View source for Susquehanna River

{{short description|Major river in the Northeastern United States}}
{{Use American English|date=February 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox river
| name               = Susquehanna River
| native_name        = {{native name|unm|Siskëwahane}}
| name_other         = 
| name_etymology     = 
<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->
| image              = Asylum Township.jpg{{!}}border
| image_caption      = Susquehanna River in [[Bradford County, Pennsylvania]]
| map                = Susquehanna watershed.png
| map_size           = 
| map_caption        = Map of the Susquehanna River watershed
| pushpin_map        = 
| pushpin_map_size   = 
| pushpin_map_caption= 
<!---------------------- LOCATION -->
| subdivision_type1  = Country
| subdivision_name1  = [[United States]]
| subdivision_type2  = [[List of states and territories of the United States|States]]
| subdivision_name2  = [[New York (state)|New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Maryland]]<ref name="NHD">U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. [http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ The National Map] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329155652/http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ |date=March 29, 2012}}, accessed August 8, 2011</ref>
| subdivision_type3  = 
| subdivision_name3  = 
| subdivision_type4  = 
| subdivision_name4  = 
| subdivision_type5  = Cities
| subdivision_name5  = (in order starting north and ending south) [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton, NY]], [[Pittston, Pennsylvania|Pittston, PA]], [[Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania|Wilkes-Barre, PA]], [[Williamsport, Pennsylvania|Williamsport, PA]], [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg, PA]], [[Northumberland, Pennsylvania|Northumberland, PA]], [[Sunbury, Pennsylvania|Sunbury, PA]], [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg, PA (PA state capital)]], [[Port Deposit, Maryland|Port Deposit, MD]], [[Havre de Grace, Maryland|Havre de Grace, MD]]
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->
| length             = {{convert|444|mi|km|abbr=on}}<ref name="length">{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=Susquehanna River Basin Map - Susquehanna River Basin Commission |url=http://www.docs.dcnr.pa.gov/cs/groups/public/documents/document/dcnr_20031260.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiE_t623vriAhXym-AKHe35CCwQFjAPegQICxAB&usg=AOvVaw0sw4o_vh9VEGdr1tT_r_6x |access-date=21 June 2019 |website=docs.dcnr.pa.gov |quote=data}}</ref>
| width_min          = 
| width_avg          = 
| width_max          = 
| depth_min          = 
| depth_avg          = 
| depth_max          = 
| discharge1_location= [[Conowingo Dam]], MD
| discharge1_min     = {{convert|2990|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_avg     = {{convert|40670|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_max     = {{convert|1130000|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}June 24, 1972<ref>{{Cite web |title=USGS 01578310 Susquehanna River at Conowingo, MD |url=https://waterdata.usgs.gov/md/nwis/uv/?site_no=01578310&agency_cd=USGS& |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210400/http://waterdata.usgs.gov/md/nwis/uv/?site_no=01578310&agency_cd=USGS& |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |access-date=2010-08-03 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |df=mdy-all}}</ref>
| discharge2_location= [[Danville, Pennsylvania|Danville, PA]]
| discharge2_min     = 
| discharge2_avg     = {{convert|16850|cuft/s|m3/s|abbr=on}}(Water years 1968-2019)<ref>{{Cite web |title=USGS 01540500 Susquehanna River at Danville, PA |url=https://waterdata.usgs.gov/md/nwis/uv/?site_no=01540500&agency_cd=USGS& |access-date=November 6, 2020 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref>
| discharge2_max     = 
<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->
| source1            = [[Otsego Lake (New York)|Otsego Lake]]
| source1_location   = [[Cooperstown, New York|Cooperstown]], [[Otsego County, New York|Otsego County]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[United States|USA]]<ref name="sr">{{cite gnis |id=591690 |name=Susquehanna River |access-date=September 25, 2017}}</ref>
| source1_coordinates= {{coord|42|42|02|N|74|55|10|W|display=inline}}
| source1_elevation  = {{convert|1191|ft|abbr=on}}<ref name="ol">{{cite GNIS|959551|Otsego Lake|August 11, 2015}}</ref>
| mouth              = [[Chesapeake Bay]]
| mouth_location     = [[Havre de Grace, Maryland|Havre de Grace]], [[Cecil County, Maryland|Cecil County]]&nbsp;/ [[Harford County, Maryland|Harford County]], [[Maryland]], [[United States|USA]]<ref name=sr/>
| mouth_coordinates  = {{coord|39|32|35|N|76|04|32|W|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation    = {{convert|0|ft|abbr=on}}
| progression        = 
| river_system       = 
| basin_size         = {{convert|27500|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| tributaries_left   = [[Lackawanna River]], [[Mahanoy Creek]], [[Swatara Creek]], [[Conestoga River]], [[Little Mehoopany Creek]]
| tributaries_right  = [[Oaks Creek]], [[Unadilla River]], [[Chenango River]], [[Chemung River]], [[West Branch Susquehanna River|West Branch]], [[Juniata River]]
| custom_label       = 
| custom_data        = 
| mapframe           = yes
| mapframe-zoom      = 6
| mapframe-height    = 250
| mapframe-stroke-width = 1.5
}}

The '''Susquehanna River''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|s|ʌ|s|k|w|ə|ˈ|h|æ|n|ə}} {{respell|SUSS|kwə|HAN|ə}}; [[Unami language|Lenape]]: {{lang|unm|Siskëwahane}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Susquehanna River |url=http://www.talk-lenape.org/detail.php?id=9643 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113021946/http://www.talk-lenape.org/detail.php?id=9643 |archive-date=2013-11-13 |access-date=2012-05-27 |website=Lenape Talking Dictionary |df=mdy-all}}</ref>) is a major [[river]] located in the [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]] region of the United States, crossing three lower [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]] states (New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland). At {{convert|444|mi}} long, it is the longest river on the [[East Coast of the United States]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Susquehanna River |url=http://www.visitcentralpa.org/things-to-do/the-susquehanna-river |access-date=2020-03-29 |publisher=Susquehanna River Valley Visitors Bureau |location=Lewisburg, Pennsylvania}}</ref> By [[Drainage basin|watershed]] area, it is the 16th-largest river in the United States,<ref name="fishcomm">[http://www.fish.state.pa.us/watertrails/susqmid/trailguide.htm Susquehanna River Trail] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422163731/http://www.fish.state.pa.us/watertrails/susqmid/trailguide.htm |date=April 22, 2009 }} [[Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission]], accessed March 25, 2010.</ref><ref name="greenworks">[http://www.greenworks.tv/radio/earthtones/susquehanna.htm Susquehanna River] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417235058/http://www.greenworks.tv/radio/earthtones/susquehanna.htm |date=April 17, 2015}}, Green Works Radio, accessed March 25, 2010.</ref> and also the longest river in the early 21st-century [[continental United States]] without commercial boat traffic.<ref>{{cite web |title=Susquehanna River Basin Facts |url=https://www.srbc.gov/our-work/fact-sheets/docs/river-basin-facts.pdf |website=Susquehanna River Basin Commission |access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref>

The Susquehanna River forms from two main branches: the [[North Branch Susquehanna River|North Branch]], which rises in [[Cooperstown, New York]], and is regarded by federal mapmakers as the main branch or headwaters,<ref name="gnis">{{Cite GNIS|591690|Susquehanna River}}</ref> and the [[West Branch Susquehanna River|West Branch]], which rises in western [[Pennsylvania]] and joins the main branch near [[Northumberland, Pennsylvania|Northumberland]] in central Pennsylvania.

The river drains {{convert|27500|sqmi}}, including nearly half of the land area of Pennsylvania. The [[drainage basin]] includes portions of the [[Allegheny Plateau]] region of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], cutting through a succession of [[water gap]]s in a broad [[zigzag]] course to flow across the rural heartland of southeastern Pennsylvania and northeastern [[Maryland]] in the lateral near-parallel array of mountain ridges. The river empties into the northern end of the [[Chesapeake Bay]] at [[Perryville, Maryland|Perryville]] and [[Havre de Grace, Maryland]], providing half of the Bay's freshwater inflow. The bay lies in the flooded valley, or ''[[ria]]'', of the Susquehanna.

==Geology==
The Susquehanna River is likely an old river, cutting across the grain of ancient rift basins in the Piedmont as well as faults and folds of the Appalachians. It may have been established during the late Jurassic, Cretaceous or Tertiary Periods, tens to more than one hundred million years ago, when southeasterly drainage to the Atlantic Ocean Basin was established. The [[list of rivers by age]] gives its age as 270-340 million years.

==Course==
Both branches and the lower Susquehanna were part of important regional transportation corridors. The river was extensively used for [[muscle power|muscle-powered]] [[ferries]], [[boat]]s, and [[canal]] boat shipping of bulk goods in the brief decades before the [[Pennsylvania Canal]] system was eclipsed by the coming of age of [[steam locomotive|steam]]-powered [[Pennsylvania Railroad|railways]]. While the railroad industry has been less prevalent since the closures and mergers of the 1950s–1960s, a wide-ranging rail transportation infrastructure still operates along the river's shores.
{{anchor|Main Branch Susquehanna}}

[[File:Susquehanna source.jpg|thumb|Susquehanna River at source, looking at [[Otsego Lake (New York)|Otsego Lake]]|alt=|308x308px]]

===North Branch Susquehanna<!-- Linked to from [[Duryea yard#Geography]] -->===
Also called the '''Main Branch Susquehanna''', the longer branch of the river rises at the outlet of [[Otsego Lake (New York)|Otsego Lake]] in [[Cooperstown, New York]]. From there, the north branch of the river runs west-southwest through rural farmland and dairy country, receiving the [[Unadilla River]] at [[Sidney (village), New York|Sidney]]. It dips south into [[Pennsylvania]] briefly to turn sharply 90 degrees west at [[Susquehanna, Pennsylvania|Susquehanna]] and again 90 degrees north at [[Great Bend, Pennsylvania|Great Bend]] hooking back into [[New York (state)|New York]]. It receives the [[Chenango River|Chenango]] in downtown [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]]. After meandering westwards, it turns south crossing the line again through the twin towns of [[Waverly, Tioga County, New York|Waverly, New York]], and [[Sayre, Pennsylvania]], and their large [[right bank]] railyard, once briefly holding the largest structure in the United States devoted to the maintenance and construction of railroad locomotives.<ref>[[Lehigh Valley Railroad]]'s Engine refurbishment and construction work at Sayre yard.</ref>

A couple of miles south, in [[Athens Township, Bradford County, Pennsylvania|Athens Township, Pennsylvania]], it receives the [[Chemung River|Chemung]] from the northwest. It makes a right-angle curve between Sayre and [[Towanda, Pennsylvania|Towanda]] to cut through the [[Endless Mountains]] in the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania. It receives the [[Lackawanna River]] southwest of [[Scranton, Pennsylvania|Scranton]] and turns sharply to the southwest, flowing through the former [[anthracite]] industrial heartland in the mountain ridges of northeastern Pennsylvania, past [[Pittston, Pennsylvania|Pittston City]] ([[Greater Pittston]]), [[Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania|Wilkes-Barre]], [[Nanticoke, Pennsylvania|Nanticoke]], [[Shickshinny]], [[Berwick, Pennsylvania|Berwick]], [[Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania|Bloomsburg]], and [[Danville, Pennsylvania|Danville]], before receiving the West Branch at Northumberland.

===West Branch Susquehanna===
{{Main|West Branch Susquehanna River}}

The origin of the official West Branch is near [[Elmora, Pennsylvania]], in northern [[Cambria County, Pennsylvania|Cambria County]] near the contemporary {{plain link|http://binged.it/1VGmbd8|junction of Mitchel Road}} and [[US Route 219]]<ref>297 Mitchel Rd, Carrolltown, Cambria County, PA 15722 Lat,Lng: 40.584789, -78.718370 per BING Maps</ref> (locally Plank Road). It travels northeasterly through the towns of [[Northern Cambria, Pennsylvania|Northern Cambria]], [[Cherry Tree, Pennsylvania|Cherry Tree]], [[Burnside, Pennsylvania|Burnside]], [[Mahaffey, Pennsylvania|Mahaffey]] and [[Curwensville, Pennsylvania|Curwensville]] (where the river is dammed to form a lake), into and through [[Clearfield, Pennsylvania|Clearfield]], where it receives [[Clearfield Creek]].

The West Branch turns to the southeast and passes [[Karthaus, Pennsylvania|Karthaus]] (at Mosquito Creek), [[Keating, Pennsylvania|Keating]] (at Sinnemahoning Creek), [[Renovo, Pennsylvania|Renovo]] and [[Lock Haven, Pennsylvania|Lock Haven]], where it receives [[Bald Eagle Creek (West Branch Susquehanna River tributary)|Bald Eagle Creek]]. At Jersey Shore, Pennsylvania, Pine Creek, the largest tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River, is received. Pine Creek has the largest watershed of all the West Branch’s tributaries. It passes [[Williamsport, Pennsylvania|Williamsport]], where both Lycoming Creek and Loyalsock Creek empty into it, then turns south, passing [[Lewisburg, Pennsylvania|Lewisburg]], before joining the North Branch flowing from the northwest at Northumberland.

[[File:Susquehanna ETM 19990923 lrg.jpg|thumb|Satellite photo of the river (upper left) where it empties into the Chesapeake Bay (center)]]

===Main Susquehanna flow===
{{See also|Susquehanna Valley|List of cities and towns along the Susquehanna River}}
Downstream from the confluence of its branches in [[Northumberland County, Pennsylvania|Northumberland]], the river flows south past [[Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania|Selinsgrove]], where it is joined by its [[Penns Creek]] tributary, and cuts through a [[water gap]] at the western end of [[Mahantongo]] Mountain. It receives the [[Juniata River]] from the northwest at [[Duncannon, Pennsylvania|Duncannon]], then passes through its last water gap, the [[Susquehanna Gap]] through the [[Blue Mountain (Pennsylvania)|Blue Mountain Ridge]], just northwest of [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg]].

[[Downtown Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Downtown Harrisburg]] developed on the east side of the river, which is nearly a mile wide here. Harrisburg is the largest city located on the lower river, which flows southeast across [[South Central Pennsylvania]], forming the border between [[York County, Pennsylvania|York]] and [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] counties, and receiving [[Swatara Creek]] from the northeast. It crosses into northern Maryland approximately {{convert|30|mi}} northeast of [[Baltimore]] and is joined by [[Octoraro Creek]] from the northeast and [[Deer Creek (Maryland)|Deer Creek]] from the northwest. The river enters the northern end of the [[Chesapeake Bay]] at [[Havre de Grace, Maryland|Havre de Grace]]. [[Concord Point Light]] was built here in 1827 to accommodate the increasing navigational traffic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Simms, William Q. |title=Two Lights on the Hill |url=http://www.lhdigest.com/Digest/StoryPage.cfm?StoryKey=1004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225014734/http://www.lhdigest.com/Digest/StoryPage.cfm?StoryKey=1004 |archive-date=December 25, 2007 |access-date=2006-12-28 |publisher=Lighthouse Digest |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

==Naming==
"Susquehanna" may come from the [[Delaware languages|Lenape]] word ''siskëwahane'', meaning "Muddy River".<ref>{{Cite web |title=siskëwahane |url=https://www.talk-lenape.org/detail?id=9643 |access-date=22 August 2021 |website=Lenape Talking Dictionary |publisher=Lenape Language Preservation Project}}</ref> Alternatively, it may come from another Lenape term, ''Sisa'we'hak'hanna'', which means "Oyster River".<ref>Brinton, Daniel G., C.F. Denke, and Albert Anthony. ''A Lenâpé – English Dictionary''. Biblio Bazaar, 2009. {{ISBN|978-1-103-14922-3}}, p. 132.</ref> Oyster beds were widespread in the bay near the mouth of the river, which the Lenape farmed. They left oyster shell [[middens]] at their villages.<ref>"History on the Half-Shell: The Story of New York City and Its Oysters." (n.d.), New York Public Library blog. Retrieved May 20, 2017, from https://www.nypl.org/blog/2011/06/01/history-half-shell-intertwined-story-new-york-city-and-its-oysters {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917083834/https://www.nypl.org/blog/2011/06/01/history-half-shell-intertwined-story-new-york-city-and-its-oysters |date=September 17, 2017 }}</ref> A third account translates "Susquehanna" from the [[Susquehannock language]], of the Iroquoian family, as "the stream that falls toward the south" or "long-crooked-river".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Steinmetz |first=Richard H. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1976122 |title=This was Harrisburg : a photographic history |publisher=Stackpole Books |year=1976 |isbn=0-8117-1729-1 |page=14 |oclc=1976122}}</ref>

The Lenape are an [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian-speaking]] Native American people who had communities ranging from coastal Connecticut through New York and Long Island, and further south into New Jersey and Delaware in the mid-Atlantic area. Their settlements in Pennsylvania included ''Con'esto'ga'' ("Roof-place" or "town", modern [[Washington Boro, Pennsylvania|Washington Boro, Lancaster County]]), also called ''Ka'ot'sch'ie'ra'' ("Place-crawfish", modern Chickisalunga, Lancaster County), or ''Gasch'guch'sa'' ("Great-fall-in-river", modern [[Conewago Falls]], Lancaster County). They were called ''Minquas'' ("quite different"), or ''Sisa'we'hak'hanna'lenno'wak'' ("Oyster-river-people") by others.<ref>Brinton, Daniel G., C.F. Denke, and Albert Anthony. ''A Lenâpé – English Dictionary.'' Biblio Bazaar, 2009. {{ISBN|978-1-103-14922-3}}, pp. 81, 85,132.</ref>{{Citation needed|reason=Cited reference does not define the words "Con'esto'ga", "Ka'ot'sch'ie'ra", "Gasch'guch'sa", or "Minquas"|date=September 2018}} The Lenape also called the area ''Sisa'we'hak'hanna'unk'' ("Oyster-river-place").<ref>Zeisberger, David. ''Indian Dictionary: English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware''. Harvard University Press, 1887. {{ISBN|1-104-25351-8}}, pp. 48, 161, and 222.</ref>

Peoples of the mid-Atlantic Coast included coastal peoples who spoke [[Algonquian languages]], such as the Lenape (whose bands spoke three dialects of Lenape), and [[Iroquoian languages]]-speaking peoples of the interior, such as the [[Eroni]] and the [[Iroquois|Five Nations of the Iroquois League]], or ''[[Haudenosaunee]]'', based largely in present-day New York and upper Pennsylvania around the Great Lakes.<ref name="zeis" /> The English of Pennsylvania referred to the Eroni people of Conestoga as "Susquehannocks" or "Susquehannock Indians", a name derived from the Lenape term.<ref name="zeis">Zeisberger, David. ''Indian Dictionary: English, German, Iroquois—The Onondaga and Algonquin—The Delaware''. Harvard University Press, 1887. {{ISBN|1-104-25351-8}}, p. 141.</ref> In addition, [[John Smith of Jamestown]], Virginia, labeled their settlement as ''"Sasquesahanough"'' on his 1612 map when he explored the upper [[Chesapeake Bay]] area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=John Smith, A Map of Virginia, 1612 |url=http://www.marinersmuseum.org/sites/micro/cbhf/colonial/map/map.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402020414/http://www.marinersmuseum.org/sites/micro/cbhf/colonial/map/map.html |archive-date=April 2, 2012 |access-date=September 10, 2011 |website=www.marinersmuseum.org}}</ref>

In Virginia and other southern colonies, [[Siouan languages|Siouan]]-speaking tribes constituted a third major language family, with their peoples occupying much of the middle areas of the interior. Algongquian-speaking peoples predominated in the coastal areas. [[Iroquoian peoples|Iroquoian speakers]], such as the [[Cherokee]] and [[Tuscarora people]]s, generally occupied areas to the interior near the Piedmont and foothills.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heinemann |first=Ronald L. |title=Old Dominion, New Commonwealth |last2=Kolp |first2=John G. |last3=Parent |first3=Anthony S. Jr. |last4=Shade |first4=William G. |publisher=[[University of Virginia Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8139-2609-4 |location=Charlottesville}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Susquehanna River in Danville.JPG|thumb|Looking upstream in [[Danville, Pennsylvania]]]]

In 1615, the river was traversed by the French explorer [[Étienne Brûlé]]. In the 1670s the Conestoga, or [[Susquehannock]] people, succumbed to [[Beaver Wars|Iroquois conquest]] by the powerful [[Iroquois|Five Nations of the Iroquois League]] based in present-day New York, who wanted to control the [[North American fur trade|fur trade]] with Europeans. The Susquehannock assimilated with the Iroquois. In the aftermath, the Iroquois resettled some of the semi-tributary [[Lenape]] in this area, as it was near the western boundary of the Lenape's former territory, known as [[Lenapehoking]].

The Susquehanna River has continued to play an important role throughout the [[history of the United States]]. In the 18th century, [[William Penn]], the founder of the [[Province of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania Colony]], negotiated with the Lenape to allow white settlement in the area between the [[Delaware River]] and the Susquehanna, which was part of Lenape territory. In late colonial times, the river became an increasingly important transportation corridor, used to ship [[anthracite coal]], discovered by [[Necho Allen]], from its upper reaches in the mountains to the markets downriver.

In 1779 during the [[American Revolutionary War]], General [[James Clinton]] led an expedition down the Susquehanna from its headwaters. His party had made the upper portion navigable by damming the river's source at [[Otsego Lake (New York)|Otsego Lake]], allowing the lake's level to rise, and then destroying the dam and flooding the river in order for his [[flotilla]] to travel for miles downstream. [[James Fenimore Cooper]] described this event in the introduction to his historical novel ''[[The Pioneers (novel)|The Pioneers]]'' (1823).

[[File:Harrisburg, Pennsylvania State Capital Building.jpg|thumb|left|[[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg]], with the [[Pennsylvania State Capitol]] dome, seen from [[Wormleysburg, Pennsylvania|Wormleysburg]]]]

At [[Athens, Pennsylvania]], then known as Tioga or "Tioga Point", Clinton met with General [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] and his forces, who had marched from [[Easton, Pennsylvania]]. Together on August 29, they defeated the [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Tories]] and warriors of allied Iroquois bands at the [[Battle of Newtown]] (near present-day [[Elmira, New York]]). This was part of what was known as the "Sullivan-Clinton Campaign" or the "[[Sullivan Expedition]]". They swept through western New York, dominated by the [[Seneca people]], destroying more than 40 Seneca villages, as well as the stores of crops the people had set aside for winter. Many of the [[Iroquois]] left New York and went to Canada as refugees; casualties from exposure and starvation were high that winter.

Following the United States gaining independence in the Revolutionary War, in 1790 Colonel [[Timothy Matlack]], [[Samuel Maclay]] and [[John Adlum]] were commissioned by the [[Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania]] to survey the headwaters of the Susquehanna river. They were to explore a route for a passage to connect the [[West Branch Susquehanna River|West Branch]] with the waters of the [[Allegheny River]], which flowed to [[Pittsburgh]] and the [[Ohio River]].<ref>Storey, Henry Wilson. ''History of Cambria County, Pennsylvania.'' New York: The Lewis Publishing Company, 1907.</ref> In 1792, the [[Union Canal (Pennsylvania)|Union Canal]] was proposed in order to link the Susquehanna and the Delaware rivers in Pennsylvania along [[Swatara Creek|Swatara]] and [[Tulpehocken Creek (Pennsylvania)|Tulpehocken]] creeks. In the 19th century, many industrial centers developed along the Susquehanna, using its [[Hydropower|water power]] to drive mills and coal machinery, to cool machines, and as a waterway for the transport of raw and manufactured goods.

Based on colonial charters, both Pennsylvania and [[Connecticut]] claimed land in the [[Wyoming Valley]] along the Susquehanna. Connecticut founded [[Westmoreland County, Connecticut|Westmoreland County]] here and defended its claim in the [[Pennamite Wars]]. Under federal arbitration, eventually the state ceded this territory to Pennsylvania.

In the 1790s, English [[Lake Poets]] [[Robert Southey]], [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], and [[Robert Lovell]] formulated the "[[Pantisocracy]] Plan" to marry three sisters and move to the banks of the Susquehanna River to start a socialist experiment. They made the marriages but Southey moved to [[Lisbon, Portugal]], to visit an uncle, and they abandoned the plan to move to the United States.

In 1833, John B. Jervis began a canal system to extend the [[Chenango Canal|Chenango River]] and connect the waters of the Susquehanna from [[Chenango Point]] to the [[Erie Canal]], which ran through the [[Mohawk Valley region|Mohawk Valley of New York]], ultimately connecting with [[Lake Erie]] through the Wood Canal. In October 1836, water from the Susquehanna was connected to the Erie Canal at [[Utica, New York]]. Water travel was the main form of transportation during that era. The Erie Canal dramatically expanded trade between communities around the [[Great Lakes region|Great Lakes]] and markets in New York and Pennsylvania. With the expansion of construction of [[railroad]] lines, canal-transport became unprofitable, as it could not compete in speed or flexibility.<ref name="mikalac1">Chenango, Whitford. http://www.mikalac.com/tech/tra/chenango.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113020715/http://www.mikalac.com/tech/tra/chenango.html |date=November 13, 2013 }}</ref> Boats had to climb a net height of {{convert|1009|ft|m}} between basins, requiring the use of more than 100 [[Lock (water transport)|water locks]], which were too expensive to be maintained under the new competition.<ref name="mikalac1" />

[[File:Susquehanna River looking downriver at Sunbury.JPG|thumb|Looking downriver at [[Sunbury, Pennsylvania]]]]

The Susquehanna River figures in the history of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]]. It holds that [[Joseph Smith]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]] received the priesthood from heavenly beings at a site along the Susquehanna and performed their first baptisms of Latter Day Saints in the North Branch of the river. Smith and Cowdery said that they were visited on May 15, 1829, by the resurrected [[John the Baptist]] and given the [[Aaronic priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Aaronic priesthood]]. Following his visit, Smith and Cowdery baptized each other in the river. Later that year, they said they were visited near the river by the apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[James, son of Zebedee|James]] and [[John the Apostle|John]]. Both events took place in unspecified locations near the river's shore in [[Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania]].

During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]'s 1863 [[Gettysburg campaign]], [[Union Army|Union]] Major General [[Darius N. Couch]], commander of the [[Department of the Susquehanna]], resolved that [[Robert E. Lee]]'s Confederate [[Army of Northern Virginia]] would not cross the Susquehanna. He positioned militia units under Major [[Granville Haller]] to protect key bridges in Harrisburg and [[Wrightsville, Pennsylvania|Wrightsville]], as well as nearby fords. Confederate forces reached the river at several locations in [[Cumberland County, Pennsylvania|Cumberland]] and [[York County, Pennsylvania|York]] counties.<ref>[https://home.nps.gov/gett/learn/historyculture/civil-war-timeline.htm "Civil War Timeline"] The main bridge across the Susquehanna was burnt by the townspeople of Columbia, Pennsylvania, Lancaster County, in order to stop the advancing Confederates, who were encamped in Wrightsville, York County. [https://home.nps.gov/gett/learn/historyculture/civil-war-timeline.htm], National Park Service</ref>

In 1972, the remnants of [[Hurricane Agnes]] stalled over the New York-Pennsylvania border, dropping as much as {{convert|20|in}} of rain on the hilly lands. Much of that precipitation was received into the Susquehanna from its western tributaries, and the valley suffered disastrous flooding. [[Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania]], was among the hardest-hit communities and the capital Harrisburg was flooded. The [[Chesapeake Bay]] received so much fresh water that it altered the ecosystem, killing much of the marine life that depended on saltwater.

In 2006, [[2006 Mid-Atlantic United States flood|a flood]] caused by a stalled jet stream-driven storm system, affected portions of the river system. The worst affected area was [[Binghamton, New York]], where record-setting flood levels forced the evacuation of thousands of residents.

In September 2011 the Susquehanna River and its communities were hit by [[Tropical Storm Lee (2011)|Tropical Storm Lee]], which caused the worst flooding since Agnes in 1972.

==Bridges, ferries, canals, and dams==
{{See also|List of crossings of the Susquehanna River|List of dams and reservoirs of the Susquehanna River}}

The Susquehanna River is important in the [[Transportation in the United States|transportation history of the United States]]. Before the [[Port Deposit Bridge]] opened in 1818, the river formed a barrier between the northern and southern states, as it could be crossed only by [[ferry]]. The earliest dams were constructed to support ferry operations in low water. The presence of many rapids in the river meant that while commercial traffic could navigate down the river in the high waters of the spring thaws, nothing could move up.

[[File:Gen Clinton's Dam Monument.jpg|thumb|Monument at the site of Gen. Clinton's dam at the river's source at [[Otsego Lake (New York)|Otsego Lake]] in [[Cooperstown, New York]]]]

The Susquehanna was improved by [[Canal|navigations]] throughout the 1820s and 1830s as the [[Pennsylvania Canal]]. Together with facilities of the [[Allegheny Portage Railroad]], loaded barges were transferred from the canal and hoisted across the [[ridge|mountain ridge]] into the [[Pittsburgh]] area with access to the [[Monongahela River|Monongahela]], [[Allegheny River]]s and their confluence into the [[Ohio River]] flowing southwest towards the [[Mississippi River]]. The {{convert|82|mi|km|adj=on}} [[Union Canal (Pennsylvania)|Union Canal]] was completed in 1828 to connect the [[Schuylkill River]] (flowing southeast towards the [[Delaware River]] at [[Philadelphia]]) at [[Reading, Pennsylvania|Reading]] westwards to the Susquehanna River above the state capital of [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bartholomew |first=Ann M. |title=Delaware and Lehigh Canals |last2=Metz |first2=Lance E. |last3=Kneis |first3=Michael |date=1989 |publisher=Center for Canal History and Technology, Hugh Moore Historical Park and Museum, Inc., [[Easton, Pennsylvania]] |isbn=978-0930973094 |edition=First |location=Oak Printing Company, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania |publication-date=1989 |pages=1–10 |lccn=89-25150}}</ref> Competition from faster transport via the [[rail freight transport|railroad industry]] by the 1850s resulted in reducing the reliance on the river for transport.<ref name="canoe">[http://www.paddlehappy.com/Paddle-the-Susquehanna Paddle the Susquehanna] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407034618/http://www.paddlehappy.com/paddle-the-susquehanna/ |date=April 7, 2018 }}, accessed September 10, 2011.</ref>

[[File:Susquehanna River from above the Breezyview Gazebo in Chickies Rock County Park.jpg|thumb|left|An aerial view looking south over the [[Wright's Ferry Bridge|Wrights Ferry Bridge]] (front) and the [[Columbia–Wrightsville Bridge|Veterans Memorial Bridge]] (behind). [[Columbia, Pennsylvania]], is located off the eastern side of the river (left) and [[Wrightsville, Pennsylvania]], is located on the western side (right).]]

Two canal systems were constructed on the lower Susquehanna to bypass the rapids. The first was the [[Susquehanna Canal]], also called the Conowingo Canal or the Port Deposit Canal, completed in 1802 by a Maryland company known as the Proprietors of the Susquehanna Canal. The second was the much longer and more successful [[Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal]]. The canals required dams to provide canal water and navigation pools.

As the industrial age progressed, bridges replaced ferries, and railroads replaced canals. The railroads were often constructed on top of the canal right-of-way along the river. Many canal remnants can be seen; for example, in [[Havre de Grace, Maryland]], along [[US Route 15]] in Pennsylvania, and in upstate New York at various locations. These latter remnants are parts of the upstream divisions of the [[Pennsylvania Canal]], of privately funded canals, and of canals in the New York system.

[[File:The Susquehanna River in Owego, New York.jpg|thumb|A bridge crosses the Susquehanna at [[Owego, New York]]]]

Today 200 bridges cross the Susquehanna. The [[Rockville Bridge]], which crosses the river from [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg]] to [[Marysville, Pennsylvania]], is the longest [[stone masonry]] [[arch bridge]] in the world. It was built by the [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] in 1902, replacing an earlier iron bridge. Two seasonal ferries operate across the Susquehanna. The [[Millersburg Ferry]] at [[Millersburg, Pennsylvania]], is a practical ferry for up to four vehicles and 50 passengers, while the ''[[Pride of the Susquehanna]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Pride of the Susquehanna |url=http://harrisburgriverboat.com/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517111404/http://harrisburgriverboat.com/ |archive-date=May 17, 2014 |access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref> based at Harrisburg, provides a passenger-only pleasure cruise.

Most of the canals have been filled in or are partially preserved as a part of historical parks. Dams generally are used to generate power or to provide lakes for recreation.

==Environmental threats==
[[File:Shickshinny Flood March 2011.JPG|thumb|In March 2011, Crary Park in [[Shickshinny, Pennsylvania]], was inundated with a flood when the river rose above 27 feet at Wilkes-Barre.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Skrapits |first=Elizabeth |date=March 12, 2011 |title=Winter flood slams Shickshinny |url=http://citizensvoice.com/news/winter-flood-slams-shickshinny-1.1117800#axzz1GuWDo8fP |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110315082953/http://citizensvoice.com/news/winter-flood-slams-shickshinny-1.1117800#axzz1GuWDo8fP |archive-date=March 15, 2011 |access-date=March 18, 2011 |website=The Citizens' Voice}}</ref> Six months later, the town was devastated by a 42-foot record flood.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hughes |first=Matt |date=November 5, 2011 |title=Shickshinny offered help from group of Buddhists |url=http://www.timesleader.com/news/Shickshinny_offered_help_from_group_of_Buddhists_11-05-2011.html |access-date=November 18, 2011 |website=Wilkes-Barre Times Leader}}{{dead link|date=November 2012}}</ref>]]

The environmental group American Rivers named the Susquehanna "[[America's Most Endangered River#2005_rivers|America's Most Endangered River for 2005]]" because of the excessive [[water pollution|pollution]] it receives. Most of the pollution in the river is caused by excess animal [[manure]] from [[farming]], agricultural [[surface runoff|runoff]], [[urban runoff|urban and suburban stormwater runoff]], and raw or inadequately treated [[sanitary sewer overflow|sewage]]. In 2003 the river contributed 50% of the freshwater, 44% of the [[nitrogen]], 21% of the [[phosphorus]], and 21% of the [[sediment]] flowing into the [[Chesapeake Bay]].<ref>Chesapeake Bay Foundation. Annapolis, MD. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070310151427/http://www.cbf.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=10769 "Susquehanna River Named America's Most Endangered River for 2005."] April 13, 2005.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2005 |title=Susquehanna Fact Sheet |url=http://www.cbf.org:80/site/DocServer/susquehanna_factsheet.pdf?docID=3443 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070316093930/http://www.cbf.org:80/site/DocServer/susquehanna_factsheet.pdf?docID=3443 |archive-date=March 16, 2007 |access-date=19 April 2019 |publisher=Chesapeake Bay Foundation}}</ref>

It was designated as one of the [[American Heritage Rivers]] in 1997.<ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, D.C. [https://web.archive.org/web/20061003011033/http://www.epa.gov/rivers/98rivers/susquehanna.html "American Heritage Rivers: Upper Susquehanna and Lackawanna Rivers."] October 19, 2006.</ref> The designation provides for technical assistance from federal agencies to state and local governments working in the Susquehanna watershed.

[[File:Three Mile Island 2012-04-21.jpg|thumb|left|[[Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station|Three Mile Island]] on the Susquehanna River]]

Another environmental concern is radioactivity released during the 1979 [[Three Mile Island accident]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sturgis |first=Sue |date=2009-04-02 |title=Investigation: Revelations about Three Mile Island Disaster Raise Doubts over Nuclear Plant Safety |url=http://www.southernstudies.org/2009/04/investigation-revelations-about-three-mile-island-disaster-raise-doubts-over-nuclear-plant-s |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022083822/http://www.southernstudies.org/2009/04/investigation-revelations-about-three-mile-island-disaster-raise-doubts-over-nuclear-plant-s |archive-date=2014-10-22 |access-date=2014-10-18 |website=Facing South |publisher=[[Institute for Southern Studies]] |df=mdy-all}}</ref> However, extensive [[radionuclide]] studies over a 25-year period from 1979 through 2003, confirm that the Three Mile Island accident has not resulted in any harmful radiation effects.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Charles |last2=Kreeger |first2=Danielle |last3=Patrick |first3=Ruth |last4=Palms |first4=John |date=May 2015 |title=Twenty-five Years of Environmental Radionuclide Concentrations near a Nuclear Power Plant |journal=Health Physics |volume=108 |issue=5 |pages=503–513 |doi=10.1097/hp.0000000000000266 |issn=0017-9078 |pmid=25811148 |s2cid=205637858}}</ref> The areas in and along a 262-km length of the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania were monitored for the presence of radioactive materials. This study began two months after the 1979 Three Mile Island (TMI) partial reactor meltdown; it spanned the next 25 years. Monitoring points included stations at the PPL Susquehanna and TMI nuclear power plants. Monthly gamma measurements documented concentrations of radionuclides from natural and anthropogenic sources. During this study, various series of gamma-emitting radionuclide concentration measurements were made in many general categories of animals, plants, and other inorganic matter, both within and near the river. Sampling began in 1979 before the first start-up of the PPL Susquehanna power plant. Although all species were not continuously monitored for the entire period, an extensive database was compiled. In May 1986, ongoing measurements from several monitoring stations along the river near Three Mile Island, [[Peach Bottom Nuclear Generating Station|Peach Bottom]] and [[Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant|Calvert Cliffs]] detected [[iodine-131]] [[Beta particle|beta particles]] attributable to fallout from the [[Chernobyl disaster|Chernobyl nuclear accident]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/5656197 |title=Environmental radionuclide concentrations in the vicinity of the peach bottom atomic power station: 1985-1986. Data report |last=Domotor |first=S. L. |last2=McLean |first2=R. I. |date=1989-07-01 |publisher=Maryland Power Plant Research Program, Annapolis, MD (USA) |issue=PB-89-215453/XAB; PPRP/PPER-R-11 |language=English}}</ref> The remaining reactor at [[Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station]] was shut down in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sholtis |first=Brett |title=Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plant Shuts Down |url=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2019/sep/20/three-mile-island-nuclear-power-plant-shuts-down/ |access-date=2019-09-20 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2015, a [[smallmouth bass]] with a rare, cancerous tumor was caught from the river, raising renewed concerns about toxic materials and water pollution.<ref name="Washington Post Fish Tumor 2015" /><ref name="Begley 2015">{{Cite web |last=Begley |first=Sarah |date=8 May 2015 |title=Rare Cancer Discovered in Pennsylvania Smallmouth Bass |url=https://time.com/3851735/cancer-smallmouth-bass/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511230218/http://time.com/3851735/cancer-smallmouth-bass/ |archive-date=May 11, 2015 |access-date=8 May 2015 |website=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |df=mdy-all}}</ref> The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] reported, "we do not have sufficient data at this time to scientifically support listing the main stem of the Susquehanna as [[Total maximum daily load#State inventories|impaired]]."<ref name="Washington Post Fish Tumor 2015">{{Cite news |last=Ohlheiser |first=Abby |date=5 May 2015 |title=Why a smallmouth bass with a rare, cancerous tumor has Pa. officials worried |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2015/05/05/a-susquehanna-river-angler-caught-a-smallmouth-bass-with-a-rare-cancerous-tumor/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912011800/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2015/05/05/a-susquehanna-river-angler-caught-a-smallmouth-bass-with-a-rare-cancerous-tumor/ |archive-date=September 12, 2017 |access-date=5 May 2015 |work=Washington Post |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

==Recreation==
The Susquehanna River has attracted boaters who watch or fish for its migratory species. Many tourists and local residents use the Susquehanna in the summer for recreation purposes such as kayaking, canoeing, and motor-boating. Due to the high volume of [[smallmouth bass]] in the river, it is the host of numerous bass fishing tournaments each year and is regarded by many as one of the premier bass fishing rivers in North America. Canoe races are held annually on various sections of the river, such as the amateur race held in [[Oneonta, New York]].

Susquehanna rowing and paddling have a long history. Starting in 1874, rowers from [[Shamokin Dam, Pennsylvania]], raced men from [[Sunbury, Pennsylvania|Sunbury]]. The General Clinton Canoe Regatta, a {{convert|70|mi|km|adj=on}} flat-water race, takes place each year in [[Bainbridge, New York]], on [[Memorial Day]] weekend. Binghamton University Crew and Hiawatha Island Boat Club are also located on the river, in the [[Southern Tier]] of New York.

The [[Appalachian Trail]] passes through [[Duncannon, Pennsylvania]], and crosses the Susquehanna on the [[Clarks Ferry Bridge]].

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=40em|
* [[City Island (Pennsylvania)]]
* [[List of crossings of the Susquehanna River]]
* [[Garrett Island (Maryland)]]
* [[McCormick Island]]
* [[List of rivers of Maryland]]
* [[List of rivers of New York]]
* [[List of rivers of Pennsylvania]]
* [[Spades Wharf Island]]
* [[Three Mile Island accident]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite magazine |last=Miller |first=Peter |date=March 1985 |title=Susquehanna: America's Small-Town River |magazine=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |pages=352–383 |volume=167 |issue=3 |issn=0027-9358 |oclc=643483454}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{NSRW Poster}}

* [https://waterdata.usgs.gov/pa/nwis/current/?type=flow U.S. Geological Survey: PA stream gaging stations]
* [https://www.srbc.net/ Susquehanna River Basin Commission]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070310123844/http://www.americanrivers.org/site/News2?abbr=AMR_&page=NewsArticle&id=7194 American Rivers article: ''Susquehanna River "Most Endangered"'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080512201053/http://portdeposit.com/History/RiverArks.htm History of the Susquehanna River Ark]
* [https://www.hiawathaislandboatclub.org/ Hiawatha Island Boat Club – Owego, New York]
* [http://binghamtoncrew.org/ Binghamton University Crew – Binghamton, New York]

{{Susquehanna River System}}
{{Maryland waters}}
{{LDSsites}}
{{AHR}}
{{Portal bar|Maryland|New York|Rivers|Pennsylvania|United States}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Susquehanna River| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Otsego County, New York]]
[[Category:Rivers of Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Maryland]]
[[Category:Rivers of New York (state)]]
[[Category:American Heritage Rivers]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay]]
[[Category:Environment of the Mid-Atlantic states]]
[[Category:Allegheny Plateau]]
[[Category:Rivers of Broome County, New York]]
[[Category:Rivers of York County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Dauphin County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Cumberland County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Perry County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Juniata County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Snyder County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Northumberland County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Montour County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Columbia County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Lackawanna County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Wyoming County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bradford County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint movement in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint movement in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Pennsylvania placenames of Native American origin]]