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{{Short description|Genre of fantasy fiction}}
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{{Distinguish|text=[[Sword-and-sandal]], an Italian film genre}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Fantasy}}
'''Sword and sorcery''' ('''S&S'''), or '''heroic fantasy''', is a [[genre]] of [[literature]] characterized by sword-wielding heroes engaged in exciting and violent adventures. Elements of [[Romance (love)|romance]], [[Magic (fantasy)|magic]], and the [[supernatural]] are also often present. Unlike works of [[high fantasy]], the tales, though dramatic, focus on personal battles rather than world-endangering matters. The genre originated from the early 1930s works of [[Robert E. Howard]]. In parallel with "sword and sorcery", the term "heroic fantasy" is used, although it is a more loosely defined genre.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/heroic_fantasy|title=Heroic Fantasy|last=Nicholls|first=Peter|website=[[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]]|date=October 30, 2015|access-date=July 29, 2023}}</ref>

Sword and sorcery tales eschew overarching themes of "good vs evil" in favor of situational conflicts that often pit morally gray characters against one another to enrich themselves, or to defy [[tyranny]].

Sword and sorcery is grounded in real-world social and societal hierarchies, and is grittier, darker, and more violent, with elements of cosmic or [[Lovecraftian]] creatures that aren't a staple of mainstream fantasy. The main character is often a [[barbarian]] with [[antihero]] traits.

==Etymology==
The [[Historical Dictionary of Science Fiction]] records an example of "sword and sorcery" from 1953, where it appears in a headline of a review of an [[L. Sprague de Camp]] novel.<ref name="hdsf">{{Cite web|title=Historical Dictionary of Science Fiction: sword and sorcery|url=https://sfdictionary.com/view/235/sword-and-sorcery|access-date=2024-11-01|website=sfdictionary.com}}</ref> In the 6 April 1961 issue of the fantasy fanzine ''Ancalagon'', American author [[Fritz Leiber]] re-coined the term<ref name=SFESandS>{{cite web|url=https://sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/sword_and_sorcery|title=Sword and Sorcery|last=Nicholls|first=Peter|website=[[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]]|date=October 10, 2022|access-date=July 29, 2023}}</ref> in response to a letter from British author [[Michael Moorcock]] in the fanzine ''Amra'',<ref name=EoFSandS>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|entry=Sword and Sorcery|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=915|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> demanding a name for the sort of fantasy-adventure story written by [[Robert E. Howard]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Moorcock|first1=Mike|title=Putting a Tag on It|journal=Amra|date=May 1961|volume=2|issue=15|page=15}}</ref> Moorcock had initially proposed the term "epic fantasy". Leiber replied in the journal ''Ancalagon'' (6 April 1961), suggesting "sword-and-sorcery as a good popular catchphrase for the field". He expanded on this in the July 1961 issue of ''Amra'', commenting:

{{blockquote|I feel more certain than ever that this field should be called the sword-and-sorcery story. This accurately describes the points of culture-level and supernatural element and also immediately distinguishes it from the cloak-and-sword (historical adventure) story—and (quite incidentally) from the [[cloak-and-dagger]] (international espionage) story too!<ref>[[Fritz Leiber]], ''Amra'', July 1961</ref>}}

The term "heroic fantasy" has been used to avoid the garish overtones of "sword and sorcery".<ref name=SFESandS/> This name was coined by [[L. Sprague de Camp]].<ref name="deCamp">{{cite book |last1=de Camp |first1=L. Sprague |title=Conan the Barbarian |date=1967 |publisher=Ace Books |page=13 |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> However, it has also been used to describe a broader range of fantasy, including [[High fantasy]].<ref name=Stableford>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Stableford | first = Brian | author-link = Brian Stableford | encyclopedia = The A to Z of Fantasy Literature | title = Heroic Fantasy| year = 2009 | publisher = Scarecrow Press | isbn = 9780810863453}}</ref><ref name=pg>{{cite book |last=Guran |first=Paula |date=2017 |title=Swords Against Darkness |publisher=Prime Books |pages=6–10 |chapter=Introduction: Knowledge Takes Precedence Over Death |isbn=978-1-60701-485-0}}</ref>

==Style and themes==
[[File:Harold S Delay - Red Nails I.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Illustration of a scene in [[Robert E. Howard]]'s [[Conan the Barbarian]] story "Red Nails"]]
Heavily influenced by the [[Adventure fiction|adventure genre]], the settings of sword and sorcery often revolve around [[Alternate history]], pulling influences from early 20th century [[Archaeology]] and [[Theosophy]].<ref name="deCamp"/> The setting can be an Earth in the mythical past or distant future, an imaginary other world or an alien planet.<ref name="deCamp"/><ref name=Stableford2>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Stableford | first = Brian | author-link = Brian Stableford | encyclopedia = The A to Z of Fantasy Literature | title = Sword and Sorcery| year = 2009 | publisher = Scarecrow Press | isbn = 9780810863453}}</ref> Sword and sorcery stories are also influenced by [[Horror literature|Horror]], [[Myth]]ology, [[Folklore]], and [[Science Fiction]].<ref name="Arkham House">{{cite book|last1=de Camp|first1=L. Sprague|title=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: the Makers of Heroic Fantasy|date=1976|isbn=0-87054-076-9|publisher=Arkham House|page=xi|location=Sauk City, Wisconsin}}</ref> The technological level of most sword and sorcery settings is similar to that of the [[Ancient history|ancient]] or [[Middle Ages|medieval]] periods with an emphasis on swordplay.<ref name=Stableford2 /><ref name=js>{{cite book |last=Shanks |first=Jeffrey |date=2013 |editor-last=Hoppenstand |editor-first=Gary |title=Pulp Fiction of the 1920s and 1930s |publisher=Salem Press |pages=6–18 |chapter=History, Horror, and Heroic Fantasy: Robert E. Howard and the Creation of the Sword-and-Sorcery Subgenre |isbn=9781429838436}}</ref>

The [[Protagonist]] is usually an [[antihero]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Westfahl |first=Gary |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy. Themes, Works and Wonders |pages=73–75 |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32950-0}}</ref> who fights against supernatural evil and the [[occult]].<ref name=SFESandS/> Unlike [[fantasy]], the magic of a sword and sorcery story comes at a substantial cost, or what can be described as a [[Hard and soft magic systems|hard magic system]]. Although the main character mostly behaves heroically, he may ally with an enemy or sacrifice an ally in order to survive.<ref name=FantasyEnc>{{cite book |last1=Clute |first1=John |last2=Grant|first2=John |last3=Ashley |first3=Mike |last4=Hartwell |first4=David G. |last5=Westfahl |first5=Gary |title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy |date=1999 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York |isbn=0-312-19869-8 |page=464 |edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref><ref name=Stableford2 /> A hero's main weapons are cunning and physical strength. Magic, on the other hand, is usually only used by the villains of the story,<ref name=BestFantasy>{{cite web |url=http://bestfantasybooks.com/sword-and-sorcery.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922100051/bestfantasybooks.com/sword-and-sorcery.html |title=Sword and Sorcery |website=Best Fantasy Books |archive-date=September 22, 2013 |access-date=July 29, 2023 |url-status=dead}}</ref> who are usually [[Magician (fantasy)|wizards]], [[Witch (word)|witches]], or supernatural [[monster]]s.<ref name=FantasyEnc/> A recurring theme in the genre is a [[damsel in distress]].<ref name=BestFantasy/> Although [[Robert E. Howard]] was known for writing strong female protagonists such as [[Dark Agnes de Chastillon|Agnes]] and [[Red Nails|Valeria]], the 1960s onward saw an emphasis on male protagonists and underdeveloped female characters by the popular authors of the time. This issue has declined in recent years.<ref name=Stableford2 /><ref name=FantasyEnc/>

In his introduction to the 1967 [[Ace Books|Ace]] edition of ''Conan the Barbarian'', L. Sprague de Camp described the typical sword and sorcery story as:
<blockquote>
[A] story of action and adventure laid in a more or less imaginary world, where magic works and where modern science and technology have not yet been discovered. The setting may (as in the Conan stories) be this Earth as it is conceived to have been long ago, or as it will be in the remote future, or it may be another planet or another dimension.

Such a story combines the color and dash of the historical costume romance with the atavistic supernatural thrills of the weird, occult, or [[ghost story]]. When well done, it provides the purest ''fun'' of fiction of any kind. It is escape fiction wherein one escapes clear out of the real world into one where all men are strong, all women beautiful, all life adventurous, and all problems simple, and nobody even mentions the income tax or the dropout problem or socialized medicine.
</blockquote>

Sprague DeCamp has since received considerable backlash from the modern sword and sorcery community for fueling misconceptions about the purpose and style of the genre.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.barbariankeep.com/issues.html |title=REH Issues FAQ |website=barbarian Keep |access-date=June 23, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://theblogthattimeforgot.blogspot.com/2012/06/de-camp-controversy-essential-reading.html |title=The de Camp Controversy |website=The Blog That Time Forgot |date=20 June 2012 |access-date=June 23, 2025}}</ref>  Organizations such as the Robert E. Howard Foundation and various fanzines have worked elevate the embedded themes of [[social criticism]] and indicate the academic importance of the genre's relevance to the development of [[Existentialism|existentialist literature]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hoffman|first1=Charles|title=Amra Volume 2 #61, ''Conan the Existential''|date=1974|publisher=Owlswick, & Ft Mudge Electrick St Railway Gazette|location=Philadelphia, PA}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hoffman|first1=Charles|last2=Cerasini|first2=Mark|title=Robert E. Howard: Starmont Readers Guide #35|date=1987|publisher=Starmont House|location=Mercer, WA}}</ref>

Many sword and sorcery tales have turned into lengthy series of adventures. Their lower stakes and less-than world-threatening dangers make this more plausible than a repetition of the perils of [[high fantasy]]. So too does the nature of the heroes; most sword and sorcery protagonists, travelers by nature, find peace after adventure deathly dull.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Philip|title=The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value|date=2002|publisher=Writer Books|location=Waukesha, WI|isbn=0-87116-195-8|page=37|edition=1st}}</ref>

Sword and sorcery experiences crossover with [[dark fantasy]]. The scale of the struggles depicted is smaller, and the main character usually pursues personal gain, such as wealth or love.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Philip|title=The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest: how to Write Fantasy Stories of Lasting Value|date=2002|publisher=Writer Books|location=Waukesha, WI|isbn=0-87116-195-8|page=35|edition=1st}}</ref> The opposition between good and evil characteristic of fantasy also exists in Sword and Sorcery literature, but it is less absolute and the events often take place in a morally gray area. These features are especially emphasized in newer works of the genre. The stories are fast-paced and action-oriented, with lots of violent fight scenes. Like most speculative fiction, Sword and Sorcery has been criticized for its over employment of the [[Deus ex machina]] trope.

Writers such as Howard, [[Michael Moorcock]] and [[Samuel R. Delany]] have used the Sword and Sorcery genre to address serious [[Theme (narrative)|themes]] such as [[Assisted suicide]], [[Fascism|anti-fascism]], liberty, anti-slavery, sex trafficking, criticism of organized religion, and the cyclical rise and fall of civilization.<ref>{{cite book |last=Stevens |first=Jen |date=2008 |title=Fantasy Authors: A Research Guide | entry=Moorcock, Michael | location=Westport, CT |publisher=Libraries Unlimited |pages=129–131 |isbn=978-1-59158-497-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=McAuley |first=Paul J. |date=1996 |editor-last=Pringle |editor-first=David |title=St. James Guide to Fantasy Writers|entry=Delany, Samuel R(ay) |location=London |publisher=St. James Press |pages=151–154 |isbn=1-55862-205-5}}</ref> Sword and sorcery is most well known for its discussion of [[Agency (sociology)|agency]] and employment of ideas related to [[conflict theories|conflict theory]]. While sword and sorcery employs a wide variety of [[Conflict (narrative)|narrative conflicts]], the most typical structure is Man Vs Man, presented in the context of Man Vs Society or Man Vs God, wherein the villain of the story is a symbolic representation of a greater evil.

A quote from ''The Alexandrian'' summarizes a core theme found within sword and sorcery:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thealexandrian.net/wordpress/51013/roleplaying-games/some-thoughts-on-swords-sorcery | title=Some Thoughts on Swords & Sorcery |website=The Alexandrian |access-date=June 6, 2025 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<blockquote>
"The mythic root of these stories is Robin Hood, whose idyllic society of Merry Men living in the barbarism of Sherwood Forest achieves the ideals of chivalry and nobility which are falsely claimed by the corrupt powers of “civilization.” ...Where civilization fails to protect the innocent (and is, in fact, often the ones victimizing them), it is the “outsider” that civilization teaches you to fear that will ultimately sacrifice to help those in need."
</blockquote>

It is typical for the topics that sword and sorcery deals with to be divisive. Certain authors, particularly from 1960 to the late 1980s, have been criticized for excessive violence, [[misogyny]], [[racism]] and [[fascism]].<ref name=SFESandS/><ref name=tueof>{{cite book|last1=Pringle|first1=David|last2=Pratchett|first2=Terry|title=The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=2007|publisher=Random House Australia|location=North Sydney, N.S.W.|isbn=9781741665826|pages=33–5}}</ref>

==History==
===Origins===
In his introduction to the reference ''[[Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers]]'' by [[L. Sprague de Camp]], [[Lin Carter]] notes that the heritage of sword and sorcery is illustrious, and can be traced back to mythology, including the labors of [[Hercules]], as well as to classical epics such as [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', the [[Norse sagas]], and [[Arthurian legend]].<ref name="Arkham House"/>

It also has been influenced by [[historical fiction]]. For instance, the work of [[Sir Walter Scott]] was influenced by Scottish folklore and ballads.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael |title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004 |publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|page=79|edition=rev.}}</ref> Yet few of Scott's stories contain fantastic elements; in most, the appearance of such is explained away.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clute |first1=John |last2=Grant |first2=John |last3=Ashley |first3=Mike |last4=Hartwell |first4=David G. |last5=Westfahl |first5=Gary |title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy |date=1999 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York |isbn=0-312-19869-8 |page=845 |edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Its themes of adventure in a strange society were influenced by adventures set in foreign lands by [[Sir H. Rider Haggard]] and [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moorcock|first1=Michael |title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy|date=2004|publisher=MonkeyBrain|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-07-4|pages=80–81|edition=rev.}}</ref> Haggard's works, such as ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]'' (1885) and ''[[She: A History of Adventure]]'' (1887) included many fantastic elements.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John |last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary |title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy |date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|pages=444–445|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref> Some of Haggard's characters, such as Umslopogaas, an axe-wielding Zulu warrior who encountered supernatural phenomena and loved to fight, bore similarities to sword and sorcery heroes.<ref name=tueof /><ref name=bm1>{{cite book|last1=Murphy|first1=Brian|title=Flame and Crimson: A History of Sword-and-Sorcery|date=2019|publisher=Pulp Hero Press|location=Pismo Beach, CA|isbn=9781683902447|page= Chapter Two: Origins}}</ref> Haggard also wrote ''[[Eric Brighteyes]]'' (1891), a violent [[Historical fiction|historical novel]] based on the [[Sagas of Icelanders|Icelandic Sagas]]; some writers, (such as [[David Pringle]]) have stated that ''Eric Brighteyes'' resembles a modern sword and sorcery novel.<ref name=tueof /><ref name=bm1 /> Edgar Rice Burroughs' novels featured physical formidable male heroes such as [[Tarzan]] and [[John Carter of Mars]]. Burroughs' heroes had adventures involving the exploration of strange regions and battles with fearsome creatures. Burroughs' work was enormously influential on the initial generation of American sword and sorcery writers, such as Robert E. Howard.<ref name=bm1 /><ref name=mth>Holmes, Morgan T. "Gothic to Cosmic: Sword and Sorcery in ''Weird Tales''" in Everett, Justin and Shanks, Jeffrey H. (Editors). ''The Unique Legacy of Weird Tales : the Evolution of Modern Fantasy and Horror''. Rowman and Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland, 2015 {{ISBN|9781442256224}} (p.65)</ref>

Sword and sorcery's immediate progenitors are the [[swashbuckling]] tales of [[Alexandre Dumas, père]] (''[[The Three Musketeers]]'' (1844), etc.), [[Rafael Sabatini]] (''[[Scaramouche (novel)|Scaramouche]]'' (1921), etc.) and their [[pulp magazine]] imitators, such as [[Talbot Mundy]], [[Harold Lamb]], and [[H. Bedford-Jones]], who all influenced Howard.<ref name=js /><ref name=tueof /> Mundy in particular, proved influential: early sword and sorcery writers such as Howard, [[C. L. Moore]] and [[Fritz Leiber]] were admirers of Mundy's fiction.<ref name=js /><ref name=bm1 /><ref name=mth /> However, these historical "swashbucklers" lack the supernatural element which defines the genre.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clute |first1=John |last2=Grant |first2=John |last3=Ashley |first3=Mike |last4=Hartwell |first4=David G. |last5=Westfahl |first5=Gary |title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy |date=1999 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |location=New York |isbn=0-312-19869-8 |page=300 |edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>

Another influence was early fantasy fiction. This type of fiction includes the short stories of [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]]'s such as "[[The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth]]" (1910) and "The Distressing Tale of Thangobrind the Jeweller" (1911). These works of Dunsany's feature warriors who clash with monsters and wizards in realms of Dunsany's creation. Dunsany's work proved inspirational to C.L. Moore, Fritz Leiber, [[Jack Vance]], and [[Karl Edward Wagner]].<ref name=js /><ref name=bm1 /> ''[[The Worm Ouroboros]]'' (1922) by [[E. R. Eddison]], a heroic romance written in a mock-archaic style, was an inspiration to later writers of sword and sorcery such as Leiber.<ref name=EoFSandS /><ref name=bm1 /> The "Poictesme" novels of [[James Branch Cabell]], such as ''[[Jurgen: A Comedy of Justice]]'' (1919), have been cited as a stimulus to early sword and sorcery writing. Cabell's novels depict picaresque exploits in imaginary lands, and were an influence on Leiber and Vance.<ref name=SFESandS /><ref>{{Cite book|title=This is Me, Jack Vance|author=Jack Vance|page=65|isbn=978-1-59606-245-0|year=2009|publisher=Subterranean Press}}</ref> [[A. Merritt]]'s novels ''[[The Ship of Ishtar]]'' (1924) and ''[[Dwellers in the Mirage]]'' (1932) have also been cited as influences on sword and sorcery, as they feature men from the then-contemporary world being drawn into dangerous adventures involving swordplay and magic.<ref name=bm1 /><ref>{{Cite web |title=not reached |url=http://www.swordandsorcery.org/Timeline.aspArchived+15+February+2010+at+the+Wayback+Machine |access-date=September 24, 2024 |website=www.swordandsorcery.org}}</ref> All these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used.<ref name=bm1 /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Moorcock |first1=Michael |title=Wizardry & Wild Romance: A Study of Epic Fantasy |date=2004 |publisher=MonkeyBrain |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=1-932265-07-4 |page=82 |edition=rev.}}</ref>

Also, many early sword and sorcery writers, such as Howard and [[Clark Ashton Smith]], were influenced by the Middle Eastern tales of the [[Arabian Nights]], whose stories of magical monsters and evil [[Magician (fantasy)|sorcerers]] were an influence on the genre-to-be.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Camp |first1=L. Sprague |title=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy |date=1976 |publisher=Arkham House |location=Sauk City, Wisconsin |isbn=0-8705-4-076-9 |edition=1st |page=10}}</ref>

Sword and sorcery's frequent depictions of smoky taverns and fetid back alleys draw upon the [[picaresque]] genre; for example, Rachel Bingham notes that [[Fritz Leiber]]'s city of [[Lankhmar]] bears considerable similarity to 16th century [[Seville]] as depicted in [[Miguel de Cervantes]]' tale "[[Rinconete y Cortadillo]]".<ref>Dr. Rachel B. Bingham, "The Enduring Influence of Cervantes" in "Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Spanish Literature and Culture" (published in Spanish, French and English)</ref>

Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the [[pulp magazines|pulp]] fantasy magazines, where it emerged from "[[weird fiction]]".<ref name="stiles">{{cite web |url=http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet-archive/tales-from-the-brass-bikini-feminist-sword-and-sorcery-november-2011-bs-r |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228100610/http://broaduniverse.org/broadsheet-archive/tales-from-the-brass-bikini-feminist-sword-and-sorcery-november-2011-bs-r |archive-date=2011-12-28 |last=Stiles |first=Paula R. |title=Tales From the Brass Bikini: Feminist Sword and Sorcery |work=Broad Universe |date=November 2011 |access-date=20 June 2012}}</ref> The magazine ''[[Weird Tales]]'', which published Howard's [[Conan the Barbarian|Conan]] stories and [[C. L. Moore]]'s [[Jirel of Joiry]] tales, as well as key influences like [[H. P. Lovecraft]] and Smith, was especially important.<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Camp|first1=L. Sprague|title=Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy|date=1976|publisher=Arkham House|location=Sauk City, Wisconsin|isbn=0-8705-4-076-9|edition=1st|page=ix: Chapter IV (Lovecraft), Chapter VIII (Smith)}}</ref> Lovecraft's fiction (especially his "Dream Cycle" of Dunsany-inspired fantasy stories) was a source of inspiration for the first generation of sword and sorcery writers.<ref name=bm1 />

The 1929 ''Weird Tales'' story "[[The Shadow Kingdom]]" by Robert E. Howard is often regarded as the first true "sword and sorcery" tale, because it pits a heroic warrior ([[Kull of Atlantis]]) against supernatural evil, in an imaginary world of the writer's devising.<ref name=js />

Science fiction author [[Isaac Asimov]] once stated in his own ''Science Fiction Magazine'' that "The contemporary Sword-and-Sorcery tale owes its existence to the imagination of Robert Howard and his invention of the Conan stories."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Asimov|first1=Isaac|title=Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine, January|date=1985|publisher=Dell Magazines}}</ref>

Howard published only three stories featuring Kull in ''Weird Tales''. He revised an unsold Kull story, "[[By This Axe I Rule!]]" into "[[The Phoenix on the Sword]]", which introduced a new character, [[Conan the Barbarian]].<ref name=js /><ref name=mth /> When "The Phoenix on the Sword" was published in 1932, it proved popular with the ''Weird Tales'' readers, and Howard wrote more tales of Conan, of which 17 were published in the magazine.<ref name=js /><ref name=mth />

===Development===
The success of Howard's work encouraged other ''Weird Tales'' writers to create similar tales of adventure in imagined lands. [[Clark Ashton Smith]] wrote his tales of the [[Hyperborean cycle]] and [[Zothique]] for ''Weird Tales'' in the 1930s. These stories revolved around the exploits of warriors and sorcerers in lands of the remote past or remote future, and often had downbeat endings.<ref name=SFESandS /><ref name=mth /> [[C. L. Moore]], inspired by Howard, Smith and H. P. Lovecraft, created the [[Jirel of Joiry]] stories for ''Weird Tales'', which brought in the first sword and sorcery heroine.<ref name=SFESandS /><ref name=js /> Moore's future husband [[Henry Kuttner]] created [[Elak of Atlantis]], a Howard-inspired warrior hero, for ''Weird Tales'' in 1938.<ref name=js /><ref name=mth />

Following a change of ownership in 1940, ''Weird Tales'' ceased to publish sword and sorcery stories.<ref>Weinberg, Robert (1999b) [1977]. "The Stories". In Weinberg, Robert (ed.). The Weird Tales Story. (1999) Berkeley Heights, New Jersey: Wildside Press. (pp. 43) ISBN 1-58715-101-4.</ref> However, the pulp magazine ''[[Unknown (magazine)|Unknown Worlds]]'' continued to publish sword and sorcery fiction by [[Fritz Leiber]] and [[Norvell W. Page]].<ref name=pg /><ref name=js /><ref name="nwp">[[Mike Ashley (writer)|Mike Ashley]], "Page, Norvell W(ooten)", in ''St. James Guide To Fantasy Writers'', ed. [[David Pringle]], St James Press, 1996, {{ISBN|1-55862-205-5}}, (pp. 465–466)</ref> Leiber's stories revolved around a duo of heroes called [[Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser]], and dealt with their adventures in the world of Nehwon ("No-When" backwards). Leiber's stories featured more emphasis on characterisation and humour than previous sword and sorcery fiction, and his characters became popular with ''Unknown's'' readers.<ref>Don D'Ammassa, ''Encyclopedia of Fantasy and Horror Fiction'', Facts on File, New York, 2013 {{ISBN|9781438140636}} (p.112)</ref> Page's sword and sorcery tales centred on [[Prester John]], a Howard-inspired gladiator adventurer, whose exploits took place in Central Asia in the first century CE.<ref name="nwp" />

With the diminution of pulp magazine sales in the late 1940s, the focus of sword and sorcery shifted to small-press books. [[Arkham House]] published collections by Robert E. Howard, Clark Ashton Smith and Fritz Leiber that included some of their sword and sorcery work.<ref>Tibbetts, John C. ''The Gothic Imagination : Conversations on Fantasy, Horror, and Science Fiction in the Media''  Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2011 {{ISBN|9780230118164}}, (p.60)</ref> Writer [[Jack Vance]] published the book ''[[The Dying Earth]]'' in 1950. ''The Dying Earth'' described the adventures of rogues and wizards on a decadent far-future Earth, where magic had replaced science.<ref name=SFESandS /><ref name=pg />

===Rise in popularity===

In the 1960s, American paperback publisher [[Lancer Books]] began to reissue Robert E. Howard's ''Conan'' stories in paperback, with cover illustrations by artist [[Frank Frazetta]]. These editions became surprise bestsellers, selling millions of copies to a largely young readership.<ref name=tueof /><ref>Sammon, Paul. ''Conan the phenomenon : the legacy of Robert E. Howard's fantasy icon''. Dark Horse Books, Milwaukie, OR, 2013 (p.45) {{ISBN|9781616551889}}</ref> The commercial success of the Conan books encouraged other publishers to put out new and reprinted books in the style of Howard's work.<ref name=tueof />

Initial works in the 1960s by other authors closely followed the Conan mould, with [[Lin Carter]]'s [[Thongor of Lemuria]], [[Gardner Fox|Gardner F. Fox]]'s Kothar the Barbarian, and [[John Jakes]]' Brak the Barbarian being the most popular of the imitators. Notably different works were [[Michael Moorcock]]'s [[Elric of Melniboné|Elric of Melnibone]] stories, which were designed to be in counterpoint with the barbarian trope, and the revival of interest in the original [[Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser|Fafhrd & Gray Mouser]] stories with their focus on urbane rogues, by [[Fritz Leiber]] led to Leiber writing new stories with the characters that he would periodically revisit throughout the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name=Stableford />

Despite this, the initial barbarian-focused boom crashed in the early seventies, before the mid-1970s led to newer, more varied authors and books being published with it, such as [[Andre Norton]], [[David Drake]], [[Tanith Lee]], [[Charles R. Saunders]], [[Michael Shea (American author)|Michael Shea]], [[Karl Edward Wagner]], and others.<ref name=Stableford /><ref>“A Brief Introduction to Karl Edward Wagner” by David Drake, ''Weird Tales''Fall 1989,</ref>

From the 1960s until the 1980s, under the guiding force of Carter, a select group of writers formed the [[Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America]] (SAGA) to promote and enlarge the sword and sorcery genre. From 1973 to 1981, five anthologies featuring short works by SAGA members were published. Edited by Carter, these were collectively known as ''[[Flashing Swords!]]'' Because of these and other anthologies, such as the [[Ballantine Adult Fantasy]] series, his own fiction, and his criticism, Carter is considered one of the most important popularizers of genre fantasy in general, and S&S in particular.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=171|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>

Despite such authors' efforts, some critics use sword and sorcery as a dismissive or pejorative term.<ref name=EoFSandS /> During the 1980s, influenced by the success of the 1982 feature film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (1982 film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'',<ref name=Shaw1996>Andrea Shaw. "1980s - 1990s: Sword and Sorcery". Seen That, Now What?  The Ultimate Guide to Finding the Video You Really Want to Watch. Fireside. 1996. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vgVStU_SWRcC&pg=RA1-PA443#v=onepage&q&f=false 443] & 444.</ref> many fantasy films, some cheaply made, were released in a subgenre that would be called "sword and sorcery".

The sword and sorcery boom is said to have begun with ''[[Hawk the Slayer]]'' (1980).<ref name=Shaw1996/><ref>Nick Curtis. [https://www.theguardian.com/film/2015/jul/06/hawk-the-slayer-film-sequel-terry-marcel-jack-palance Hawk the Slayer is back – and he's brought his mindsword]. The Guardian. 6 July 2015.</ref> Other examples of sword and sorcery films include ''[[The Beastmaster]]'' (1982), ''[[The Sword and the Sorcerer]]'' (1982),<ref name=Shaw1996/>  ''[[Hercules (1983 film)|Hercules]]'' (1983),<ref>Jacobs. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VIJ8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR224#v=onepage&q&f=false Screening Statues: Sculpture in Film]. 2017.</ref> a Conan sequel, ''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984),<ref>Tambling (ed). A Night in at the Opera: Media Representations of Opera. John Libbey. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BMzl-08heWwC&pg=PA133#v=onepage&q&f=false p 133]</ref> ''[[Ladyhawke (film)|Ladyhawke]]'' (1985) and ''[[Red Sonja (1985 film)|Red Sonja]]'' (1985), which, like the Conan films, also stars [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]].<ref name=Shaw1996/> The [[sword and planet]] film<ref>Nicholas Diak. The New Peplum. Macfarland. 2018. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dThCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false p 5].</ref> ''[[Masters of the Universe (1987 film)|Masters of the Universe]]'' (1987) contains elements of sword and sorcery<ref>Baer. How He-Man Mastered the Universe. Macfarland. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7nRPDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q&f=false p 19].</ref> and has been called a Conan hybrid.<ref>[https://variety.com/1986/film/reviews/masters-of-the-universe-1200427185/ Masters of the Universe]. Variety. 31 December 1986.</ref>

''[[Clash of the Titans (1981 film)|Clash of the Titans]]'' (1981), ''[[Excalibur (film)|Excalibur]]'' (1981), ''[[Dragonslayer (1981 film)|Dragonslayer]]'' (1981), and ''[[Krull (film)|Krull]]'' (1983) are characterised as sword and sorcery films by some writers,<ref name=Shaw1996/><ref>Ray B Browne (ed). Objects of Special Devotion. Bowling Green University Popular Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NO5DkzptBeoC&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false p 51].</ref> but this is disputed by Butler.<ref>Butler. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UWEYAQAAMAAJ Fantasy Cinema: Impossible Worlds on Screen]. Wallflower. 2009. p 73.</ref> ''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]'' (1977) was influenced by sword and sorcery,<ref name=SFESandS/> and in turn influenced<ref>Alexander Zahlten. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D74zDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60#v=onepage&q&f=false The End of Japanese Cinema]. Duke University Press. 2017.</ref><ref>Toshiyuki Matsushima. 角川春樹インタビュー「里見八犬伝」の映画化は私の長い間の念願だった! [[Kinema Junpo]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=87I2AAAAMAAJ December 1983]. pp 44 to 46.</ref> ''[[Legend of the Eight Samurai]]'' (1983), a Japanese sword and sorcery style film.<ref>Chris D. Outlaw Masters of Japanese Film. IB Tauris. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MbaKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13#v=onepage&q&f=false p 13].</ref>

After the cinema and literary boom of the early to mid-1980s, sword and sorcery once again dropped out of favor, with epic fantasy largely taking its place in the fantasy genre. There was, though, another resurgence in sword and sorcery at the end of the 20th century. Sometimes called the "new" or "literary" sword and sorcery, this development places emphasis on literary technique, and draws from epic fantasy and other genres to broaden the genre's typical scope. Stories may feature the wide-ranging struggles of national or world-spanning concerns common to high fantasy, but told from the point of view of characters more common to S&S, and with the sense of adventure common to the latter. Writers associated with this include [[Steven Erikson]], [[Joe Abercrombie]], and [[Scott Lynch]], magazines such as [[Black Gate (magazine)|''Black Gate'']] and the ezines ''Flashing Swords''{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} (not to be confused with the [[Lin Carter]] anthologies), and ''[[Beneath Ceaseless Skies]]'' publish short fiction in the style.<ref>[http://www.beneath-ceaseless-skies.com/page.php?p=about] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508103934/http://www.beneath-ceaseless-skies.com/page.php?p=about|date=8 May 2012}}</ref> According to the literary critic Higashi Masao regarding Japanese works ''[[Guin Saga]]'' and ''[[Sorcerous Stabber Orphen]]'', they were initially planned by their authors as novels that could be classified as belonging to the European sword and sorcery [[subgenre]] but had various major elements that distanced themselves from the typical novels in the genre.<ref name="HMAI">{{cite book|last=Higashi|first=Masao|editor1-last=Ai |editor1-first=Ishidou |title=Encyclopedia of Japanese fantasy writers|year=2009| language=ja |publisher=Kokusho Kankōkai|isbn= 9784336051424|pages=45}}</ref>

In the 1990s, sword and sorcery boomed in popularity in [[Great Britain]] and other parts of the world.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Science fiction |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/science-fiction |access-date=2023-04-24 |publisher=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Women creators and characters==
[[Robert E. Howard]] espoused feminist views in his personal and professional life. He wrote to his friends and associates defending the achievements and capabilities of women.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finn|first1=Mark|title=[[Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard]]|date=2006|publisher=MonkeyBrain Books|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-21-X|page=141}}</ref><ref>[http://www.rehupa.com/short_bio.htm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929010748/http://www.rehupa.com/short_bio.htm|date=29 September 2011}}</ref> Strong female characters in Howard's works of fiction include [[Dark Agnes de Chastillon]] (first appearing in "Sword Woman", circa 1932–34), the early modern pirate Helen Tavrel ("The Isle of Pirates' Doom", 1928), as well as two pirates and Conan the Barbarian supporting characters, Bêlit ("[[Queen of the Black Coast]]", 1934), and Valeria of the Red Brotherhood ("[[Red Nails]]", 1936).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Finn|first1=Mark|title=[[Blood & Thunder: The Life & Art of Robert E. Howard]]|date=2006|publisher=MonkeyBrain Books|location=Austin, Tex.|isbn=1-932265-21-X|pages=186–187}}</ref>

Introduced as the co-star in a non-fantasy historical story by Howard entitled "[[The Shadow of the Vulture]]", Red Sonya of Rogatino later inspired a fantasy heroine named [[Red Sonja]], who first appeared in the comic book series ''[[Conan (comics)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' written by [[Roy Thomas]] and illustrated by [[Barry Windsor-Smith]]. Red Sonja got her own comic book title and eventually a series of novels by [[David C. Smith (author)|David C. Smith]] and [[Richard L. Tierney]], as well as [[Richard Fleischer]]'s [[Red Sonja (1985 film)|film adaptation]] in 1985.

[[C. L. Moore|Catherine Moore]] was another foundational author of the sword and sorcery genre during its earliest years with her [[Jirel of Joiry]] stories. Several other women lead the beginnings of this genre, including [[Leigh Brackett]], [[Nathalie Henneberg]], and [[Andre Norton]].

Despite this, sword and sorcery has been criticized for having a masculine bias; This includes criticism of the aforementioned authors. Female characters were often [[Damsel in distress|distressed damsels]] to be rescued or protected, or otherwise served as a reward for a male hero's adventures. Those who had adventures of their own often did so to counter the threat of [[rape]] or to take revenge for it.<ref name="stiles" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Bradley |first=Marion Zimmer |title=Sword and Sorceress |url=https://archive.org/details/swordsorceress00mari |url-access=limited |year= 1984 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-928-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/swordsorceress00mari/page/11 11]}}</ref> These issues were particularly relevant in the 1960s through the late 1980s, but are often characteristic of even some of the earliest Sword and Sorcery stories.

[[Tanith Lee]]'s 1975 novel ''[[The Birthgrave]]'' and later novels focused on women's roles in standard sword and sorcery era narratives. The [[The Morgaine Stories|Morgaine]] cycle of novels from [[C. J. Cherryh]], which began in 1976, also focused on a female lead while engaging in a traditional heroic fantasy lead. This led to them and other female authors being inducted into Lin Carter's [[Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America]].

[[Jessica Amanda Salmonson]] similarly sought to broaden the range of roles for female characters in sword and sorcery through her own stories and through editing the [[World Fantasy Award]]-winning<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldfantasy.org/awards/1980.html |title=1980 World Fantasy Award Winners and Nominees |work=World Fantasy Convention |publisher=World Fantasy Board |access-date=18 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728144349/http://www.worldfantasy.org/awards/1980.html |archive-date=28 July 2012 }}</ref> ''Amazons'' (1979) and ''Amazons II'' (1982) anthologies; both drew on real and folkloric female warriors, often from outside of Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last=Salmonson |first=Jessica Amanda |title=Amazons II |year=1982 |publisher=DAW Books |location=New York |isbn=0-87997-736-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/amazonsii00salm/page/7 7–19] |url=https://archive.org/details/amazonsii00salm/page/7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Clute|first1=John|last2=Grant|first2=John|last3=Ashley|first3=Mike|last4=Hartwell|first4=David G.|last5=Westfahl|first5=Gary|title=The Encyclopedia of Fantasy|date=1999|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York|isbn=0-312-19869-8|page=832|edition=1st St. Martin's Griffin}}</ref>

[[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[Sword and Sorceress series|Sword and Sorceress]]'' anthology series (1984 onwards) challenged these archetypes. The stories feature skillful swordswomen and powerful sorceresses working from a variety of motives.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Strahan|first1=Jonathan|last2=Anders|first2=Lou|title=Swords & Dark Magic: The New Sword and Sorcery|date=2010|publisher=Eos|location=New York|isbn=978-0-06-172381-0|page=xvii|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/swordsdarkmagict00stra|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bradley|first1=Marion Zimmer|title=Sword and Sorceress XVII|date=2001|publisher=DAW Books|location=New York, NY|isbn=0886779960|pages=9–13}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Planetary romance]]
* ''[[Xianxia]]'' — the Chinese equivalent of Western sword and sorcery fantasy literatures
* ''[[Shenmo]]'' — a more high-magic Chinese fantasy genre centered on [[deities]], [[demon]]s and other powerful [[supernatural being]]s such as [[spirit (supernatural entity)|spirit]]s and [[monster]]s
* [[List of sword-and-sorcery films]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{wiktionary-inline|sword and sorcery}}
* [https://sfdictionary.com/view/235/sword-and-sorcery entry for Sword and Sorcery] in the ''[[Historical Dictionary of Science Fiction]]''
* [http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/sword_and_sorcery ''Sword and Sorcery''] in ''[[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]]''
* [https://zinewiki.com/wiki/Amra ''Amra''] entry at ZineWiki

{{Fantasy fiction}}
{{Film genres}}

[[Category:1961 neologisms]]
[[Category:Sword and sorcery| ]]
[[Category:Fantasy genres]]

[[fr:Heroic fantasy#Définition]]