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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{short description|Style of jazz}}{{Not to be confused with|Swing time}}{{Infobox music genre
| name              = Swing
| stylistic_origins = * [[Ragtime]]
* [[Dixieland jazz]]
* [[Music of New Orleans#Jazz|New Orleans jazz]]
* [[big band]] 
* [[blues]]
| cultural_origins  = 1930s, United States
| derivatives       = * [[Traditional pop]]
* [[jump blues]]
* [[bebop]]
| subgenrelist      = 
| subgenres         = [[Swing revival]]
| fusiongenres      = [[Electro swing]]
| regional_scenes   = [[Western swing]]
}}
'''Swing music''' is a style of [[jazz]] that developed in the United States during the late 1920s and early 1930s. It became nationally popular from the mid-1930s. Swing bands usually featured [[Solo (music)|soloists]] who would improvise on the melody over the [[arrangement]]. The danceable swing style of [[big band]]s and [[bandleader]]s such as [[Fletcher Henderson]] and [[Benny Goodman]] was the dominant form of American popular music from 1935 to 1946, known as the swing era, when people were dancing the [[Lindy Hop]]. The verb "to [[Swing time|swing]]" is also used as a term of praise for playing that has a strong [[groove (music)|groove]] or drive. Big band leaders of the swing era include Benny Goodman, [[Duke Ellington]], [[Count Basie]], [[Jimmie Lunceford]], [[Cab Calloway]], [[Benny Carter]], [[Jimmy Dorsey]], [[Tommy Dorsey]], [[Earl Hines]], [[Bunny Berigan]], [[Harry James]], [[Lionel Hampton]], [[Glenn Miller]], and [[Artie Shaw]]. 

== Overview ==
Swing has its roots in 1920s dance music [[Musical ensemble|ensembles]], which began using new styles of written arrangements, incorporating rhythmic innovations pioneered by [[Louis Armstrong]], [[Coleman Hawkins]], [[Benny Carter]] and other jazzmen.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.udiscovermusic.com/stories/swing-swing-swing-the-best-jazz-bandleaders-of-all-time/ |title=Swing, Swing, Swing: A History Of Big Band Jazz |date=14 October 2024 |first=Martin |last=Chilton |website=udiscovermusic.com}}</ref> During the World War II era, swing began to decline in popularity, and after the war, [[bebop]] and [[jump blues]] gained popularity.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-12-05-1993339172-story.html |title=The missing link in the evolution of JUMP BLUES |first=J. D. |last=Considine |website=The Baltimore Sun |date=5 December 1993 |author-link=J. D. Considine |access-date=23 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506011621/https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-12-05-1993339172-story.html |archive-date=6 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Swing blended with other genres to create new musical styles. In [[country music]], artists such as [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]], [[Moon Mullican]], [[Milton Brown]] and [[Bob Wills]] introduced elements of swing along with [[blues]] to create a genre called "[[western swing]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Price |first=Michael H. |chapter=Jazz Guitar and Western Swing |page=82 |title=The Guitar in Jazz: An Anthology |editor-first=James |editor-last=Sallis |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8032-4250-0}}</ref> Famous [[Romani people|roma]] guitarist [[Django Reinhardt]] created [[gypsy swing]] music<ref>Dregni, Michael (2008). ''Gypsy Jazz: In Search of Django Reinhardt and the Soul of Gypsy Swing''. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–13. {{ISBN|978-0-19-531192-1}}.</ref> and composed the gypsy swing standard "Minor Swing".<ref>Dregni, Michael (2004). ''Django: The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-516752-X}}.</ref> In the late 1980s to early 1990s, new [[urban contemporary|urban]]-styled swing-beat emerged called [[new jack swing]] (New York go-go), created by young producer [[Teddy Riley]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/teddy-riley-mn0000018176#biography |title=Teddie Riley Biography |website=AllMusic |first=Ed |last=Hogan |access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref>{{Relevance inline|date=August 2025|reason=Nothing intelligible is said about the relation between swing music and new jack swing}} In the late 1990s and into the 2000s, there was a [[swing revival]], led by [[Squirrel Nut Zippers]],<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7393638/squirrel-nut-zippers-puffer-song-premiere |title=Squirrel Nut Zippers Reissuing 'Hot' - Listen to Unreleased 1991 Song 'The Puffer': Exclusive|date=6 June 2016 |first1=Andy |last1=Gensler |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref> [[Brian Setzer]] orchestra and [[Big Bad Voodoo Daddy]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://napavalleyregister.com/entertainment/arts-and-theatre/mondavi-swings-to-the-jive-of-big-bad-voodoo-daddy/article_da5768f4-4b0d-5313-b6b7-6ecb43bf9a5d.html |title=Mondavi swings to the jive of Big Bad Voodoo Daddy |date=9 July 2014 |first=L Pierce |newspaper=Napa Valley Register |last=Carson |access-date=11 March 2021}}</ref>

== 1920s: Roots ==
[[File:FletcherHendersonOrchestra1925.jpg|thumb|[[Fletcher Henderson]] (middle) with his orchestra in 1925. [[Coleman Hawkins]] is sitting on the floor to the extreme left with [[Louis Armstrong]] above him to the right.]]
Developments in dance orchestra and jazz music during the 1920s both contributed to the development of the 1930s swing style. Starting in 1923, the [[Fletcher Henderson Orchestra]] featured innovative arrangements by [[Don Redman]] that featured [[Call and response (music)|call-response]] interplay between [[Brass instrument|brass]] and [[Reed instrument|reed]] sections, and interludes arranged to back up soloists. The arrangements also had a smoother rhythmic sense than the [[ragtime]]-influenced arrangements that were the more typical "hot" dance music of the day.<ref name="aaj">{{cite web|url=http://musicians.allaboutjazz.com/musician.php?id=7571#.ULZrjofhpMt |title=Fletcher Henderson |publisher=Musicians.allaboutjazz.com |access-date=21 May 2017}}</ref>  In 1924 [[Louis Armstrong]] joined the Henderson band, lending impetus to an even greater emphasis on soloists. The Henderson band also featured [[Coleman Hawkins]], [[Benny Carter]], and [[Buster Bailey]] as soloists, who all were influential in the development of swing era instrumental styles. During the Henderson band's extended residency at the [[Roseland Ballroom]] in New York, it became influential on other big bands. [[Duke Ellington]] credited the Henderson band with being an early influence when he was developing the sound for his own band.<ref name="aaj" />  In 1925 Armstrong left the Henderson band and would add his innovations to [[Music of New Orleans#Jazz|New Orleans style jazz]] to develop [[Music of Chicago#The Chicago style|Chicago style jazz]], another step towards swing.

Traditional New Orleans style jazz was based on a two-[[beat (acoustics)|beat]] meter and [[contrapuntal]] improvisation led by a [[trumpet]] or [[cornet]], typically followed by a [[clarinet]] and [[trombone]] in a call-response pattern. The [[rhythm section]] consisted of a [[sousaphone]] and drums, and sometimes a [[banjo]]. By the early 1920s [[Guitar|guitars]] and [[Piano|pianos]] sometimes substituted for the banjo and a [[string bass]] sometimes substituted for the sousaphone. Use of the string bass opened possibilities for 4/4 instead of 2/4 time at faster [[tempo]]s, which increased [[rhythm]]ic freedom. The Chicago style released the soloist from the constraints of [[contrapuntal]] improvisation with other front-line instruments, lending greater freedom in creating [[melodic line]]s. Louis Armstrong used the additional freedom of the new format with 4/4 time, accenting the second and fourth [[Beat (music)|beats]] and anticipating the main beats with lead-in notes in his solos to create a sense of rhythmic pulse that happened between the beats as well as on them, i.e. [[Swing time|swing]].<ref>Harker, Brian C. (1997). ''Early Musical Development of Louis Armstrong, 1921–1928''. PhD Dissertation. Columbia University. {{ProQuest|9809722}}.</ref>

In 1927 Armstrong worked with pianist [[Earl Hines]], who had a similar impact on his instrument as Armstrong had on trumpet. Hines' melodic, [[Horn (instrument)|horn]]-like conception of playing deviated from the contemporary conventions in jazz piano centered on building rhythmic patterns around "pivot notes". His approaches to rhythm and phrasing were also free and daring, exploring ideas that would define swing playing. His approach to rhythm often used accents on the lead-in instead of the main beat, and [[mixed meter]]s, to build a sense of anticipation to the rhythm and make his playing swing. He also used "stops" or musical silences to build tension in his phrasing.<ref>Cook, Richard (2005). ''Jazz Encyclopedia''. London: Penguin. {{ISBN|978-0-14-102646-6}}.</ref><ref>Kirchner, Bill, ed. (2000). ''The Oxford Companion to Jazz''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-518359-7}}.</ref> Hines' style was a seminal influence on the styles of swing-era pianists [[Teddy Wilson]], [[Art Tatum]], [[Jess Stacy]], [[Nat "King" Cole]], [[Erroll Garner]], [[Mary Lou Williams]], and [[Jay McShann]].

Black [[Territory band|territory dance bands]] in the southwest were developing dynamic styles that often went in the direction of blues-based simplicity, using [[riff]]s in a call-response pattern to build a strong, danceable rhythm and provide a musical platform for extended solos.<ref name="Russell">Russell, Ross (1971). ''Jazz Style in Kansas City and the Southwest''. Berkeley, CA, University of California Press.</ref> The rhythm-heavy tunes for dancing were called "stomps". The requirement for volume led to continued use of the sousaphone over the string bass with the larger ensembles, which dictated a more conservative approach to rhythm based on 2/4 [[time signature]]s. Meanwhile, string bass players such as [[Walter Page]] were developing their technique to the point where they could hold down the bottom end of a full-sized dance orchestra.<ref name="Daniels2006">{{cite book|last=Daniels|first=Douglas Henry|title=One O'clock Jump: The Unforgettable History of the Oklahoma City Blue Devils|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3tmQ4w1uR8C&pg=PA144|date=2006|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-7136-6|page=144}}</ref>

The growth of [[radio broadcasting]] and the [[recording industry]] in the 1920s allowed some of the more popular dance bands to gain national exposure. The most popular style of dance orchestra was the "sweet" style, often with strings. [[Paul Whiteman]] developed a style he called "[[symphonic jazz]]", grafting a classical approach over his interpretation of jazz rhythms in an approach he hoped would be the future of jazz.<ref name="Popa">{{cite web|last1=Popa|first1=Christopher|title=Big Band Library: Paul Whiteman|url=http://www.bigbandlibrary.com/paulwhiteman.html|website=www.bigbandlibrary.com|date=November 2007}}</ref><ref name="Berrett">{{cite book |last1=Berrett |first1=Joshua |title=Louis Armstrong and Paul Whiteman: Two Kings of Jazz |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sXdsTTQqUjkC&q=Paul+Whiteman+first+big+band&pg=PA63 |via=Google Books |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-300-12747-8}}</ref> Whiteman's Orchestra enjoyed great commercial success and was a major influence on the sweet bands. [[Jean Goldkette]]'s [[Victor Recording Orchestra]] featured many of the top white jazz musicians of the day including [[Bix Beiderbecke]], [[Jimmy Dorsey]], [[Frank Trumbauer]], [[Pee Wee Russell]], [[Eddie Lang]], and [[Joe Venuti]]. The Victor Recording Orchestra won the respect of the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra in a [[Battle of the Bands]]; Henderson's cornetist [[Rex Stewart]] credited the Goldkette band with being the most influential white band in the development of swing music before Benny Goodman's.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/goldkette.html |title=Goldkette on The Red Hot Jazz Archive |access-date=22 May 2017 |website=redhotjazz.com |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121216103515/http://www.redhotjazz.com/goldkette.html |archive-date=16 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Nye |first=Russel B. |author-link=Russel B. Nye |title=Music in the Twenties: The Jean Goldkette Orchestra |journal=Prospects |date=October 1976 |volume=1 |pages=179–203 |doi=10.1017/S0361233300004361}}</ref> As a dance music promoter and agent, Goldkette also helped organize and promote [[McKinney's Cotton Pickers]] and [[Glen Gray]]'s Orange Blossoms (later the [[Casa Loma Orchestra]]), two other [[Detroit]]-area bands that were influential in the early swing era.

==Early swing==
As the 1920s turned to the 1930s, the new concepts in rhythm and ensemble playing that comprised the swing style were transforming the sounds of large and small bands. Starting in 1928, [[the Earl Hines Orchestra]] was broadcast throughout much of the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] from the [[Grand Terrace Cafe]] in Chicago, where Hines had the opportunity to expound upon his new approaches to rhythm and phrasing with a big band. Hines' arranger [[Jimmy Mundy]] would later contribute to the catalog of the [[Benny Goodman Orchestra]]. The [[Duke Ellington Orchestra]] had its new sounds broadcast nationally from New York's [[Cotton Club]], followed by the [[Cab Calloway Orchestra]] and the [[Jimmie Lunceford]] Orchestra. Also in New York, the [[Fletcher Henderson Orchestra]] featured the new style at the [[Roseland Ballroom]] and the swing powerhouse [[Chick Webb Orchestra]] started its extended stay at the [[Savoy Ballroom]] in 1931.<ref name="Chick Webb">{{cite web |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/chick-webb-mn0000110604#biography |title=Chick Webb Biography |first=Richard S. |last=Ginell |website=[[AllMusic]] |access-date=27 May 2017}}</ref> [[Bennie Moten]] and the Kansas City Orchestra showcased the [[Riff (music)|riff]]-propelled, solo-oriented form of swing that had been developing in the hothouse of Kansas City.<ref name="Lawn2013">{{cite book |last=Lawn |first=Richard |title=Experiencing Jazz |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NMQNdJRSDksC&pg=PA161 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-69960-0 |page=161}}</ref><ref name="DriggsDirector2005">{{cite book |last1=Driggs |first1=Frank |first2=Chuck |last2=Haddix |title=Kansas City Jazz: From Ragtime to Bebop–A History |url=https://archive.org/details/kansascityjazzfr00fran |url-access=registration |date= 2005|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-536435-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/kansascityjazzfr00fran/page/119 119]}}</ref> Emblematic of the evolving music was the change in the name of Moten's signature tune, from "Moten Stomp" to "[[Moten Swing]]". Moten's orchestra had a highly successful tour in late 1932. Audiences raved about the new music, and at the [[Pearl Theatre (Philadelphia)|Pearl Theatre]] in Philadelphia in December 1932, the doors were let open to the public who crammed into the theatre to hear the new sound, demanding seven encores from Moten's orchestra.<ref name="Daniels2006"/>

With the early 1930s came the financial difficulties of the [[Great Depression]] that curtailed recording of the new music and drove some bands out of business, including the [[Fletcher Henderson Orchestra]] and [[McKinney's Cotton Pickers]] in 1934. Henderson's next business was selling arrangements to up-and-coming bandleader [[Benny Goodman]]. 

At this time, "sweet" dance music remained most popular with white audiences and was successfully showcased by bandleaders such as [[Guy Lombardo]]<ref>{{cite book|author-last=Crump |author-first=William D. |title=Encyclopedia of New Year's Holidays Worldwide |publisher=McFarland & Co. |publication-place=London |date=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ujTfCwAAQBAJ |page=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/ujTfCwAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA101 101]|isbn=978-0-7864-3393-3}}</ref><ref name=Lee379>{{cite book|editor-last1=Lee |editor-first1=Stacey |editor-last2=Henderson |editor-first2=Lol |title=Encyclopedia of Music in the 20th Century |publisher=Taylor and Francis |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-135-92946-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8W2AgAAQBAJ |page=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/m8W2AgAAQBAJ?gbpv=1&pg=PA379 379]}}</ref> and [[Shep Fields]],<ref>{{cite book |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9GGTAgAAQBAJ&dq=Palmer+House+Shep+Fields&pg=PT727 394] |title=[[Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound]] |editor-last=Hoffman |editor-first=Frank |date=2005 |edition=2nd |volume=1 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref> but the [[Casa Loma Orchestra]] and the Benny Goodman Orchestra went against that grain, targeting the new swing style to younger audiences. Despite [[Benny Goodman]]'s claim that "sweet" music was a "weak sister" as compared to the "real music" of America, Lombardo's band enjoyed widespread popularity for decades while crossing over racial divides and was even praised by [[Louis Armstrong]] as one of his favorites.<ref name=Lee379 /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__DTvryrBZkC |title=Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World Volume 8- Genres North America |editor-last1=Horn |editor-first1=David |editor-last2=Shephard |editor-first2=John |publisher=Bloomsbury |date=2012 |page=[https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/__DTvryrBZkC?gbpv=1&pg=PA472 472] |isbn=978-1-4411-4874-2 }} "Armstrong and Lombardo did not view their worlds as diametrically opposed, nor did many other contemporary musicians of the 1930s. ...Lombardo himself always took great pride in the number of black orchestras that imitated his style."</ref>

==1935–1946: The swing era==
{{Main|Swing era}}
[[File:BennyGoodmanStageDoorCanteen.jpg|thumb|[[Benny Goodman]], one of the first swing bandleaders to achieve widespread fame]]

In 1935 the Benny Goodman Orchestra had won a spot on the radio show ''[[Let's Dance (radio)|Let's Dance]]'' and started showcasing an updated repertoire featuring [[Fletcher Henderson]] arrangements. Goodman's slot was after midnight in the East, and few people heard it. It was on earlier on the West Coast and developed the audience that later led to Goodman's [[Palomar Ballroom]] triumph. At the Palomar engagement starting on 21 August 1935, audiences of young white dancers favored Goodman's rhythm and daring arrangements. The sudden success of the Goodman orchestra transformed the landscape of popular music in America. Goodman's success with "hot" swing brought forth imitators and enthusiasts of the new style throughout the world of dance bands, which launched the "[[swing era]]" that lasted until 1946.<ref name="Parker">{{cite web |last=Parker |first=Jeff|title=Jazz History Part II|url=http://www.swingmusic.net/getset.html |website=swingmusic.net |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131014045807/http://www.swingmusic.net/getset.html |archive-date=14 October 2013}}</ref>

A typical song played in swing style would feature a strong, anchoring rhythm section in support of more loosely-tied woodwind and brass sections playing [[Call and response (music)|call-response]] to each other. The level of improvisation that the audience might expect varied with the arrangement, song, band, and band-leader. Typically included in big band swing arrangements were an introductory chorus that stated the theme, choruses arranged for soloists, and climactic out-choruses. Some arrangements were built entirely around a featured soloist or vocalist. Some bands used string or vocal sections, or both. Swing-era repertoire included the [[Great American Songbook]] of [[Tin Pan Alley]] standards, band originals, traditional jazz tunes such as the "[[King Porter Stomp]]", with which the Goodman orchestra had a smash hit, and [[blues]].

Hot swing music is strongly associated with the [[jitterbug]] dancing that became a national craze accompanying the swing craze. Swing dancing originated in the late 1920s as the "[[Lindy Hop]]", and would later incorporate other styles including [[Suzie Q (dance move)|The Suzie Q]], Truckin', Peckin' [[Jive (dance)|Jive]], [[Big Apple (dance)|The Big Apple]], and [[Collegiate shag|The Shag]] in various combinations of moves. A subculture of jitterbuggers, sometimes growing quite competitive, congregated around ballrooms that featured hot swing music. A dance floor full of jitterbuggers had cinematic appeal; they were sometimes featured in newsreels and movies. Some of the top jitterbuggers gathered in professional dance troupes such as [[Whitey's Lindy Hoppers]], featured in the films ''[[Everybody Dance (film)|Everybody Dance]]'' (1936), ''[[A Day at the Races (film)|A Day At the Races]]'' (1937), and ''[[Hellzapoppin' (film)|Hellzapoppin']]'' (1941). [[Swing (dance)|Swing dancing]] would outlive the swing era, becoming associated with [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]] and early [[Rock&Roll]].

As with many new popular musical styles, swing met with some resistance because of its improvisation, tempo, occasionally risqué lyrics, and frenetic [[Swing (dance)|dancing]]. Audiences used to traditional "sweet" arrangements, such as those offered by [[Guy Lombardo]], [[Sammy Kaye]], [[Kay Kyser]] and [[Shep Fields]], were taken aback by the rambunctiousness of swing music. Swing was sometimes regarded as light entertainment, more of an industry to sell records to the masses than a form of art, among fans of both jazz and "serious" music. Some jazz critics such as [[Hugues Panassié]] held the polyphonic improvisation of New Orleans jazz to be the pure form of jazz, with swing a form corrupted by regimentation and commercialism. Panassié was also an advocate of the theory that jazz was a primal expression of the black American experience and that white musicians, or black musicians who became interested in more sophisticated musical ideas, were generally incapable of expressing its core values.<ref name="Gennari 2006">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dcxlWTZPK-AC&pg=PA58 |title=Blowin' Hot and Cool: Jazz and Its Critics |first=John |last=Gennari |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=2006 |page=58 |oclc=701053921}}</ref> In his 1941 autobiography, [[W. C. Handy]] wrote that "prominent white orchestra leaders, concert singers and others are making commercial use of Negro music in its various phases. That's why they introduced 'swing' which is not a musical form" (no comment on Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Duke Ellington, or Count Basie).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Handy|first1=William Christopher|title=Father of the Blues|url=https://archive.org/details/fatherofbluesaut00wcha_0|date=1941|publisher=MacMillan|page=[https://archive.org/details/fatherofbluesaut00wcha_0/page/292 292]}}</ref>  The [[Dixieland]] revival started in the late 1930s as a self-conscious re-creation of New Orleans jazz in reaction against the orchestrated style of big band swing. Some swing bandleaders saw opportunities in the Dixieland revival. [[Tommy Dorsey|Tommy Dorsey's Clambake Seven]] and [[Bob Crosby|Bob Crosby's Bobcats]] were examples of Dixieland ensembles within big swing bands.

Between the poles of hot and sweet, [[middlebrow]] interpretations of swing led to great commercial success for bands such as those led by [[Artie Shaw]], [[Glenn Miller]] and [[Tommy Dorsey]]. Miller's trademark clarinet-led reed section was decidedly "sweet", but the Miller catalog had no shortage of bouncy, medium-tempo dance tunes and some up-tempo tunes such as "Mission to Moscow" and the [[Lionel Hampton]] composition "[[Flying Home]]". "The Sentimental Gentleman of Swing" Tommy Dorsey made a nod to the hot side by hiring jazz trumpeter and Goodman alumnus [[Bunny Berigan]], then hiring [[Jimmie Lunceford]]'s arranger [[Sy Oliver]] to spice up his catalog in 1939.

New York became a touchstone for national success of big bands, with nationally broadcast engagements at the [[Roseland Ballroom|Roseland]] and [[Savoy Ballroom|Savoy]] ballrooms a sign that a swing band had arrived on the national scene. With its Savoy engagement in 1937, the [[Count Basie Orchestra]] brought the riff-and-solo oriented Kansas City style of swing to national attention. The Basie orchestra collectively and individually would influence later styles that would give rise to the smaller "jump" bands and [[bebop]]. The [[Chick Webb Orchestra]] remained closely identified with the Savoy Ballroom, having originated the tune "[[Stompin' at the Savoy]]", and became feared in the Savoy's Battles of the Bands. It humiliated Goodman's band,<ref name="Chick Webb" /> and had memorable encounters with the Ellington and Basie bands. The Goodman band's [[The Famous 1938 Carnegie Hall Jazz Concert|1938 Carnegie Hall Concert]] turned into a summit of swing, with guests from the Basie and Ellington bands invited for a jam session after the Goodman band's performance. [[Coleman Hawkins]] arrived back from an extended stay in Europe to New York in 1939, recorded his famous version of "[[Body and Soul (1930 song)|Body and Soul]]", and fronted his own big band. 1940 saw top-flight musicians such as [[Charlie Parker]], [[Dizzy Gillespie]], [[Don Byas]], [[Charlie Christian]], and [[Gene Ramey]], whose careers in swing had brought them to New York, beginning to coalesce and develop the ideas that would become [[bebop]].

==1940s: Decline==
The early 1940s saw emerging trends in popular music and jazz that would, once they had run their course, result in the end of the swing era. Vocalists were becoming the star attractions of the big bands. Vocalist [[Ella Fitzgerald]], after joining the Chick Webb Orchestra in 1936, propelled the band to great popularity and the band continued under her name after Webb's death in 1939. In 1940 vocalist [[Vaughn Monroe]] was leading his own big band and [[Frank Sinatra]] was becoming the star attraction of the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra, inciting mass hysteria among [[bobby-soxer]]s. Vocalist [[Peggy Lee]] joined the Goodman Orchestra in 1941 for a two-year stint, quickly becoming its star attraction on its biggest hits. Some big bands were moving away from the swing styles that dominated the late 1930s, for both commercial and creative reasons. Some of the more commercial big bands catered to more "sweet" sensibilities with string sections. Some bandleaders such as [[John Kirby (musician)|John Kirby]], [[Raymond Scott]], and [[Claude Thornhill]] were fusing swing with classical repertoire. Lower manpower requirements and simplicity favored the rise of small band swing. The [[Savoy Sultans]] and other smaller bands led by [[Louis Jordan]], [[Lucky Millinder]], [[Louis Prima]], and [[Tony Pastor (bandleader)|Tony Pastor]] were showcasing an exuberant "jump swing" style that would lead to the postwar rise of [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]]. In a 1939 ''[[DownBeat]]'' article, Duke Ellington expressed dissatisfaction with the creative state of swing music;<ref>{{cite magazine |quote=It's not so very difficult to understand the evolution of Jazz into Swing. Ten years ago ... this type of music was flourishing, albeit amidst adverse conditions and surrounded by hearty indifference ... It is the repetition and monotony of the present day swing arrangements which bode ill for the future. |magazine=Down Beat |date=February 1939 |pages=2, 16 |volume=6 |number=2 |last=Ellington |first=Duke |title=Duke Says Swing Is Stagnant! |url=https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/DownBeat/30s/1939/Down-Beat-1939-02-6-2.pdf}}</ref> within a few years he and other bandleaders would be delving into more ambitious, and less danceable, forms of [[orchestral jazz]] and the creative forefront for soloists would be moving into smaller ensembles and bebop. [[The Earl Hines Orchestra]] in 1943 featured a collection of young, forward-looking musicians who were at the core of the [[bebop]] movement and would in the following year be in the [[Billy Eckstine|Billy Eckstine Orchestra]], the first big band to showcase bebop. As the swing era went into decline, it secured legacies in vocalist-centered popular music, "progressive" big band jazz, R&B, and bebop.

The trend away from big-band swing was accelerated by wartime conditions and royalty conflicts.<ref>{{cite web |title= The 1942 Recording Ban and the ASCAP/BMI War |url= http://www.swingmusic.net/Big_Band_Era_Recording_Ban_Of_1942.html |website=SwingMusic.net |access-date= 15 June 2017 |archive-date= 9 August 2003 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20030809234911/http://www.swingmusic.net/Big_Band_Era_Recording_Ban_Of_1942.html |url-status= dead }}</ref> In 1941 the [[American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers]] (ASCAP) demanded bigger royalties from broadcasters and the broadcasters refused. Consequently, ASCAP banned the large repertoire they controlled from airplay, severely restricting what the radio audience could hear. ASCAP also demanded pre-approval of set lists and even written solos for live broadcasts, to assure that not even a quoted fragment of ASCAP repertoire was broadcast. Those restrictions made broadcast swing much less appealing for the year in which the ban was in place. Big band swing remained popular during the war years, but the resources required to support it became problematic. Wartime restriction on travel, coupled with rising expenses, curtailed road touring. The manpower requirements for big swing bands placed a burden on the scarce resources available for touring and were impacted by the military draft. In July 1942 the [[American Federation of Musicians]] called a [[1942–1944 musicians' strike|ban on recording]] until [[record label]]s agreed to pay royalties to musicians. That stopped recording of instrumental music for major labels for over a year, with the last labels agreeing to new contract terms in November 1944. In the meantime, vocalists continued to record backed by vocal groups and the recording industry released earlier swing recordings from their vaults, increasingly reflecting the popularity of big band vocalists. In 1943 [[Columbia Records]] re-released the 1939 recording of "[[All or Nothing at All]]" by the [[Harry James|Harry James Orchestra]] with Frank Sinatra, giving Sinatra top billing ("Acc. Harry James and his Orchestra"). The recording found the commercial success that had eluded its original release. Small band swing was recorded for [[1942–1944 musicians' strike#Small specialty labels|small specialty labels]] not affected by the ban. These labels had limited distribution centered in large urban markets, which tended to limit the size of the ensembles with which recording could be a money-making proposition. Another blow fell on the market for dance-oriented swing in 1944 when the federal government levied a 30% excise tax on "dancing" nightclubs, undercutting the market for dance music in smaller venues.<ref>Murray, Albert (2000). ''Stomping the Blues''. Da Capo Press. pp. 109–110. {{ISBN|0-252-02211-4}}, {{ISBN|0-252-06508-5}}.</ref>

==1950s–1960s==
===Swingin' pop===
[[File:Frank Sinatra laughing.jpg|thumb|upright|Frank Sinatra]]
Swing bands and sales continued to decline from 1953 to 1954. In 1955, a list of top recording artists from the previous year was publicly released. The list revealed that big band sales had decreased since the early 1950s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Leo |title=The Wonderful Era of the Great Dance Bands |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |year=1972 |location=Garden City, New York |page=152}}</ref> However, big band music saw a revival in the 1950s and 1960s. One impetus was the demand for studio and stage orchestras as backups for popular vocalists, and in radio and television broadcasts. Ability to adapt performing styles to various situations was an essential skill among these bands-for-hire, with a somewhat sedated version of swing in common use for backing up vocalists. The resurgent commercial success of [[Frank Sinatra]] with a mildly swinging backup during the mid-1950s solidified the trend. It became a sound associated with pop vocalists such as [[Bobby Darin]], [[Dean Martin]], [[Judy Garland]], and [[Nat King Cole]], as well as jazz-oriented vocalists such as [[Ella Fitzgerald]] and [[Keely Smith]]. Many of these singers were also involved in the "less swinging" vocal pop music of this period. The bands in these contexts performed in relative anonymity, receiving secondary credit beneath the top billing. Some, such as the [[Nelson Riddle]] and [[Gordon Jenkins]] Orchestras, became well known in their own right, with Riddle particularly associated with the success of Sinatra and Cole. Swingin' pop remained popular into the mid-1960s, becoming one current of the "easy listening" genre.

===Big band jazz===
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2025}}
Big band jazz made a comeback as well. The [[Stan Kenton]] and [[Woody Herman]] bands maintained their popularity during lean years of the late 1940s and beyond, making their mark with innovative arrangements and high-level jazz soloists ([[Shorty Rogers]], [[Art Pepper]], [[Kai Winding]], [[Stan Getz]], [[Al Cohn]], [[Zoot Sims]], [[Serge Chaloff]], [[Gene Ammons]], [[Sal Nistico]]). Lionel Hampton was a leader in the [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]] genre during the late 1940s then re-entered big band jazz in the early 1950s, remaining a popular attraction through the 1960s. [[Count Basie]] and [[Duke Ellington]] had both downsized their big bands during the first half of the 1950s, then reconstituted them by 1956. Ellington's venture back into big band jazz was encouraged by its reception at the [[1956 Newport Jazz Festival]]. The Basie and Ellington bands flourished creatively and commercially through the 1960s and beyond, with both veteran leaders receiving high acclaim for their contemporary work and performing until they were physically unable. Drummer [[Buddy Rich]], after briefly leading one big band during the late 1940s and performing in various jazz and big band gigs, formed his definitive big band in 1966. His name became synonymous with the dynamic, exuberant style of his big band. Other big jazz bands that drove the 1950s–1960s revival include those led by [[Thad Jones]], [[Mel Lewis]], [[Quincy Jones]], and [[Oliver Nelson]]. Big band jazz remains a major component of college jazz instruction curricula.

==Cross-genre swing==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2025}}
In country music [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]], [[Moon Mullican]], and [[Bob Wills]] combined elements of swing and blues to create a [[Western swing]]. Mullican left the [[Cliff Bruner]] band to pursue solo career that included many songs that maintained a swing structure. Artists like [[Willie Nelson]] and [[Asleep at the Wheel]] have continued the swing elements of country music. Asleep at the Wheel has also recorded the Count Basie tunes "[[One O'Clock Jump]]", "[[Jumpin' at the Woodside]]", and "Song of the Wanderer" using a steel guitar as a stand-in for a horn section. [[Nat King Cole]] followed Sinatra into pop music, bringing with him a similar combination of swing and ballads. Like Mullican, he was important in bringing piano to the fore of popular music.

[[Gypsy swing]] is an outgrowth of the [[jazz violin]] swing of [[Joe Venuti]] and [[Eddie Lang]]. In Europe it was heard in the music of guitarist [[Django Reinhardt]] and violinist [[Stéphane Grappelli]]. Their repertoire overlaps 1930s swing, including French popular music, gypsy songs, and compositions by Reinhardt, but gypsy swing bands are formulated differently. There is no brass or percussion; guitars and bass form the backbone, with violin, accordion, clarinet or guitar taking the lead. Gypsy swing groups generally have no more than five players. Although they originated in different continents, similarities have often been noted between gypsy swing and Western swing, leading to various fusions.

Rock music hitmakers like [[Fats Domino]] and [[Elvis Presley]] included swing-era standards in their repertoire, making [[Crooner|crooning]] ballads "[[Are You Lonesome Tonight? (song)|Are You Lonesome Tonight]]" and "[[My Blue Heaven (song)|My Blue Heaven]]" into rock and roll-era hits. The [[doo-wop]] vocal group [[the Marcels]] had a big hit with their lively version of the swing-era ballad "[[Blue Moon (1934 song)|Blue Moon]]".

Multi-genre mandolinist [[Kenneth C. "Jethro" Burns|Jethro Burns]] is known for playing swing, jazz, and other forms of the genre on the mandolin. He produced albums that feature jazz rhythms and swing chord progressions. He is often considered "The Father of Jazz Mandolin".

==1960s–2000: Big band nostalgia and swing revival==
{{Main|Swing revival}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2025}}
Though swing music was no longer mainstream, fans could attend "Big Band Nostalgia" tours from the 1970s into the 1980s. The tours featured bandleaders and vocalists of the swing era who were semi-retired, such as Harry James and vocalist Dick Haymes. Historically-themed radio broadcasts featuring period comedy, melodrama, and music also played a role in sustaining interest in the music of the swing era.
	
[[Dan Hicks and His Hot Licks]], and later [[David Grisman]], presented adaptations of gypsy swing, rekindling interest in the musical form. Other [[swing revival]]s occurred during the 1970s. The jazz, R&B, and swing revival vocal group [[the Manhattan Transfer]] and [[Bette Midler]] included swing era hits on their albums during the early 1970s. In Seattle the New Deal Rhythm Band revived 1930s swing with a dose of comedy behind vocalists Phil "De Basket" Shallat and [[Cheryl Bentyne|Cheryl "Benzene" Bentyne]]. Bentyne would leave the New Deal Rhythm Band in 1978 for her long career with Manhattan Transfer. Founding leader of the New Deal Rhythm Band [[John Holte]] led swing revival bands in the Seattle area until 2003.

A swing revival occurred during the 1990s and 2000s led by [[Royal Crown Revue]], [[Big Bad Voodoo Daddy]], the [[Cherry Poppin' Daddies]], [[Squirrel Nut Zippers]], [[Lavay Smith]], and [[Brian Setzer]]. Many of the bands played [[neo-swing]] which combined swing with [[rockabilly]], [[ska]], and rock. The music brought a revival in swing dancing.

In 2001 [[Robbie Williams]]'s album ''[[Swing When You're Winning]]'' consisted mainly of popular swing covers. The album sold more than 7 million copies worldwide. In November 2013, Robbie Williams released ''[[Swings Both Ways]]''.

==1990s–present: Swing house, electro swing, and swing pop==
Another modern development consists of fusing swing (original, or remixes of classics) with [[hip hop]] and [[house music|house]] techniques. "Swing house" is a sub genre of swing that has been influenced by the likes of Louis Jordan and Louis Prima. [[Electro swing]] is mainly popular in Europe, and electro swing artists incorporate influences such as [[tango music|tango]] and Django Reinhardt's gypsy swing. Leading artists include [[Caravan Palace]] and [[Parov Stelar]], who became popular in the late 2010s. Musically, electro swing is a misnomer as it usually samples music from the earlier [[Charleston_(dance)|Charleston era]] of the 1920s and doesn't actually [[Swing_time|swing]]. Both genres of swing house and electro swing have been connected with the revival of swing dances, such as the [[Lindy Hop]].{{Citation needed|reason=no citation in the section|date=July 2024}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Jazz}}
* [[Big band]]
* [[Gypsy jazz]]
* [[Interbellum Generation]]
* [[Lindy Hop]]
* [[List of music styles]]
* [[Lost Generation]]
* [[Swing (dance)]]
* [[Swing (jazz performance style)]]
* [[Original Dixieland Jass Band]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Erenberg, Lewis A. ''Swingin' the Dream: Big Band Jazz and the Rebirth of American Culture'' (1998)
* Gitler, Ira. ''Swing to Bop: An Oral History of the Transition in Jazz in the 1940s'' (1987)
* Hennessey, Thomas J. ''From Jazz to Swing: African-Americans and Their Music, 1890–1935'' (1994).
* Schuller, Gunther. ''The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945'' (1991)
* Spring, Howard. "Swing and the Lindy Hop: Dance, Venue, Media, and Tradition". ''American Music'', Vol. 15, No. 2 (Summer, 1997), pp.&nbsp;183–207.
* Stowe, David. ''Swing Changes: Big-Band Jazz in New Deal America'' (1996)
* Tucker, Sherrie. ''Swing Shift: 'All-Girl' Bands of the 1940s'' (2000)
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