than 64.8 thousand years (ka). This cave art is the earliest dated so far and predates, by at least 20 ka, the arrival of modern humans in Europe, which implies Neandertal authorship."</ref>
[[File:Hands in Pettakere Cave.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Hand stencils|Stencils]] of right hands in Pettakere Cave in Maros are among the oldest known examples of human artwork]]
Dr. Maxime Aubert, of [[Griffith University]] in [[Queensland]], [[Australia]], said that was the minimum age for the outline in Pettakere Cave in [[Maros]], and added: "Next to it is a pig that has a minimum age of 35,400 years old, and this is one of the oldest figurative depictions in the world, if not the oldest one."<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-29415716 |title= Painted caves challenge art origins| publisher=[[BBC News]] | date=2014-10-08| last1=Ghosh| first1=Pallab}}</ref>

On 11 December 2019, a team of researchers led by Dr. Maxime Aubert announced the discovery of the oldest hunting scenes in prehistoric art in the world that is more than 44,000 years old from the [[Solutional cave|limestone cave]] of Leang Bulu' Sipong 4. Archaeologists determined the age of the depiction of hunting a pig and buffalo thanks to the calcite 'popcorn', different isotope levels of radioactive [[uranium]] and [[thorium]].<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1806-y | title=Earliest hunting scene in prehistoric art| journal=Nature| date=2019-12-11| last1=Ghosh| first1=Pallab}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50754303|title=Animal painting found in cave is 44,000 years old|date=2019-12-12 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |access-date=2020-04-23|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2019/12/11/oldest-story-ever-told-is-painted-this-cave-wall-archaeologists-report/|title=The oldest story ever told is painted on this cave wall, archaeologists report |first1=Ben |last1=Guarino |newspaper=The Washington Post|language=en|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref>

In March 2020, two small stone '[[plaquette]]s' were found by [[Griffith University]] archaeologists in the Leang Bulu Bettue cave, dated to a time between 26,000 and 14,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Langley|first1=Michelle C.|last2=Hakim|first2=Budianto|last3=Oktaviana|first3=Adhi Agus|last4=Basran|first4=Burhan|last5=Sumantri|first5=Iwan|last6=Sulistyarto|first6=Priyatno Hadi|last7=Lebe|first7=Rustan|last8=McGahan|first8=David|author9-link=Adam Brumm|last9=Brumm|first9=Adam|s2cid=212732696|title=Portable art from Pleistocene Sulawesi|journal=Nature Human Behaviour |year=2020|volume=4|issue=6|pages=597–602|doi=10.1038/s41562-020-0837-6|pmid=32203323|hdl=10072/395406|hdl-access=free}}</ref> While one of the stones contained an [[anoa]] (water buffalo) and what may be a flower, star, or eye, another depicted astronomic rays of light.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wu|first=Katherine J.|title=Portable, Pocket-Sized Rock Art Discovered in Ice Age Indonesian Cave|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/portable-pocket-sized-rock-art-discovered-ice-age-indonesian-cave-180974462/|access-date=2020-08-31|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Rosengreen|first=Carley|title=Portable rock art 'social glue' for early humans in Ice Age|url=https://news.griffith.edu.au/2020/03/17/portable-rock-art-social-glue-for-early-humans-in-ice-age/|access-date=2020-08-31|website=news.griffith.edu.au|date=16 March 2020 |language=en-EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-03-26|title=Two 20,000-Year-Old Artworks From Indonesia Prove That Europe Wasn't the Only Place Art Was Being Made During the Last Ice Age|url=https://news.artnet.com/art-world/prehistoric-art-indonesia-1816671|access-date=2020-08-31|website=artnet News|language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:Leang Tedongnge rock art panel credit AA Oktaviana-01.jpg|thumb|Researchers discovered cave art in Leang Tedongnge, Sulawesi, Indonesia, in 2021, estimated to be at least 45,500 years old, making it the world's oldest known representational artwork.]]
In January 2021, archaeologists announced the discovery of cave art that is at least 45,500 years old in a Leang Tedongnge cave. According to the [[Science Advances|journal ''Science Advances'']], the cave painting of a warty pig is the earliest evidence of human settlement of the region. An adult male pig, measuring 136&nbsp;cm x 54&nbsp;cm and what is likely a Sulawesi or [[Celebes warty pig]] (Sus celebensis), was depicted with horn-like facial warts and two hand prints above its hindquarters.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Geggel |first1=Laura |title=Warty pig is oldest animal cave art on record |url=https://www.livescience.com/pig-oldest-cave-animal-drawing.html |access-date=25 February 2021 |publisher=Live Science |date=13 January 2021}}</ref> According to co-author Adam Brumm, there are two other pigs that are partly preserved and it appears the warty pig was observing a fight between the two other pigs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brumm|first1=Adam|last2=Oktaviana|first2=Adhi Agus|last3=Burhan|first3=Basran|last4=Hakim|first4=Budianto|last5=Lebe|first5=Rustan|last6=Zhao|first6=Jian-xin|last7=Sulistyarto|first7=Priyatno Hadi|last8=Ririmasse|first8=Marlon|last9=Adhityatama|first9=Shinatria|last10=Sumantri|first10=Iwan|last11=Aubert|first11=Maxime|date=2021-01-01|title=Oldest cave art found in Sulawesi|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=7|issue=3|article-number=eabd4648|doi=10.1126/sciadv.abd4648|pmid=33523879|pmc=7806210|bibcode=2021SciA....7.4648B|issn=2375-2548|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|agency=Agence France-Presse|date=2021-01-13|title=World's oldest known cave painting found in Indonesia|url=http://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jan/13/worlds-oldest-known-cave-painting-found-in-indonesia|access-date=2021-01-21|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sawal|first=Ibrahim|title=World's oldest painting of animals discovered in an Indonesian cave|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2264793-worlds-oldest-painting-of-animals-discovered-in-an-indonesian-cave/|access-date=2021-01-21|website=New Scientist|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-01-14|title=Indonesia: Archaeologists find world's oldest animal cave painting|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-55657257|access-date=2021-01-21}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Lokaal hoofd van de eilanden ten zuiden van Celebes TMnr 10001613.jpg|thumb|Local chief (1872).]]

===Hindu-Buddhist era===
{{see also|Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Buddhism in Southeast Asia|Hinduism in Indonesia|Buddhism in Indonesia|Greater India|Mandala (political model)}}

A bronze [[Amaravati art|Amaravathi]] statue was discovered at [[Sikendeng]], South Sulawesi near [[Karama River|Karama river]] in 1921 which was dated to 2nd–7th century AD by Bosch (1933).<ref>{{Cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=Sue|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Dl7DwAAQBAJ&q=Amaravati+Buddha+statue+found+in+southern+Sulawesi&pg=PA5|title=The Archaeology of Sulawesi: Current Research on the Pleistocene to the Historic Period|last2=Bulbeck|first2=David|last3=Meyer|first3=Juliet|date=2018-11-14|publisher=ANU Press|isbn=978-1-76046-257-4|language=en}}</ref> In 1975, small locally made Buddhist statues from 10th-11th century were also discovered in Bontoharu, on the island of [[Selayar Islands|Selayar]], South Sulawesi.<ref>I. A. Caldwell, M. Nur</ref>

Starting in the 13th century, access to prestige trade goods and to sources of iron started to alter long-standing cultural patterns and to permit ambitious individuals to build larger political units. It is not known why these two ingredients appeared together; one was perhaps the product of the other.

In 1367, several identified polities located on the island were mentioned in the Javanese manuscript [[Nagarakretagama]] dated from the [[Majapahit]] period. Canto 14 mentioned polities including Gowa, Makassar, [[Luwu]] and Banggai. It seems that by the 14th century, polities in the island were connected in an archipelagic maritime trading network, centered in the Majapahit port in East Java. By 1400, a number of nascent agricultural principalities had arisen in the western Cenrana valley, as well as on the south coast and on the west coast near modern Parepare.<ref>Caldwell, I.A. 1988. 'South Sulawesi A.D. 1300–1600: Ten Bugis texts.' PhD thesis, The Australian National University; Bougas, W. 1998. 'Bantayan: An early Makassarese kingdom 1200 -1600 AD. ''Archipel'' 55: 83–123; Caldwell, I. and W.A. Bougas 2004. 'The early history of Binamu and Bangkala, South Sulawesi.' ''Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde'' 64: 456–510; Druce, S. 2005. 'The lands west of the lake: The history of Ajattappareng, South Sulawesi, AD 1200 to 1600.' PhD thesis, the University of Hull.</ref>

===Christian colonial era===

The first Europeans to visit the island (which they believed to be an archipelago due to its contorted shape) were the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] sailors Simão de Abreu in 1523, and [[Gomes de Sequeira]] (among others) in 1525, sent from the Moluccas in search of gold, which the islands had the reputation of producing.<ref>Crawfurd, J. 1856. ''A descriptive dictionary of the Indian islands and adjacent countries.'' London: Bradbury & Evans.</ref><ref>[http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/arch_0044-8613_1995_num_49_1_3038?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&] Luis Filipe F. R. Thomaz, ''The image of the Archipelago in Portuguese cartography of the 16th and early 17th centuries'', Persee, 1995, Volume 49 pages: 83</ref> A Portuguese base was installed in Makassar in the first decades of the 16th century, lasting until 1665, when it was taken by the Dutch. The Dutch had arrived in Sulawesi in 1605 and were quickly followed by the English, who established a [[Factory (trading post)|factory]] in Makassar.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bassett | first1 = D. K. | year = 1958 | title = English trade in Celebes, 1613–67 | journal = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society | volume = 31 | issue = 1| pages = 1–39 }} "and ruled a base in Makassar since the mid-16th century to the year 1665 when it was taken by the Dutch."</ref> From 1660, the Dutch were at war with [[Gowa]], the major Makassar west coast power. In 1669, Admiral Speelman forced the ruler, Sultan Hasanuddin, to sign the [[Treaty of Bongaja|Treaty of Bongaya]], which handed control of trade to the [[Dutch East India Company]]. The Dutch were aided in their conquest by the Bugis warlord Arung Palakka, ruler of the Bugis kingdom of [[Bone state|Bone]]. The Dutch built a fort at Ujung Pandang, while Arung Palakka became the regional overlord and Bone the dominant kingdom. Political and cultural development seems to have slowed as a result of the status quo.

In 1905, the entire island became part of the Dutch state colony of the [[Dutch East Indies|Netherlands East Indies]] until [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|Japanese occupation]] in the [[Second World War]]. During the [[Indonesian National Revolution]], the Dutch Captain [[Raymond Westerling|'Turk' Westerling]] led campaigns in which hundreds, maybe thousands died during the [[South Sulawesi campaign of 1946–1947|South Sulawesi Campaign]].<ref name="Kahin145">Kahin (1952), p. 145</ref> Following the transfer of sovereignty in December 1949, Sulawesi became part of the [[federal government|federal]] [[United States of Indonesia]], which in 1950 became absorbed into the [[unitary state|unitary]] [[Republic of Indonesia]].<ref>Westerling, R. 1952. Challenge to Terror</ref>

=== Picture gallery ===
<gallery>
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Tandako' dansers en een muzikant te Pasere Maloku Celebes TMnr 10003462.jpg|''Tandako'' dancers and a musician in Pasere Maloku, Sulawesi.
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Tandako pajogé' danseressen te Pasere Maloku Celebes TMnr 10003461.jpg|''Tandako pajogé'' dancers from Pasere Maloku, Celebes (now Sulawesi)
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Padjogé' danseressen te Maros Celebes TMnr 10003470 Retouch.jpg|''Padjogé'' dancers in [[Maros]], Sulawesi, in the 1870s.
File:Tandako dancers and musicians in Gorontalo, North Celebes.jpg|''Tandako pajogé'' dancers and musicians in Gorontalo, North Celebes, circa 1870s.
</gallery>

===Central Sulawesi===
[[File:Lemo burial site.jpg|thumb|[[Toraja]] burial site. ''Tau-tau'', the statue representing the buried people, can be seen in niches on the cliff.]]

The Portuguese were rumoured to have a fort in Parigi in 1555.<ref>Balinese of Parigi, Central Sulawesi (Davis 1976), however, she gives no source.</ref> The Kaili were an important group based in the [[Palu River|Palu]] valley and related to the Toraja. Scholars relate{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} that their control swayed under Ternate and Makassar, but this might have been a decision by the Dutch to give their vassals a chance to govern a difficult group. Padbruge commented that in the 1700s the Kaili population was significantly high and were a highly militant society. In the 1850s, a civil war erupted between the Kaili groups, including the Banawa, in which the Dutch colonial government decided to intervene.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Colin |year=2003 |title=A Short History of Indonesia |publisher=Allen & Unwin |location=Crows Nest, New South Wales }}</ref>

In the late 19th century, the Sarasins journeyed through the Palu valley as part of a major initiative to bring the Kaili under Dutch rule. Some very surprising and interesting photographs were taken of shamans called Tadulako. Further Christian religious missions entered the area to make one of the most detailed ethnographic studies in the early 20th century.<ref>Kruyt & Adriani.</ref> A Swede by the name of [[Walter Kaudern]] later studied much of the literature and produced a synthesis. Erskine Downs in the 1950s produced a summary of Kruyts and Andrianis work: "The religion of the Bare'e-Speaking Toradja of Central Celebes," which is invaluable for English-speaking researchers. One of the most recent publications is "When the bones are left," a study of the material culture of central Sulawesi,<ref>Eija-Maija Kotilainen – History – 1992.</ref> offering extensive analysis. Also worthy of study are the brilliant works of Monnig Atkinson on the Wana shamans who live in the Mori area.

==Population==
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Population of Sulawesi by province (2020 Census)<ref>Indonesia's Population Census 2020.</ref>
|label1 = South Sulawesi
|value1 = 45.60
|color1 = Red
|label2 = Central Sulawesi
|value2 = 15.01
|color2 = Gold
|label3 = Southeast Sulawesi
|value3 = 13.19
|color3 = Black
|label4 = North Sulawesi
|value4 = 13.18
|color4 = DarkBlue
|label5 = West Sulawesi
|value5 = 7.13
|color5 = Green
|label6 = Gorontalo
|value6 = 5.89
|color6 = Purple
}}
At the 2000 census, the population of the provinces of Sulawesi was 14,946,488, about 7.25% of Indonesia's total population.<ref>
[http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm Brief Analysis – A. Total Population] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090725055302/http://www.bps.go.id/sector/population/pop2000.htm |date=25 July 2009 }}</ref> By the 2010 Census, the total had reached 17,371,782, and the 2020 Census recorded a total of 19,896,951.<ref>Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2021.</ref> The official estimate for mid-2023 was 20,568,411.<ref>Badan Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2024.</ref> The largest city on Sulawesi is [[Makassar]].

===Religion===
{{See also|Ethnic religion in Sulawesi}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Religions !! Total 
|-
| [[Islam]] || 16,888,736
|-
| [[Protestant]] || 3,126,786
|-
| [[Roman Catholic]] || 331,646
|-
| [[Hinduism]] || 267,059
|-
| [[Buddhism]] || 30,412
|-
| [[Ethnic religion in Sulawesi|Aliran Kepercayaan]] || 12,584
|-
| [[Confucianism]] || 523
|-
| '''Overall''' || '''20,657,746''' 
|}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/|publisher=[[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Home Affairs]]|date=31 December 2023|access-date=11 March 2024|language=id|title=Visualisasi Data Kependudukan|archive-date=5 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705211227/http://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religion in Sulawesi (2023)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://satudata.kemenag.go.id/dataset/detail/jumlah-penduduk-menurut-agama|title=Jumlah Penduduk Menurut Agama|publisher=[[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)|Ministry of Religious Affairs]]|date=31 August 2022|access-date=29 October 2023|language=id|quote=Muslim 241 Million (87), Christianity 29.1 Million (10.5), Hindu 4.69 million (1.7), Buddhist 2.02 million (0.7), Folk, Confucianism, and others 192.311 (0.1), Total 277.749.673 Million}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Islam]]
| value1 = 81.75
| color1 = DarkGreen
| label2 = [[Protestantism]]
| value2 = 15.14
| color2 = DarkBlue
| label3 = [[Catholic]]
| value3 = 1.61
| color3 = Purple
| label4 = [[Hinduism]]
| value4 = 1.29
| color4 = DarkOrange
| label5 = [[Buddhism]]
| value5 = 0.15
| color5 = Yellow
| label6 = [[Folk religion]]
| value6 = 0.06
| color6 = Black
| label7 = [[Confucianism]]
| value7 = 0.003
| color7 = Red
}}
[[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]] is the majority religion in Sulawesi. The conversion of the lowlands of the south western peninsula (South Sulawesi) to Islam occurred in the early 17th century. The kingdom of Luwu in the Gulf of Bone was the first to embrace Islam in February 1605; the Makassar kingdom of Gowa-Talloq, centred on the modern-day city of [[Makassar]], followed suit in September.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Noorduyn | first1 = J | year = 1956 | title = 'De Islamisering van Makasar.' ''Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde'' 112: 247–66; Caldwell, I. 1995. 'Power, state and society in pre-Islamic South Sulawesi.' | journal = Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde | volume = 151 | pages = 394–421 }}</ref> However, the [[Gorontaloan people|Gorontalo]] and the [[Mongondow people|Mongondow]] peoples of the northern peninsula largely converted to Islam only in the 19th century. Most Muslims are [[Sunni]]s.

[[Christianity in Indonesia|Christians]] form a substantial minority on the island. According to the [[demography|demographer]] Toby Alice Volkman, 17% of Sulawesi's population is [[Protestantism in Indonesia|Protestant]] and less than 2% is [[Catholic Church in Indonesia|Catholic]]. Christians are concentrated on the tip of the northern peninsula around the city of [[Manado]], which is inhabited by the [[Minahasa]], a predominantly Protestant people, and the northernmost [[Sangir Islands|Sangir]] and [[Talaud Islands]]. The [[Toraja]] people of [[Tana Toraja]] in South Sulawesi have largely converted to Christianity since Indonesia's independence. There are also substantial numbers of Christians around [[Lake Poso]] in Central Sulawesi, among the [[Pamona]] speaking peoples of Central Sulawesi, and near Mamasa.

Though most people identify themselves as Muslims or Christians, they often [[Religious syncretism|subscribe to local beliefs and deities as well]].

Smaller communities of [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Buddhists]] and [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hindus]] are also found on Sulawesi, usually among the [[Chinese Indonesian|Chinese]], [[Balinese people|Balinese]], and [[Indian Indonesian|Indian]] communities.

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Sulawesi}}

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Sulawesi}}

The economy of Sulawesi is heavily centered around agriculture, fishing, mining, and forestry.<ref>{{Cite web|title=indahnesia.com – Sulawesi island – Economy – Clove, shrimps and tourists – Discover Indonesia Online|url=https://indahnesia.com/indonesia/SULECO/economy.php|access-date=2020-12-19|website=indahnesia.com}}</ref>

==Administration==
The island was administered as one province between 1945 and 1960. In 1960 it was divided into two provinces – North and Central Sulawesi, and South and Southeast Sulawesi. In 1964 both of these were again divided, the former into North Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi, and the latter into South Sulawesi and Southeast Sulawesi. Today, it is subdivided into six [[Provinces of Indonesia|provinces]]: [[Gorontalo (province)|Gorontalo]], [[West Sulawesi]], [[South Sulawesi]], [[Central Sulawesi]], [[Southeast Sulawesi]], and [[North Sulawesi]]. Among these, the newest provinces are Gorontalo, established in 2000 from part of North Sulawesi, and West Sulawesi, established in 2004 from part of South Sulawesi.

The largest cities on the island are the provincial capitals of [[Makassar]], [[Manado]], [[Palu]], [[Kendari]], and [[Gorontalo (city)|Gorontalo]] (the provincial capital of West Sulawesi – the town of Mamuju – is not a city); there are six other cities – Bitung, Palopo, Bau-Bau, Parepare, Kotamobagu and Tomohun.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! Province
! Area in<br />km<sup>2</sup>
! Population<br />(2010 Census)
! Population<br />(2020 Census)
! Population<br />(mid 2023<br />estimate)
! Density<br />per km<sup>2</sup><br /> (mid 2023)
|-
| [[South Sulawesi]]
| 45,330.56
| 8,034,776
| 9,073,509
| 9,362,290
| 206.5
|-
| [[West Sulawesi]]
| 16,594.75
| 1,158,651
| 1,419,229
| 1,481,077
| 89.2
|-
| [[Southeast Sulawesi]]
| 36,159.71
| 2,232,586
| 2,624,875
| 2,743,574
| 75.9
|-
| [[Central Sulawesi]]
| 61,605.72
| 2,635,009
| 2,985,734
| 3,086,750
| 50.1
|-
| [[Gorontalo (province)|Gorontalo]]
| 12,025.15
| 1,040,164
| 1,171,681
| 1,213,180
| 100.9
|-
| [[North Sulawesi]]
| 14,500.27
| 2,270,596
| 2,621,923
| 2,681,540
| 184.9
|-
|-
| '''Total Sulawesi'''
| '''186,216.16'''
| '''17,371,782'''
| '''19,896,951'''
| '''20,568,411'''
| '''110.5'''
|-
|}

{{col-2}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 95%;"
|-
! City
! Province containing the city
! Population (2010 Census)
! Population<br />(2020 Census)
! Population<br />(mid 2023<br />estimate)
|-
| [[Makassar]]
| South Sulawesi
| 1,339,374
| 1,423,877
| 1,454,960
|-
| [[Manado]]
| North Sulawesi
| 410,481
| 451,916
| 458,582
|-
| [[Palu]]
| Central Sulawesi
| 336,532
| 373,218
| 387,493
|-
| [[Kendari]]
| Southeast Sulawesi
| 289,966
| 345,107
| 351,095
|-
| [[Bitung]]
| North Sulawesi
| 187,652
| 225,134
| 232,440
|-
| [[Gorontalo (city)|Gorontalo]]
| Gorontalo
| 180,127
| 198,539
| 205,390
|-
| [[Palopo]]
| South Sulawesi
| 147,932
| 184,681
| 192,760
|-
| [[Baubau]]
| Southeast Sulawesi
| 136,991 	
| 159,248
| 161,280
|-
| [[Parepare]]
| South Sulawesi
| 129,262 	
| 151,454
| 158,430
|-
| [[Kotamobagu]]
| North Sulawesi
| 107,459 	
| 123,722
| 123,918
|-
| [[Tomohon]]
| North Sulawesi
| 91,553 	
| 100,587
| 103,072
|}
{{col-end}}

==Flora and fauna==
{{see also|Sulawesi lowland rain forests|Sulawesi montane rain forests}}
[[File:Rainbow Eucalyptus Maui.jpg|thumb|The colorful bark of ''[[Eucalyptus deglupta]]'']]
Sulawesi is part of [[Wallacea]], meaning that it has a mix of both [[Indomalayan realm|Indomalayan]] and [[Australasian realm|Australasian]] species that reached the island by [[Oceanic dispersal|crossing deep-water oceanic barriers]].<ref name="Hall1998">{{cite book|editor1=Hall, R.|editor2=Holloway, J. D.|author1= Moss, S. J.|author2= Wilson, M. E. J.| title=Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g_4TAQAAIAAJ|chapter= Biogeographic implications of the Tertiary palaeogeographic evolution of Sulawesi and Borneo|chapter-url= http://searg.rhul.ac.uk/searg_uploads/2016/01/Moss_Wilson.pdf|pages= 133–163|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Backhuys|isbn=978-90-73348-97-4}}</ref><ref name = "WWF">{{cite web |url= https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/aa0123 |title= Indonesia: Island of Sulawesi |last= Morrison |first= J. |date= 2002 |website= [[World Wildlife Fund]] |access-date= 2018-05-05}}</ref> The flora includes one native eucalypt, ''[[Eucalyptus deglupta|E. deglupta]]''. There are 8 [[List of national parks of Indonesia#Sulawesi|national parks]] on the island, of which 4 are mostly [[marine park|marine]]. The parks with the largest terrestrial area are [[Bogani Nani Wartabone National Park|Bogani Nani Wartabone]] with 2,871&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> and [[Lore Lindu National Park]] with 2,290&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. [[Bunaken National Park]], which protects a rich coral ecosystem, has been proposed as a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]. The coast of northern tip of Sulawesi is identified as a site of highest marine biodiversity importance in the [[Coral Triangle]].<ref name="Asaad18">{{cite journal |last1= Asaad |first1= Irawan |last2= Lundquist |first2= Carolyn J. |last3= Erdmann |first3= Mark V. |last4= Costello |first4= Mark J. |title= Delineating priority areas for marine biodiversity conservation in the Coral Triangle  |journal= Biological Conservation |date= June 2018|volume=222 |issue=2 |pages=198–211|doi= 10.1016/j.biocon.2018.03.037|bibcode= 2018BCons.222..198A |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320717310200 |url-access= subscription }}</ref>
===Mammals===
Early in the Pleistocene, Sulawesi had a [[dwarf elephant]] and a [[insular dwarfism|dwarf]] form of ''[[Stegodon]]'', (an elephant relative, ''S. sompoensis'');<ref name="Corlett2010" /> later both were replaced by larger forms.<ref name = "Aziz2000">{{cite journal| last= Aziz | first= F. | title= The Pleistocene Endemic Fauna of the Indonesian Archipelago | journal= Tropics | volume= 10 | issue= 1 | pages= 135–143 | date= 2000-05-30 | url= https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/tropics/10/1/10_1_135/_pdf | access-date = 2018-05-04| doi= 10.3759/tropics.10.135 | doi-access= free | bibcode= 2000Tropi..10..135A }}</ref><ref name="Morwood2016" /> A giant [[Suidae|suid]], ''[[Celebochoerus]]'', was also formerly present.<ref name="Metcalfe2001">{{cite book|editor1=Metcalfe, I.|editor2=Smith, J. M.B.|editor3=Morwood, M.|editor4= Davidson, I.|author= Groves C.|author-link= Colin Groves|title= Faunal and Floral Migration and Evolution in SE Asia-Australasia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Fp-l8IEAFHQC|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Fp-l8IEAFHQC&pg=PA333|chapter= Mammals in Sulawesi: Where did they come from and when, and what happened to them when they got there?|pages= 333–342|date=1 June 2001|publisher=CRC Press|isbn= 978-90-5809-349-3}}</ref> It is thought that many of the migrants to Sulawesi arrived via the [[Philippines]], while Sulawesi in turn served as a way station for migrants to [[Flores]].<ref>Morwood & van Oosterzee (2016), [https://books.google.com/books?id=yRCmDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA147 p. 147]</ref> A Pleistocene faunal turnover is recognized, with the competitive displacement of several indigenous tarsiers by more recently arriving ones and of ''[[Celebochoerus]]'' by other medium-sized herbivores like the [[babirusa]], [[anoa]] and [[Celebes warty pig]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Frantz | first1 = Laurent A. F. | last2 = Rudzinski | first2 = Anna | last3 = Mansyursyah Surya Nugraha | first3 = Abang | last4 = Evin | first4 = Allowen | last5 = Burton | first5 = James | last6 = Hulme-Beaman | first6 = Ardern | last7 = Linderholm | first7 = Anna | last8 = Barnett | first8 = Ross | last9 = Vega | first9 = Rodrigo | last10 = Irving-Pease | first10 = Evan K. | last11 = Haile | first11 = James | last12 = Allen | first12 = Richard | last13 = Leus | first13 = Kristin | last14 = Shephard | first14 = Jill | last15 = Hillyer | first15 = Mia | last16 = Gillemot | first16 = Sarah | last17 = van den Hurk | first17 = Jeroen | last18 = Ogle | first18 = Sharron | last19 = Atofanei | first19 = Cristina | last20 = Thomas | first20 = Mark G. | last21 = Johansson | first21 = Friederike | last22 = Haris Mustari | first22 = Abdul | last23 = Williams | first23 = John | last24 = Mohamad | first24 = Kusdiantoro | last25 = Siska Damayanti | first25 = Chandramaya | last26 = Djuwita Wiryadi | first26 = Ita | last27 = Obbles | first27 = Dagmar | last28 = Mona | first28 = Stephano | last29 = Day | first29 = Hally | last30 = Yasin | first30 = Muhammad | last31 = Meker | first31 = Stefan | last32 = McGuire | first32 = Jimmy A. | last33 = Evans | first33 = Ben J. | last34 = von Rintelen | first34 = Thomas | last35 = Ho | first35 = Simon Y. W. | last36 = Searle | first36 = Jeremy B. | last37 = Kitchener | first37 = Andrew C. | last38 = Macdonald | first38 = Alastair A. | last39 = Shaw | first39 = Darren J. | last40 = Hall | first40 = Robert | last41 = Galbusera | first41 = Peter | last42 = Larson | first42 = Greger | year = 2018| title = Synchronous diversification of Sulawesi's iconic artiodactyls driven by recent geological events | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 285 | issue = 1876| article-number = 20172566 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2017.2566 | pmid = 29643207 | pmc = 5904307 }}</ref>
[[File:Hirscheber1a.jpg|thumb|The [[north Sulawesi babirusa]] is endemic to Sulawesi.]]

There are 127 known extant native mammalian species in Sulawesi. A large percentage, 62% (79 species) are [[Endemism|endemic]], meaning that they are found nowhere else in the world. The largest of these are the two species of [[anoa]] or dwarf buffalo. Other artiodactyl species inhabiting Sulawesi are the [[Celebes warty pig|warty pig]] and the [[babirusas]], which are aberrant pigs. The only native [[carnivora]]n is the [[Sulawesi palm civet]]<ref name="Metcalfe2001" /> ([[Asian palm civet|Asian palm]] and [[Malayan civet|Malayan]] civets have been introduced<ref name= "Macrogalidia_iucn">{{Cite iucn | author = Tasirin, J. | author2 = Dinets, V. | author3 = Meijaard, E. | author4 = Brodie, J. | author5 = Nijman, V. | author6 = Loffeld, T.A.C. | author7 = Hilser, H. | author8 = Shepherd, C. | author9 = Seymour, A.S. | author10 = Duckworth, J.W. | name-list-style = amp | title = ''Macrogalidia musschenbroekii'' | volume = 2015 | article-number = e.T12592A45198901 | date = 2015 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T12592A45198901.en | access-date = 5 May 2018}}</ref>). Primates present include a number of [[nocturnal]] [[tarsier]]s (''[[Tarsius fuscus|T. fuscus]]'', [[Dian's tarsier|Dian's]], [[Gursky's spectral tarsier|Gursky's]], [[Jatna's tarsier|Jatna's]], [[Wallace's tarsier|Wallace's]], the [[Lariang tarsier|Lariang]] and [[pygmy tarsier|pygmy]] tarsiers) as well as [[Diurnality|diurnal]] [[macaque]]s ([[Heck's macaque|Heck's]], the [[booted macaque|booted]], [[Celebes crested macaque|crested black]], [[Gorontalo macaque|Gorontalo]], [[moor macaque|moor]], and [[Tonkean macaque|Tonkean]] macaques). While most of Sulawesi's mammals are [[Eutheria|placental]] and have Asian relatives, several species of [[cuscus]], arboreal [[marsupials]] of Australasian origin, are also present (''[[Ailurops ursinus]]'' and ''[[Strigocuscus celebensis]]'', which are diurnal and nocturnal, respectively).

Sulawesi is home to a large number of endemic [[rodent]] genera. [[Muridae|Murid]] rodent genera endemic to Sulawesi and immediately adjacent islands (such as the [[Togian Islands]], [[Buton|Buton Island]], and [[Muna Island]]) are ''[[Bunomys]]'', ''[[Echiothrix]]'', ''[[Margaretamys]]'', ''[[Taeromys]]'' and ''[[Tateomys]]'' as well as the single-species genera ''[[Eropeplus]]'', ''[[Hyorhinomys]]'', ''[[Melasmothrix]]'', ''[[Paucidentomys]]'', ''[[Paruromys]]'', ''[[Sommeromys]]'' and the [[semiaquatic]] ''[[Waiomys]]''. All nine [[Sciuridae|sciurid]]s are from three endemic genera, ''[[Hyosciurus]]'', ''[[Prosciurillus]]'' and ''[[Rubrisciurus]]''.

While over 20 bat species are present on Sulawesi, only a portion of these are endemic: ''[[Rhinolophus]] [[Rhinolophus tatar|tatar]]'', ''[[Scotophilus celebensis]]'' and the [[megabat]]s ''[[Acerodon celebensis]]'', ''[[Boneia bidens]]'', ''[[Dobsonia exoleta]]'', ''[[Harpyionycteris celebensis]]'', ''[[Neopteryx frosti]]'', ''[[Rousettus celebensis]]'' and ''[[Styloctenium wallacei]]''.

Several endemic shrews, the [[Sulawesi shrew]], [[Sulawesi tiny shrew]] and the [[Sulawesi white-handed shrew]], are found on the island.

Sulawesi has no [[gliding mammal]]s, being situated between Borneo with its [[Sunda flying lemur|colugo]]s and [[flying squirrel]]s, and Halmahera with its [[sugar glider]]s.

===Birds===
[[File:Trichoglossus ornatus -Nahsville Zoo-8a-4c.jpg|thumb|The endemic [[ornate lorikeet]] ]]
By contrast, Sulawesian bird species tend to be found on other nearby islands as well, such as [[Borneo]]; 31% of Sulawesi's birds are found nowhere else. One endemic (also found on small neighboring islands) is the largely ground-dwelling, chicken-sized [[maleo]], a [[megapode]] which sometimes uses hot sand close to the island's volcanic vents to incubate its eggs. An international partnership of conservationists, donors, and local people have formed the Alliance for Tompotika Conservation,<ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Maleo |url=https://www.tompotika.org/maleo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208064043/https://www.tompotika.org/maleo/ |archive-date=8 December 2024 |access-date=2025-04-03 |website=www.tompotika.org |publisher=Alliance for Tompotika Conservation}}</ref> in an effort to raise awareness and protect the nesting grounds of these birds on the central-eastern arm of the island. Other endemic birds include the flightless [[snoring rail]], the [[fiery-browed starling]], the [[Sulawesi masked owl]], the [[Sulawesi myna]], the [[satanic nightjar]] and the [[grosbeak starling]]. There are around 350 known bird species in Sulawesi.

===Reptiles===
The larger reptiles of Sulawesi are not endemic and include [[reticulated python|reticulated]] and [[Burmese python|Burmese]] pythons, the [[Pacific ground boa]], [[king cobra]]s, [[water monitor]]s, [[Hydrosaurus amboinensis|sailfin lizard]]s,<ref name="Whitten2012">{{cite book|author1=Whitten, T.|author2=Henderson, G. S.|title=Ecology of Sulawesi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q__PAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA496|date=19 June 2012|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-1-4629-0507-2|pages=496–499}}</ref> [[saltwater crocodile]]s<ref name="Whitten2012" /><ref name = "Sideleau2016">{{cite web |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301894377 |title= Recent Records of Crocodiles on the Island of Sulawesi, Indonesia |last= Sideleau |first= B. M. |date= April 2016 |access-date= 2018-05-05}}</ref> and [[green sea turtle]]s. An extinct giant [[tortoise]], ''[[Megalochelys atlas]]'', was formerly present, but disappeared by 840,000 years ago, possibly because of the arrival of [[Homo erectus]].<ref name="Corlett2010">{{cite book|editor1=Haberle, S. G.|editor2=Stevenson, J.|editor3=Prebble, M.|author= Corlett, R. T.|series= Terra Australis|volume= 32|url= https://press.anu.edu.au?p=18701|chapter-url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265605015|title= Altered Ecologies: Fire, Climate and Human Influence on Terrestrial Landscapes |chapter= Megafaunal extinctions and their consequences in the tropical Indo-Pacific |pages= 117–132 (see p. 122)|date= November 2010|publisher= ANU Press|isbn= 978-1-921666-80-3|doi=10.22459/TA32.11.2010 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Morwood2016">{{cite book|author1= Morwood, M.|author2=van Oosterzee, P.|title=A New Human: The Startling Discovery and Strange Story of the "Hobbits" of Flores, Indonesia, Updated Paperback Edition|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yRCmDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA146|date=5 December 2016|publisher= Taylor & Francis|isbn= 978-1-315-43563-3|page=146}}</ref> Similarly, [[komodo dragon]]s or similar lizards appear to have inhabited the island, being among its [[apex predator]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hocknull | first1 = S. A. | last2 = Piper | first2 = P. J. | last3 = van den Bergh | first3 = G. D. | last4 = Due | first4 = R. A. | last5 = Morwood | first5 = M. J. | last6 = Kurniawan | first6 = I. | year = 2009 | title = Dragon's paradise lost: palaeobiogeography, evolution and extinction of the largest-ever terrestrial lizards (Varanidae) | journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 4 | issue = 9| article-number = e7241 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0007241 | pmid = 19789642 | pmc = 2748693 | bibcode = 2009PLoSO...4.7241H | doi-access = free }}</ref> The smaller snakes of Sulawesi include nonendemic forms such as the gliding species ''[[Chrysopelea paradisi]]'' and endemic forms such as ''[[Calamaria]] [[Calamaria boesemani|boesemani]]'', ''[[Calamaria muelleri]]'', ''[[Calamaria nuchalis]]'', ''[[Cyclotyphlops]]'', ''[[Enhydris]] [[Enhydris matannensis|matannensis]]'', ''[[Ptyas]] [[Ptyas dipsas|dipsas]]'', ''[[Rabdion grovesi]]'', ''[[Tropidolaemus laticinctus]]'' and ''[[Typhlops conradi]]''. Similarly, the smaller lizards of Sulawesi include nonendemic species such as ''[[Bronchocela jubata]]'', ''[[Dibamus novaeguineae]]'' and ''[[Gekko smithii]]'', as well as endemic species such as ''[[Lipinia]] [[Lipinia infralineolata|infralineolata]]'' and ''[[Gekko iskandari]]''.

Sulawesi also harbours several species of freshwater chelonians, two of which are endemic. They include the [[Forsten's tortoise]] and the [[Sulawesi forest turtle]], both of which likely attribute their respective origins to the dispersal of the mainland Asian [[elongated tortoise]] and [[Malayan flat-shelled turtle]] from the then-exposed subcontinent of [[Sundaland]] during the [[Pleistocene epoch]].

The remaining two species consist of the non-endemic [[Malayan box turtle]] of the Wallacean subspecies, and the [[Asiatic softshell turtle]].

===Amphibians===
The amphibians of Sulawesi include the endemic frogs ''[[Hylarana celebensis]]'', ''[[Hylarana macrops|H. macrops]]'', ''[[Hylarana mocquardi|H. mocquardi]]'', ''[[Ingerophrynus celebensis]]'', ''[[Limnonectes arathooni]]'', ''[[Limnonectes larvaepartus|L. larvaepartus]]'', ''[[Limnonectes microtympanum|L. microtympanum]]'', ''[[Occidozyga celebensis]]'', ''[[Occidozyga semipalmata|O. semipalmata]]'' and ''[[Occidozyga tompotika|O. tompotika]]'' as well as the endemic "[[flying frog]]s" ''[[Rhacophorus edentulus]]'' and ''[[Rhacophorus georgii|R. georgii]]''.

===Freshwater fish===
[[File:Nomorhamphus liemi liemi (Wroclaw zoo)-2.JPG|thumb|15 species of [[viviparous halfbeak]]s are endemic to Sulawesi, including 12 ''[[Nomorhamphus]]'' (depicted), ''[[Dermogenys orientalis]]'', ''[[Dermogenys vogti|D. vogti]]'', and ''[[Tondanichthys kottelati]]''.<ref name=SysNomorhamphus/><ref name=FishBaseNomorhamphus/><ref>{{FishBase|Tondanichthys|kottelati|year=2014}}</ref>]]

Sulawesi is home to more than 70 [[freshwater fish]] species,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nguyen | first1 = T.T.T. | last2 = De Silva | first2 = S. S. | s2cid = 26861313 | year = 2006 | title = Freshwater finfish biodiversity and conservation: an asian perspective. | journal = Biodiversity & Conservation | volume = 15 | issue = 11| pages = 3543–3568 | doi = 10.1007/s10531-005-0312-8 | bibcode = 2006BiCon..15.3543N }}</ref> including more than 55 endemics.<ref name=Parenti2011>Parenti, L.R. (2011). [https://repository.si.edu/handle/10088/18561 Endemism and Conservation of the Native Freshwater Fish Fauna of Sulawesi, Indonesia]. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Ikan IV: 1–10.</ref> Among these are the genus ''[[Nomorhamphus]]'', a [[species flock]] of [[viviparous halfbeak]]s containing 12 species that only are found on Sulawesi (others are from the Philippines).<ref name=SysNomorhamphus>''[http://www.nmnh.si.edu/rtp/students/1993/students_1993_louie.htm The Systematic Review of the Fish Genus Nomorhamphus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921143154/http://www.nmnh.si.edu/rtp/students/1993/students_1993_louie.htm |date=21 September 2006 }}'' – Louie, Kristina, research paper, Colgate University, Hamilton, New York, 1993</ref><ref name=FishBaseNomorhamphus>{{FishBase genus | genus = Nomorhamphus| month = July | year = 2014}}</ref> In addition to ''Nomorhamphus'', the majority of Sulawesi's freshwater fish species are [[ricefish]]es, gobies (''[[Glossogobius]]'' and ''[[Mugilogobius]]'') and [[Telmatherinidae|Telmatherinid]] sail-fin silversides.<ref name=Parenti2011/> The last family is almost entirely restricted to Sulawesi, especially the Malili Lake system, consisting of [[Lake Matano|Matano]] and [[Lake Towuti|Towuti]], and the small [[Lake Lontoa|Lontoa]] (Wawantoa), [[Lake Mahalona|Mahalona]] and [[Lake Masapi|Masapi]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gray | first1 = S.M. | last2 = McKinnon | first2 = J.S. | s2cid = 8672171 | year = 2006 | title = A comparative description of mating behavior in the endemic telmatherinid fishes of Sulawesi's Malili Lakes | journal = Environmental Biology of Fishes | volume = 75 | issue = 4| pages = 471–482 | doi = 10.1007/s10641-006-0037-x | bibcode = 2006EnvBF..75..471G }}</ref> Another unusual endemic is ''[[Lagusia micracanthus]]'' from rivers in [[South Sulawesi]], which is the sole member of its genus and among the smallest [[Terapontidae|grunters]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Vari | first1 = P.R. | last2 = Hadiaty | first2 = K.R. | year = 2012 | title = The Endemic Sulawesi Fish Genus Lagusia (Teleostrei:: Terapontidae) | url = http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/60/60rbz157-162.pdf | journal = The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology | volume = 60 | issue = 1 | pages = 157–162 | access-date = 4 July 2014 | archive-date = 15 July 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140715002033/http://rmbr.nus.edu.sg/rbz/biblio/60/60rbz157-162.pdf }}</ref> The [[Eleotridae|gudgeon]] ''[[Bostrychus microphthalmus]]'' from the [[Maros Regency|Maros]] Karst is the only described species of [[Cavefish|cave-adapted fish]] from Sulawesi,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hoese | first1 = D.F. | last2 = Kottelat | first2 = M. | year = 2005 | title = Bostrychus microphthalmus, a new microphthalmic cavefish from Sulawesi (Teleostei: Gobiidae) | journal = Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters | volume = 16 | issue = 2| pages = 183–191 }}</ref> but an apparently [[undescribed species]] from the same region and genus also exists.<ref>Saturi, O.S. (31 May 2012). ''[https://www.mongabay.co.id/2012/05/31/ikan-kepiting-dan-udang-buta-penghuni-karst-maros/ Ikan, Kepiting dan Udang Buta Penghuni Karst Maros].'' Mongabay-Indonesia. Retrieved 23 November 2012.</ref>

===Freshwater crustaceans and snails===
[[File:Orange delight shrimp sulawesi.jpg|thumb|right|Orange delight shrimp (''[[Caridina loehae]]'') from Sulawesi.]]
Many species of ''[[Caridina]]'' freshwater shrimp and [[Parathelphusidae|parathelphusid]] freshwater crabs (''[[Migmathelphusa]]'', ''[[Nautilothelphusa]]'', ''[[Parathelphusa]]'', ''[[Sundathelphusa]]'' and ''[[Syntripsa]]'') are endemic to Sulawesi.<ref name=shrimp>von Rintelen, K., and Y. Cai (2009). ''Radiation of endemic species flocks in ancient lakes: systematic revision of the freshwater shrimp Caridina H. Milne Edwards, 1837 (Crustacea: Decapoda: Atyidae) from the ancient lakes of Sulawesi, Indonesia, with the description of eight new species.'' Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 57: 343–452.</ref><ref name=crab>Chia, O.C.K. and P.K.L. Ng (2006). ''The freshwater crabs of Sulawesi, with descriptions of two new genera and four new species (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Parathelphusidae).'' Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 54: 381–428.</ref> Several of these species have become very popular in the aquarium hobby, and since most are restricted to a single lake system, they are potentially vulnerable to [[habitat loss]] and [[overexploitation]].<ref name=shrimp/><ref name=crab/> There are also several endemic cave-adapted shrimp and crabs, especially in the Maros Karst. This includes ''[[Cancrocaeca xenomorpha]]'', which has been called the "most highly [[Troglobite|cave-adapted]] species of crab known in the world".<ref>Deharveng, L. , D. Guinot and P.K.L. Ng (2012). ''[http://www.arcbc.org.ph/arcbcweb/pdf/vol2no2/focus_false_spider_cave_crab.pdf False spider cave crab, (Cancrocaeca xenomorpha)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515170009/http://www.arcbc.org.ph/arcbcweb/pdf/vol2no2/focus_false_spider_cave_crab.pdf |date=15 May 2013 }}.'' ASEAN Regional Center for Biodiversity Conservation. Retrieved 13 November 2012.</ref>

The genus ''[[Tylomelania]]'' of [[freshwater snail]]s is also endemic to Sulawesi, with the majority of the species restricted to [[Lake Poso]] and the Malili Lake system.<ref>von Rintelen , T., K. von Rintelen, and M. Glaubrecht (2010). ''The species flock of the viviparous freshwater gastropod Tylomelania (Mollusca: Cerithioidea: Pachychilidae) in the ancient lakes of Sulawesi, Indonesia: the role of geography, trophic morphology and color as driving forces in adaptive radiation.'' pp. 485–512 in: Glaubrecht, M., and H. Schneider, eds. (2010). Evolution in Action: Adaptive Radiations and the Origins of Biodiversity. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, Germany.</ref>

===Insects===
The ''[[Trigonopterus selayarensis]]'' is a flightless [[weevil]] endemic to Sulawesi.<ref>{{cite journal |title=One hundred and three new species of Trigonopterus weevils from Sulawesi |author1=Alexander Riedel |author2=Raden Pramesa Narakusumo |journal=ZooKeys |date=7 March 2019 |issue=828 |pages=1–153 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.828.32200 |pmid=30940991 |pmc=6418079 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019ZooK..828....1R }}</ref>

===Miscellaneous===
The [[Indonesian coelacanth]] and the [[mimic octopus]] are present in the waters off Sulawesi's coast.

===Conservation===
Sulawesi island was recently the subject of an Ecoregional Conservation Assessment, coordinated by [[The Nature Conservancy]].  Detailed reports about the vegetation of the island are available.<ref>''[http://www.faculty.biol.ttu.edu/cannon/vegetation_of_sulawesi.htm The Vegetation of Sulawesi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222012256/http://www.faculty.biol.ttu.edu/cannon/vegetation_of_sulawesi.htm |date=22 December 2007 }}'' – Reports from the Nature Conservancy's Indonesian Program and Texas Tech University, Department of Biological Sciences; 2004</ref> The assessment produced a detailed and annotated list of 'conservation portfolio' sites. This information was widely distributed to local government agencies and nongovernmental organizations. Detailed conservation priorities have also been outlined in a recent publication.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2007.00323.x|title = Developing Conservation Priorities Based on Forest Type, Condition, and Threats in a Poorly Known Ecoregion: Sulawesi, Indonesia|year = 2007|last1 = Cannon|first1 = Charles H.|last2 = Summers|first2 = Marcy|last3 = Harting|first3 = John R.|last4 = Kessler|first4 = Paul J.A.|journal = Biotropica|volume = 39|issue = 6|pages = 747–759| bibcode=2007Biotr..39..747C | s2cid=55274207 }}</ref>

The lowland forests on the island have mostly been removed.<ref>"[https://news.mongabay.com/2007/0628-sulawesi.html Rare and mysterious forests of Sulawesi 80% gone]" – mongabay.com</ref> Because of the relative geological youth of the island and its dramatic and sharp topography, the lowland areas are naturally limited in their extent.  The past decade has seen dramatic conversion of this rare and endangered habitat.  The island also possesses one of the largest outcrops of [[serpentine soil]] in the world, which support an unusual and large community of specialized plant species.  Overall, the flora and fauna of this unique center of global biodiversity is very poorly documented and understood and remains critically threatened.

The islands of Pepaya, Mas, and Raja islands, located in Sumalata Village – [[North Gorontalo Regency]] (about 30&nbsp;km from [[Saronde Island]]), have been named a nature reserve since the Dutch colonial time in 1936. Four of the only seven species of [[sea turtle]]s can be found in the islands, the world's best turtle habitat. They include penyu hijau (''[[Green sea turtle|Chelonia midas]]''), penyu sisik (''[[Hawksbill sea turtle|Eretmochelys imbricata]]''), penyu tempayan (''[[Caretta caretta]]'') and penyu belimbing (''[[Dermochelys coriacea]]''). In 2011, the habitat was threatened by human activities such as illegal poaching and fish bombing activities; furthermore, many coral reefs, which represent a source of food for turtles, have been damaged.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.antaranews.com/en/news/72396/worlds-best-turtle-habitat-in-gorontalo-threatened|title=World's best turtle habitat in Gorontalo threatened|date=7 June 2011 }}</ref>

==Environment==
[[File:Bunaken01.JPG|thumb|[[Bunaken]] Island seen from Manado Tua island.]]
The largest environmental issue in Sulawesi is [[deforestation]]. In 2007, scientists found that 80 percent of Sulawesi's forest had been lost or degraded, especially centered in the lowlands and the mangroves.<ref>"[https://www.mongabay.com/profiles/sulawesi.html  Sulawesi Profile]" – mongabay.com</ref> Forests have been felled for logging and large agricultural projects. Loss of forest has resulted in many of Sulawesi's endemic species becoming endangered. In addition, 99 percent of Sulawesi's wetlands have been lost or damaged.

Other environmental threats included bushmeat hunting and mining.<ref name="Sulawesi Profile">"[https://www.mongabay.com/profiles/sulawesi.html Sulawesi Profile]" – mongabay.com</ref>

=== Parks ===

The island of Sulawesi has six national parks and nineteen nature reserves. In addition, Sulawesi has three marine protected areas. Many of Sulawesi's parks are threatened by logging, mining, and deforestation for agriculture.<ref name="Sulawesi Profile"/>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Geography|Indonesia}}
* [[List of islands of Indonesia]]
* [[Celebes Sea]]
* {{HMS|Celebes|1806}}
* [[2009 Sulawesi superbolide]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{reflist|group=n}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== General sources ==
* {{citation |ref={{harvid|IHO|1953}} |url=http://iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf |title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, ''3rd ed.'' |year=1953 |publisher=[[International Hydrographic Organization]] |access-date=6 October 2015 |archive-date=5 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005131902/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf }}.
* {{citation |last=Von Rintelen |first=T. |author2-last=Stelbrink |author2-first=B. |author3-last=Marwoto |author3-first=R.M. |author4-last=Glaubrecht |author4-first=M. |display-authors=1 |date=2014 |title=A Snail Perspective on the Biogeography of Sulawesi, Indonesia: Origin and Intra-Island Dispersal of the Viviparous Freshwater Gastropod ''Tylomelania'' |journal=PLOS ONE|volume=9 |issue=6 |article-number=e98917 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0098917 |pmid=24971564 |pmc=4090239 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...998917V |ref={{harvid|Von Rintelen & al.|2014}}  |doi-access=free }}.

==External links==
{{commons category|Sulawesi}}
{{EB1911 poster|Celebes}}
{{wiktionary}}
* {{Wikivoyage inline}}

{{Provinces of Indonesia}}
{{World's largest islands}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sulawesi| ]]
[[Category:Greater Sunda Islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Maritime Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Wallacea]]