View source for Syllable

{{Short description|Unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Syllabic}}
{{IPA notice}}
A '''syllable''' is a basic unit of organization within a sequence of [[Phone (phonetics)|speech sounds]], such as within a word, typically defined by linguists as a ''nucleus'' (most often a [[vowel]]) with optional sounds before or after that nucleus (''margins'', which are most often [[consonant]]s). In [[phonology]] and studies of languages, syllables are often considered the "building blocks" of [[words]].<ref>{{cite book|last=de Jong|first=Kenneth|year=2003|chapter=Temporal constraints and characterising syllable structuring|editor1-last=Local|editor1-first=John|editor1-link=John Local|editor2-last=Ogden|editor2-first=Richard|editor3-last=Temple|editor3-first=Rosalind|title=Phonetic Interpretation: Papers in Laboratory Phonology VI|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=254 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511486425.015|isbn=978-0-521-82402-6}} </ref> They can influence the [[Isochrony|rhythm]] of a language: its [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] or [[Metre (poetry)|poetic metre]]. Properties such as [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], and [[reduplication]] operate on syllables and their parts.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=3}} Speech can usually be divided up into a whole number of syllables: for example, the word ''ignite'' is made of two syllables: ''ig'' and ''nite''. Most languages of the world use relatively simple syllable structures that often alternate between vowels and consonants.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=1}}

Despite being present in virtually all human languages, syllables still have no precise definition that is valid for all known languages.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=3}} A common criterion for finding syllable boundaries is native-speaker intuition, but individuals sometimes disagree on them.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=4}}

[[Syllabic writing]] began several hundred years before the [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets|first instances]] of [[alphabetic writing]]. The earliest recorded syllables are on tablets written around 2800 BC in the [[Sumer]]ian city of [[Ur]]. This shift from [[pictogram]]s to syllables has been called "the most important advance in the [[history of writing]]".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hooker |first1=J. T. |title=Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the Alphabet |publisher=University of California Press; British Museum |page=8 |isbn=0-520-07431-9 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/readingpastancie0000unse/page/8/mode/2up?q=advance |chapter=Introduction |date=1990 |chapter-url-access=registration}}</ref>

A word that consists of a single syllable (like [[English language|English]] ''dog'') is called a '''monosyllable''' (and is said to be ''monosyllabic''). Similar terms include '''disyllable''' (and ''disyllabic''; also ''bisyllable'' and ''bisyllabic'') for a word of two syllables; '''trisyllable''' (and ''trisyllabic'') for a word of three syllables; and '''polysyllable''' (and ''polysyllabic''), which may refer either to a word of more than three syllables or to any word of more than one syllable.

==Etymology==
''Syllable'' is an [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] variation of [[Old French]] {{lang|fro|sillabe}}, from [[Latin]] {{lang|la|syllaba}}, from [[Koine Greek]] {{lang|grc|συλλαβή}} {{lang|grc-latn|syllabḗ}} ({{IPA|grc|sylːabɛ̌ː}}).<!-- This is actually a Classical-era, not Koine, pronunciation, because Help:IPA/Greek only supports Classical pronunciation at the moment. --> {{lang|grc|συλλαβή}} means "the taken together", referring to letters that are taken together to make a single sound.<ref>{{OEtymD|syllable|access-date=2015-01-05}}</ref>

{{lang|grc|συλλαβή}} is a [[verbal noun]] from the verb {{lang|grc|συλλαμβάνω}} {{lang|grc-latn|syllambánō}}, a compound of the preposition {{lang|grc|σύν}} {{lang|grc-latn|sýn}} "with" and the verb {{lang|grc|λαμβάνω}} {{lang|grc-latn|lambánō}} "take".<ref>{{LSJ|lamba/nw|λαμβάνω|ref}}</ref> The noun uses the [[Proto-Indo-European root|root]] {{lang|grc|λαβ-}}, which appears in the [[Aorist (Ancient Greek)|aorist]] tense; the [[Ancient Greek verbs#Present tense|present tense]] stem {{lang|grc|λαμβάν-}} is formed by adding a [[nasal infix]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|μ}}}} ''{{angbr|m}}'' before the {{lang|grc|β}} {{lang|grc-latn|b}} and a [[suffix]] {{lang|grc|-αν}} {{lang|grc-latn|-an}} at the end.<ref>{{Harvnb|Smyth|1920|loc=§523: present stems formed by suffixes containing {{lang|grc|ν}}}}</ref>

==Transcription==
In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), the fullstop {{angbr IPA|.}} marks syllable breaks, as in the word "astronomical" {{angbr IPA|/ˌæs.trə.ˈnɒm.ɪk.əl/}}.

In practice, however, IPA transcription is typically divided into words by spaces, and often these spaces are also understood to be syllable breaks. In addition, the stress mark {{angbr IPA|ˈ}} is placed immediately before a stressed syllable, and when the stressed syllable is in the middle of a word, in practice, the stress mark also marks a syllable break, for example in the word "understood" {{angbr IPA|/ʌndərˈstʊd/}} (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a full stop,<ref name="report">{{cite journal |author1=International Phonetic Association |author1-link=International Phonetic Association |title=Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention: International Phonetic Association |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |date=December 1989 |volume=19 |issue=2 |doi=10.1017/S0025100300003868 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=75–76|s2cid=249412330 }}</ref> e.g. {{angbr IPA|/ʌn.dər.ˈstʊd/}}).

When a word space comes in the middle of a syllable (that is, when a syllable spans words), a tie bar {{angbr IPA|‿}} can be used for [[liaison (French)|liaison]], as in the French combination {{lang|fr|les amis}} {{angbr IPA|/lɛ.z‿a.mi/}}. The liaison tie is also used to join lexical words into [[phonological word]]s, for example ''hot dog'' {{angbr IPA|/ˈhɒt‿dɒɡ/}}.

A Greek sigma, {{angbr|σ}}, is used as a [[Wildcard character|wild card]] for 'syllable', and a dollar/peso sign, {{angbr|$}}, marks a syllable boundary where the usual fullstop might be misunderstood. For example, {{angbr|σσ}} is a pair of syllables, and {{angbr|V$}} is a syllable-final vowel.

== Components ==
{{refimprove|date=June 2025}} 
[[Image:Syllable.svg|thumb|Syllable components as a [[directed graph]]. Syllable structure as tree diagram according to several phonologic traditions and theories. syllable (σ), rime (ρ), onset (ω), nucleus (ν), coda (κ), tone (τ), initial (ι), medial (μ), final (φ).]]
[[Image:Syllable illustration 1.svg|thumb|Segmentation for ''cat'' and ''sing'']]

=== Onset–nucleus–rime segmentation ===
In this framework, the general structure of a syllable (σ) consists of three segments grouped into two components:

* [[#Onset|Onset]] (ω): A [[consonant]] or [[consonant cluster]], obligatory in some languages, optional or even restricted in others
* [[#Rime|Rime]] (ρ): Right branch, contrasts with onset, splits into nucleus and coda
** [[#Nucleus|Nucleus]] (ν): A [[vowel]] or [[syllabic consonant]], obligatory in most languages
** [[#Coda|Coda]] (κ): A consonant or consonant cluster, optional in some languages, highly restricted or prohibited in others

The syllable is usually considered right-branching, i.e. nucleus and coda are grouped together as a "rime" and are only distinguished at the second level.

The sounds occupying these positions may also be denoted with the following notation:
* [[Consonant]] (C, or, for a consonant from a idiosyncratic set of possibilities, X)
* [[Obstruent]] (T)
* [[Nasal consonant]] (N)
* [[Liquid consonant]] (L)
* [[Glide (linguistics)|Glide]] (G, or, less often, H)
* [[Vowel]] (V)
* [[Tone (linguistics)|Tone]] (T, or, if there is a risk of confusion with an obstruent, <sup>T</sup>)
* an exact phoneme or even phone (any specific [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] symbol)
possibly with the following notation to indicate occurrence count:
* "Exactly one" (no exponent)
* "Zero or one" (surrounding parentheses or, more rarely, <sup>?</sup> after the letter)
* "Zero or more" ([[Kleene star|<sup>*</sup>]] after the letter)
* "One or more" ([[Kleene plus|<sup>+</sup>]] after the letter)

The ''nucleus'' is usually the vowel in the middle of a syllable.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=10}} The ''onset'' is the sound or sounds occurring before the nucleus, and the ''coda'' (literally 'tail') is the sound or sounds that follow the nucleus. They are sometimes collectively known as the ''shell''. The term ''rime'' covers the nucleus plus coda. In the one-syllable English word ''cat'', the nucleus is ''a'' (the sound that can be shouted or sung on its own), the onset ''c'', the coda ''t'', and the rime ''at''. This syllable can be abstracted as a ''consonant-vowel-consonant'' syllable, abbreviated ''CVC''. Languages vary greatly in the restrictions on the sounds making up the onset, nucleus and coda of a syllable, according to what is termed a language's [[phonotactics]].

Although every syllable has supra-segmental features, these are usually ignored if not semantically relevant, e.g. in [[tonal language]]s.

=== <span class="anchor" id="initial"></span><span class="anchor" id="medial"></span><span class="anchor" id="final"></span><span class="anchor" id="rime"></span><span class="anchor" id="Chinese"></span>Chinese segmentation ===
{{see also|Fanqie}}
[[Image:Chinese syllable tree.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Traditional Chinese syllable structure]]

In the syllable structure of [[Sinitic languages]], the onset is replaced with an initial, and a semivowel or liquid forms another segment, called the medial. These four segments are grouped into two slightly different components:{{example needed |date=September 2017}}<!-- Example needed, like the examples of "cat" and "sing". -->

*[[#initial|Initial]] {{angbr|ι}}: Optional onset, excluding semivowels
* [[#final|Final]] {{angbr|φ}}: Medial, nucleus, and final consonant<ref>More generally, the letter φ indicates a prosodic [[foot (prosody)|foot]] of two syllables</ref>
** [[#medial|Medial]] {{angbr|μ}}: Optional semivowel or liquid<ref>More generally, the letter μ indicates a [[mora (linguistics)|mora]]</ref>
** [[#Nucleus|Nucleus]] {{angbr|ν}}: A [[vowel]] or syllabic consonant
** [[#Coda|Coda]] {{angbr|κ}}: Optional final consonant
* [[Tone (linguistics)|Tone]] {{angbr|τ}}: May be carried by the syllable as a whole or by the rime

In many languages of the [[Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area]], such as [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the syllable structure is expanded to include an additional, optional '''medial''' segment  located between the onset (often termed the ''initial'' in this context) and the rime. The medial is normally a [[semivowel]], but [[reconstructions of Old Chinese]] generally include [[liquid consonant|liquid]] medials ({{IPA|/r/}} in modern reconstructions, {{IPA|/l/}} in older versions), and many reconstructions of [[Middle Chinese]] include a medial contrast between {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, where the {{IPA|/i/}} functions phonologically as a glide rather than as part of the nucleus. In addition, many reconstructions of both Old and Middle Chinese include complex medials such as {{IPA|/rj/}}, {{IPA|/ji/}}, {{IPA|/jw/}} and {{IPA|/jwi/}}. The medial groups phonologically with the rime rather than the onset, and the combination of medial and rime is collectively known as the '''final'''.

Some linguists, especially when discussing the modern Chinese varieties, use the terms "final" and "rime" interchangeably. In [[historical Chinese phonology]], however, the distinction between "final" (including the medial) and "rime" (not including the medial) is important in understanding the [[rime dictionaries]] and [[rime table]]s that form the primary sources for [[Middle Chinese]], and as a result most authors distinguish the two according to the above definition.

=== Grouping of components ===

[[Image:Syllable onset rhyme.svg|640px]]
[[Image:Syllable illustration 2.svg|thumb|Hierarchical model for ''cat'' and ''sing'']]

In some theories of phonology, syllable structures are displayed as [[Parse tree|tree diagrams]] (similar to the trees found in some types of syntax). Not all phonologists agree that syllables have internal structure; in fact, some phonologists doubt the existence of the syllable as a theoretical entity.<ref>For discussion of the theoretical existence of the syllable see {{cite web |title=CUNY Conference on the Syllable |url=http://www.cunyphonologyforum.net/syllable.php |website=CUNY Phonology Forum |publisher=CUNY Graduate Center |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923211920/http://www.cunyphonologyforum.net/syllable.php |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref>

There are many arguments for a hierarchical relationship, rather than a linear one, between the syllable constituents. One hierarchical model groups the syllable nucleus and coda into an intermediate level, the ''rime''. The hierarchical model accounts for the role that the ''nucleus''+''coda'' constituent plays in [[Verse (poetry)|verse]] (i.e., [[Rhyme|rhyming]] words such as ''cat'' and ''bat'' are formed by matching both the nucleus and coda, or the entire rime), and for the [[Syllable weight|distinction between heavy and light syllables]], which plays a role in phonological processes such as, for example, [[sound change]] in [[Old English]] {{lang|ang|scipu}} and {{lang|ang|wordu}}, where in a process called high vowel deletion (HVD), the nominative/accusative plural of single light-syllable roots (like "*scip-") got a "u" ending in OE, whereas heavy syllable roots (like "*word-") would not, giving "scip-u" but "word-∅".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bermudez-otero.com/SHEL9.pdf|title=The life cycle of High Vowel Deletion in Old English: from prosody to stratification and loss|last=Bermúdez-Otero|first=Ricardo|year=2015|page=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| last1=Fikkert|first1=Paula|last2=Dresher|first2=Elan|last3=Lahiri|first3=Aditi|year=2006|title=The Handbook of the History of English|url=https://www.ling-phil.ox.ac.uk/files/fikkert_dresher_lahiri_2006.pdf|chapter=Chapter 6, Prosodic Preferences: From Old English to Early Modern English|pages =134–135|isbn=9780470757048}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = A Prosodic Grammar of Chinese | last = Feng | first = Shengli | page = 3 | publisher = University of Kansas | year = 2003}}</ref>

==== Body ====
[[Image:Syllable body coda.svg|thumb|upright=2.5|Left-branching hierarchical model]]
In some traditional descriptions of certain languages such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]], the syllable is considered left-branching, i.e. onset and nucleus group below a higher-level unit, called a "body" or "core". This contrasts with the coda.
<!-- (π) [not in diagram yet] --> <!-- July 1 2017 - left this comment (to the left) here, pretty sure the image to the right is a diagram of this? -->

==== Rime ====

The '''rime''' or '''rhyme''' of a syllable consists of a [[#Nucleus|nucleus]] and an optional [[#Coda|coda]]. It is the part of the syllable used in most [[Rhyme|poetic rhyme]]s, and the part that is lengthened or stressed when a person elongates or stresses a word in speech.

The rime is usually the portion of a syllable from the first [[vowel]] to the end. For example, {{IPA|/æt/}} is the rime of all of the words ''at'', ''sat'', and ''flat''. However, the nucleus does not necessarily need to be a vowel in some languages, such as English. For instance, the rime of the second syllables of the words ''bottle'' and ''fiddle'' is just {{IPA|/l/}}, a [[liquid consonant]].

Just as the rime branches into the nucleus and coda, the nucleus and coda may each branch into multiple [[phoneme]]s. The limit for the number of phonemes which may be contained in each varies by language. For example, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and most [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] do not have consonant clusters at the beginning or end of syllables, whereas many Eastern European languages can have more than two consonants at the beginning or end of the syllable. In English, the onset may have up to three consonants, and the coda four.<ref name="Hultzén">{{Cite journal |last=Hultzén |first=Lee S. |date=1965 |title=Consonant Clusters in English |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/454173 |journal=American Speech |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=5–19 |doi=10.2307/454173 |jstor=454173 |issn=0003-1283|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

''Rime'' and ''rhyme'' are variants of the same word, but the rarer form ''rime'' is sometimes used to mean specifically ''syllable rime'' to differentiate it from the concept of poetic [[rhyme]]. This distinction is not made by some linguists and does not appear in most dictionaries.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples <br><small>C = consonant, V = vowel, optional components are in parentheses.</small>
! structure: !! syllable = !! onset !! + rhyme
|-
! C<sup>+</sup>V<sup>+</sup>C*:
| C<sub>1</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>)V<sub>1</sub>(V<sub>2</sub>)(C<sub>3</sub>)(C<sub>4</sub>) =
| C<sub>1</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>)
| + V<sub>1</sub>(V<sub>2</sub>)(C<sub>3</sub>)(C<sub>4</sub>)
|-
! V<sup>+</sup>C*:
| V<sub>1</sub>(V<sub>2</sub>)(C<sub>3</sub>)(C<sub>4</sub>) =
| Title="null"| ∅
| + V<sub>1</sub>(V<sub>2</sub>)(C<sub>3</sub>)(C<sub>4</sub>)
|}

==== Weight ====

[[Image:Syllable illustrations 3and4.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Branching nucleus for ''pout'' and branching coda for ''pond'']]

{{Main|Syllable weight}}

<!-- Cross-linguistically, there is evidence for a hierarchy of syllable weights according to syllable structure. -->
A '''heavy syllable''' is generally one with a ''branching rime'', i.e. it is either a ''closed syllable'' that ends in a consonant, or a syllable with a ''branching nucleus'', i.e. a long vowel or [[diphthong]]. The name is a metaphor, based on the nucleus or coda having lines that branch in a tree diagram.

In some languages, heavy syllables include both VV (branching nucleus) and VC (branching rime) syllables, contrasted with V, which is a '''light syllable'''.
In other languages, only VV syllables are considered heavy, while both VC and V syllables are light.
Some languages distinguish a third type of '''superheavy syllable''', which consists of VVC syllables (with both a branching nucleus and rime) or VCC syllables (with a coda consisting of two or more consonants) or both.

In [[mora (linguistics)|moraic theory]], heavy syllables are said to have two moras, while light syllables are said to have one and superheavy syllables are said to have three. [[Japanese phonology]] is generally described this way.

Many languages forbid superheavy syllables, while a significant number forbid any heavy syllable. Some languages strive for constant syllable weight; for example, in stressed, non-final syllables in [[Italian language|Italian]], short vowels co-occur with closed syllables while long vowels co-occur with open syllables, so that all such syllables are heavy (not light or superheavy).

The difference between heavy and light frequently determines which syllables receive [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] – this is the case in [[Latin]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], for example. The system of [[meter (poetry)|poetic meter]] in many classical languages, such as [[Classical Greek]], [[Classical Latin]], [[Tamil language|Old Tamil]] and [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]], is based on syllable weight rather than stress (so-called ''quantitative rhythm'' or ''quantitative meter'').

==Syllabification==
{{See also|Syllabification|Phonotactics|Sonority hierarchy}}
[[Syllabification]] is the separation of a word into syllables, whether spoken or written. In most languages, the actually spoken syllables are the basis of syllabification in writing too. Due to the very weak correspondence between sounds and letters in the spelling of modern English, for example, written syllabification in English has to be based mostly on etymological i.e. morphological instead of phonetic principles. English written syllables therefore do not correspond to the actually spoken syllables of the living language.

Phonotactic rules determine which sounds are allowed or disallowed in each part of the syllable. [[English language|English]] allows very complicated syllables; syllables may begin with up to three consonants (as in ''strength''), and occasionally end with as many as four<ref name="Hultzén"/> (as in ''angsts'', pronounced [æŋsts]). Many other languages are much more restricted; [[Japanese language|Japanese]], for example, only allows {{IPA|/ɴ/}} and a [[chroneme]] in a coda, and theoretically has no consonant clusters at all, as the onset is composed of at most one consonant.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shibatani |first=Masayoshi |chapter=Japanese |pages=855–80 |title=The World's Major Languages |editor=Bernard Comrie |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1987 |isbn=0-19-520521-9}}</ref>

The linking of a word-final consonant to a vowel beginning the word immediately following it forms a regular part of the phonetics of some languages, including Spanish, Hungarian, and Turkish. Thus, in Spanish, the phrase {{lang|es|los hombres}} ('the men') is pronounced {{IPA|[loˈsom.bɾes]}}, Hungarian {{lang|hu|az ember}} ('the human') as {{IPA|[ɒˈzɛm.bɛr]}}, and Turkish {{lang|tr|nefret ettim}} ('I hated it') as {{IPA|[nefˈɾe.tet.tim]}}. In Italian, a final {{IPA|[j]}} sound can be moved to the next syllable in enchainement, sometimes with a gemination: e.g., {{lang|it|non ne ho mai avuti}} ('I've never had any of them') is broken into syllables as {{IPA|[non.neˈɔ.ma.jaˈvuːti]}} and {{lang|it|io ci vado e lei anche}} ('I go there and she does as well') is realized as {{IPA|[jo.tʃiˈvaːdo.e.lɛjˈjaŋ.ke]}}. A related phenomenon, called consonant mutation, is found in the Celtic languages like Irish and Welsh, whereby unwritten (but historical) final consonants affect the initial consonant of the following word.

===Ambisyllabicity===
There can be disagreement about the location of some divisions between syllables in spoken language. The problems of dealing with such cases have been most commonly discussed with relation to English. In the case of a word such as ''hurry'', the division may be {{IPA|/hʌr.i/}} or {{IPA|/hʌ.ri/}}, neither of which seems a satisfactory analysis for a [[non-rhotic accent]] such as RP (British English): {{IPA|/hʌr.i/}} results in a syllable-final {{IPA|/r/}}, which is not normally found, while {{IPA|/hʌ.ri/}} gives a syllable-final short stressed vowel, which is also non-occurring. Arguments can be made in favour of one solution or the other: A general rule has been proposed that states that "Subject to certain conditions ..., consonants are syllabified with the more strongly stressed of two flanking syllables",<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wells |first1=John C. |author1-link=John C. Wells |editor1-last=Ramsaran |editor1-first=Susan |title=Studies in the pronunciation of English : a commemorative volume in honour of A.C. Gimson |date=1990 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon, UK |isbn=9781138918658 |pages=76–86 |url=https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/syllabif.htm |chapter=Syllabification and allophony}}</ref> while many other phonologists prefer to divide syllables with the consonant or consonants attached to the following syllable wherever possible. However, an alternative that has received some support is to treat an intervocalic consonant as ''ambisyllabic'', i.e. belonging both to the preceding and to the following syllable: {{IPA|/hʌṛi/}}. This is discussed in more detail in {{Section link|English phonology|Phonotactics}}.

===Onset===
The '''onset''' (also known as '''anlaut''') is the consonant sound or sounds at the beginning of a syllable, occurring before the [[#Nucleus|nucleus]]. Most syllables have an onset. Syllables without an onset may be said to have an ''empty'', ''[[zero (linguistics)|zero]]'' or ''null onset'' &ndash; that is, nothing where the onset would be.

====Onset cluster====
Some languages restrict onsets to be only a single consonant, while others allow multiconsonant onsets according to various rules. For example, in English, onsets such as ''pr-'', ''pl-'' and ''tr-'' are possible but ''tl-'' is not, and ''sk-'' is possible but ''ks-'' is not. In [[Greek language|Greek]], however, both ''ks-'' and ''tl-'' are possible onsets, while contrarily in [[Classical Arabic]] no multiconsonant onsets are allowed at all.

Onset clusters often follow the [[sonority principle]], that is, onsets with increasing sonority (/kl/) are usually preferred to ones with a plateau (/ll/) and even stronger preferred to decreasing sonority (/lk/); however, many languages have counterexamples to this tendency.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=9}}

====Null onset====
Some languages forbid '''null onsets'''. In these languages, words beginning in a vowel, like the English word ''at'', are impossible.

This is less strange than it may appear at first, as most such languages allow syllables to begin with a phonemic [[glottal stop]] (the sound in the middle of English ''uh-oh'' or, in some dialects, the double T in ''button'', represented in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] as {{IPA|/ʔ/}}). In English, a word that begins with a vowel may be pronounced with an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] glottal stop when following a pause, though the glottal stop may not be a [[phoneme]] in the language.

Few languages make a phonemic distinction between a word beginning with a vowel and a word beginning with a glottal stop followed by a vowel, since the distinction will generally only be audible following another word. However, [[Maltese language|Maltese]] and some [[Polynesian languages]] do make such a distinction, as in [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] {{IPA|/ahi/}} ('fire') and {{IPA|/ʔahi}}/ ← {{IPA|/kahi/}} ('tuna') and Maltese {{IPA|/∅/}} ← [[Arabic]] {{IPA|/h/}} and Maltese {{IPA|/k~ʔ/}} ← Arabic {{IPA|/q/}}.

[[Ashkenazi Hebrew|Ashkenazi]] and [[Sephardi Hebrew]] may commonly ignore {{lang|he|א}}, {{lang|he|ה}} and {{lang|he|ע}}, and Arabic forbids empty onsets. The names ''Israel'', ''Abel'', ''Abraham'', ''Omar'', ''Abdullah'', and ''Iraq'' appear not to have onsets in the first syllable, but in the original Hebrew and Arabic forms they actually begin with various consonants: the semivowel {{IPAslink|j}} in {{lang|he|יִשְׂרָאֵל}} {{transliteration|he|yisra'él}}, the glottal fricative in {{IPAslink|h}} {{lang|he|הֶבֶל}} {{transliteration|he|heḇel}}, the glottal stop {{IPAslink|ʔ}} in {{lang|he|אַבְרָהָם}} {{transliteration|he|'aḇrāhām}}, or the pharyngeal fricative {{IPAslink|ʕ}} in {{lang|ar|عُمَر}} {{transliteration|ar|ʿumar}}, {{lang|ar|عَبْدُ ٱللّٰ}} {{transliteration|ar|ʿabdu llāh}}, and {{lang|ar|عِرَاق}} {{transliteration|ar|ʿirāq}}. Conversely, the [[Arrernte language]] of central Australia may prohibit onsets altogether; if so, all syllables have the [[underlying representation|underlying shape]] VC(C).<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 4179048|title = Arrernte: A Language with No Syllable Onsets|journal = Linguistic Inquiry|volume = 30|issue = 1|pages = 1–25|last1 = Breen|first1 = Gavan|last2 = Pensalfini|first2 = Rob|year = 1999|doi = 10.1162/002438999553940|s2cid = 57564955|url = https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:209796/UQ209796_OA.pdf}}</ref>

The difference between a syllable with a null onset and one beginning with a glottal stop is often purely a difference of [[phonology|phonological]] analysis, rather than the actual pronunciation of the syllable. In some cases, the pronunciation of a (putatively) vowel-initial word when following another word – particularly, whether or not a glottal stop is inserted – indicates whether the word should be considered to have a null onset. For example, many [[Romance languages]] such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]] never insert such a glottal stop, while [[English language|English]] does so only some of the times, depending on factors such as conversation speed; in both cases, this suggests that the words in question are truly vowel-initial.

But there are exceptions here, too. For example, standard [[German language|German]] (excluding many southern accents) and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] both require that a glottal stop be inserted between a word and a following, putatively vowel-initial word. Yet such words are perceived to begin with a vowel in German but a glottal stop in Arabic. The reason for this has to do with other properties of the two languages. For example, a glottal stop does not occur in other situations in German, e.g. before a consonant or at the end of word. On the other hand, in Arabic, not only does a glottal stop occur in such situations (e.g. Classical {{IPA|/saʔala/}} "he asked", {{IPA|/raʔj/}} "opinion", {{IPA|/dˤawʔ/}} "light"), but it occurs in alternations that are clearly indicative of its phonemic status (cf. Classical {{IPA|/kaːtib/}} "writer" vs. /mak{{IPA|tuːb/}} "written", {{IPA|/ʔaːkil/}} "eater" vs. {{IPA|/maʔkuːl/}} "eaten"). In other words, while the glottal stop is predictable in German (inserted only if a stressed syllable would otherwise begin with a vowel),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wiese |first=Richard |title=Phonology of German |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=9780198299509 |pages=58–61}}</ref> the same sound is a regular consonantal phoneme in Arabic. The status of this consonant in the respective writing systems corresponds to this difference: there is no reflex of the glottal stop in [[German orthography]], but there is a letter for it in the Arabic alphabet ([[Hamza]] (<bdi>ء</bdi>)).

The writing system of a language may not correspond with the phonological analysis of the language in terms of its handling of (potentially) null onsets. For example, in some languages written in the [[Latin alphabet]], an initial glottal stop is left unwritten (see the German example); on the other hand, some languages written using non-Latin alphabets such as [[abjad]]s and [[abugida]]s have a special [[zero consonant]] to represent a null onset. As an example, in [[Hangul]], the alphabet of the [[Korean language]], a null onset is represented with ㅇ at the left or top section of a [[grapheme]], as in {{lang|ko|역}} "station", pronounced ''yeok'', where the [[diphthong]] ''yeo'' is the nucleus and ''k'' is the coda.

===Nucleus===
[[File:Syllable onset nucleus coda.svg|375px|class=skin-invert]]
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Examples of syllable nuclei
|-
! Word
! Nucleus
|-
| c'''a'''t {{IPA|[kæt]}}
| {{IPA|[æ]}}
|-
| b'''e'''d {{IPA|[bɛd]}}
| {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|-
| '''o'''de {{IPA|[oʊd]}}
| {{IPA|[oʊ]}}
|-
| b'''ee'''t {{IPA|[bit]}}
| {{IPA|[i]}}
|-
| b'''i'''te {{IPA|[baɪt]}}
| {{IPA|[aɪ]}}
|-
| r'''ai'''n {{IPA|[ɻeɪn]}}
| {{IPA|[eɪ]}}
|-
| b'''i'''tt'''e'''n <br> {{IPA|[ˈbɪt.ən]}} or {{IPA|[ˈbɪt.n̩]}}
| {{IPA|[ɪ]}} <br> {{IPA|[ə]}} or {{IPA|[n̩]}}
|}

The ''nucleus'' is usually the vowel in the middle of a syllable. Generally, every syllable requires a nucleus (sometimes called the ''peak''), and the minimal syllable consists only of a nucleus, as in the English words "eye" or "owe". The syllable nucleus is usually a vowel, in the form of a [[monophthong]], [[diphthong]], or [[triphthong]], but sometimes is a [[syllabic consonant]].

It has been suggested that if a language allows a type of consonants to occur in syllable nucleus, it will also allow all the consonant types that are higher in [[sonority principle|sonority]], that is, a language with syllabic fricatives would necessarily also have syllabic nasals, and that syllabic obstruents will be much more rare than liquids; both statements have been shown to be false.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|pp=10−11}}

In most [[Germanic language]]s, [[tenseness|lax vowels]] can occur only in closed syllables. Therefore, these vowels are also called [[Checked and free vowels|checked vowels]], as opposed to the tense vowels that are called ''free vowels'' because they can occur even in open syllables.

====Consonant nucleus====
{{Main|Syllabic consonant}}
Some languages allow [[obstruent]]s to occur in the syllable nucleus without any intervening vowel or [[sonorant]].{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=10}} The most common syllabic consonants are sonorants like {{IPA|[l]}}, {{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}} or {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, as in English ''bott'''le''''' or in [[Slovak language|Slovak]] krv [krv].{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=10}} However, English allows syllabic obstruents in a few para-verbal [[Onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] utterances such as ''shh'' (used to command silence) and ''psst'' (used to attract attention). All of these have been analyzed as phonemically syllabic. Obstruent-only syllables also occur phonetically in some prosodic situations when unstressed vowels elide between obstruents, as in ''potato'' {{IPA|[pʰˈteɪɾəʊ]}} and ''today'' {{IPA|[tʰˈdeɪ]}}, which do not change in their number of syllables despite losing a syllabic nucleus.

A few languages have so-called ''[[syllabic fricative]]s'', also known as ''fricative vowels'', at the phonemic level. (In the context of [[Standard Chinese phonology|Chinese phonology]], the related but non-synonymous term ''apical vowel'' is commonly used.) [[Mandarin Chinese]] allows such sounds in at least some of its dialects, for example the [[pinyin]] syllables ''sī shī rī'', usually pronounced {{IPA|[sź̩ ʂʐ̩́ ʐʐ̩́]}}, respectively. Though, like the nucleus of rhotic English ''church'', there is debate over whether these nuclei are consonants or vowels.

Languages of the northwest coast of North America, including [[Salishan languages|Salishan]], [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan]] and [[Chinookan languages|Chinookan]] languages, allow [[stop consonant]]s and [[voiceless fricative]]s as syllables at the phonemic level, in even the most careful enunciation. An example is Chinook {{IPA|[ɬtʰpʰt͡ʃʰkʰtʰ]}} 'those two women are coming this way out of the water'. Syllabic [[obstruent]]s used to be considered very rare, but surveys have shown that they are relatively common and might even be more common than syllabic [[Liquid consonant|liquids]].{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=11}}

Other examples:
; [[Nuxálk language|Nuxálk]] (Bella Coola)
: {{IPA|[ɬχʷtʰɬt͡sʰxʷ]}} 'you spat on me'
: {{IPA|[t͡sʼkʰtʰskʷʰt͡sʼ]}} 'he arrived'
: {{IPA|[xɬpʼχʷɬtʰɬpʰɬɬs]}} 'he had in his possession a bunchberry plant'<ref>{{harvnb|Bagemihl|1991|pp=589, 593, 627}}</ref>
: {{IPA|[sxs]}} 'seal blubber'

In Bagemihl's survey of previous analyses, he finds that the Bella Coola word {{IPA|/t͡sʼktskʷt͡sʼ/}} 'he arrived' would have been parsed into 0, 2, 3, 5, or 6 syllables depending on which analysis is used. One analysis would consider all vowel and consonant segments as syllable nuclei, another would consider only a small subset ([[fricative]]s or [[sibilant]]s) as nuclei candidates, and another would simply deny the existence of syllables completely. However, when working with recordings rather than transcriptions, the syllables can be obvious in such languages, and native speakers have strong intuitions as to what the syllables are.

This type of phenomenon has also been reported in [[Berber languages]] (such as Indlawn [[Shilha language|Tashlhiyt Berber]]), [[Mon–Khmer languages]] (such as [[Semai language|Semai]], [[Temiar language|Temiar]], [[Khmu language|Khmu]]) and the Ōgami dialect of [[Miyako language|Miyako]], a [[Ryukyuan languages|Ryukyuan language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pellard |first1=Thomas |editor1-last=Shimoji |editor1-first=Michinori |title=An introduction to Ryukyuan languages |date=2010 |publisher=Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies |location=Fuchū, Tokyo |isbn=978-4-86337-072-2 |pages=113–166 |url=http://repository.tufs.ac.jp/bitstream/10108/70116/1/B072_05.pdf |access-date=21 June 2022 |chapter=Ōgami (Miyako Ryukyuan)}} {{HAL|hal-00529598}}</ref>
; Indlawn Tashlhiyt Berber
: {{IPA|[tftktst tfktstt]}} 'you sprained it and then gave it'
: {{IPA|[rkkm]}} 'rot' (imperf.)<ref>{{harvnb|Dell|Elmedlaoui|1985}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dell|Elmedlaoui|1988}}</ref>
; Semai
: {{IPA|[kckmrʔɛːc]}} 'short, fat arms'<ref>{{harvnb|Sloan|1988}}</ref>

Languages with long sequences of obstruents pose a problem to several models of the syllable.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=11}}

===Coda===
The '''coda''' (also known as '''auslaut''') comprises the [[consonant]] sounds of a syllable that follow the [[#Nucleus|nucleus]]. The sequence of nucleus and coda is called a [[#Rime|rime]]. Some syllables consist of only a nucleus, only an onset and a nucleus with no coda, or only a nucleus and coda with no onset.

The [[phonotactics]] of many languages forbid syllable codas. Examples are [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]. In others, codas are restricted to a small subset of the consonants that appear in onset position. At a phonemic level in [[Japanese language|Japanese]], for example, a coda may only be a nasal (homorganic with any following consonant) or, in the middle of a word, [[gemination]] of the following consonant. (On a phonetic level, other codas occur due to elision of /i/ and /u/.) In other languages, nearly any consonant allowed as an onset is also allowed in the coda, even [[consonant cluster|clusters of consonants]]. In English, for example, all onset consonants except {{IPA|/h/}} are allowed as syllable codas.

If the coda consists of a consonant cluster, the sonority typically decreases from first to last, as in the English word ''help''. This is called the [[sonority hierarchy]] (or sonority scale).<ref>{{cite web |author1-first=Jonathan |author1-last=Harrington |author2-first=Felicity |author2-last=Cox |url=https://www.mq.edu.au/about/about-the-university/our-faculties/medicine-and-health-sciences/departments-and-centres/department-of-linguistics/our-research/phonetics-and-phonology/speech/phonetics-and-phonology/syllable-and-foot |title=Syllable and foot: The syllable and phonotactic constraints |website=Department of Linguistics |publisher=Macquarie University |date=August 2014 |access-date=21 June 2022}}</ref> English onset and coda clusters are therefore different. The onset {{IPA|/str/}} in ''strengths'' does not appear as a coda in any English word. However, some clusters do occur as both onsets and codas, such as {{IPA|/st/}} in ''stardust''. The sonority hierarchy is more strict in some languages and less strict in others.

====Open and closed====
{{Redirect|Checked syllable|checked syllables in Chinese|Checked tone}}
A coda-less syllable of the form V, CV, CCV, etc. (V = vowel, C = consonant) is called an '''open syllable''' or '''free syllable''', while a syllable that has a coda (VC, CVC, CVCC, etc.) is called a '''closed syllable''' or '''checked syllable'''. They have nothing to do with [[open vowel|open]] and [[close vowel]]s, but are defined according to the phoneme that ends the syllable: a vowel (open syllable) or a consonant (closed syllable). Almost all languages allow open syllables, but some, such as [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]], do not have closed syllables.

When a syllable is not the last syllable in a word, the nucleus normally must be followed by two consonants in order for the syllable to be closed. This is because a single following consonant is typically considered the onset of the following syllable. For example, Spanish {{lang|es|casar}} ("to marry") is composed of an open syllable followed by a closed syllable (''ca-sar''), whereas {{lang|es|cansar}} "to get tired" is composed of two closed syllables (''can-sar''). When a [[Gemination|geminate]] (double) consonant occurs, the syllable boundary occurs in the middle, e.g. Italian {{lang|it|panna}} "cream" (''pan-na''); cf. Italian {{lang|it|pane}} "bread" (''pa-ne'').

English words may consist of a single closed syllable, with nucleus denoted by ν, and coda denoted by κ:
*i''n'': ν = {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, κ = {{IPA|/n/}}
*cu''p'': ν = {{IPA|/ʌ/}}, κ = {{IPA|/p/}}
*ta''ll'': ν = {{IPA|/ɔː/}}, κ = {{IPA|/l/}}
*mi''lk'': ν = {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, κ = {{IPA|/lk/}}
*ti''nts'': ν = {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, κ = {{IPA|/nts/}}
*fi''fths'': ν = {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, κ = {{IPA|/fθs/}}
*si''xths'': ν = {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, κ = {{IPA|/ksθs/}}
*twe''lfths'': ν = {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, κ = {{IPA|/lfθs/}}
*stre''ngths'': ν = {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, κ = {{IPA|/ŋθs/}}

English words may also consist of a single open syllable, ending in a nucleus, without a coda:
*''glue'', ν = {{IPA|/uː/}}
*''pie'', ν = {{IPA|/aɪ/}}
*''though'', ν = {{IPA|/oʊ/}}
*''boy'', ν = {{IPA|/ɔɪ/}}

A list of examples of syllable codas in English is found at [[English phonology#Coda]].

====Null coda====
Some languages forbid codas, so that all syllables are open. Examples are [[Hawaiian phonology#Phonotactics|Hawaiian]] from the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]], and [[Swahili language#Phonology|Swahili]] from the [[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo family]].

==Suprasegmental features==
The domain of [[Suprasegmental|suprasegmental features]] is a syllable (or some larger unit), but not a specific sound. That is to say, these features may affect more than a single segment, and possibly all segments of a syllable:
*[[Lexical stress|Stress]]
*[[Tone (linguistics)|Tone]]
*{{lang|da|[[Stød]]}}
*[[Palatalization (phonetics)#Types|Suprasegmental palatalization]]

Sometimes [[syllable length]] is also counted as a suprasegmental feature; for example, in some Germanic languages, long vowels may only exist with short consonants and vice versa. However, syllables can be analyzed as compositions of long and short phonemes, as in Finnish and Japanese, where consonant gemination and vowel length are independent.

===Tone===
{{Main|Tone (linguistics)}}
In most languages, the [[Pitch (music)|pitch]] or [[pitch contour]] in which a syllable is pronounced conveys shades of meaning such as emphasis or surprise, or distinguishes a statement from a question. In tonal languages, however, the pitch affects the basic lexical meaning (e.g. "cat" vs. "dog") or grammatical meaning (e.g. past vs. present). In some languages, only the pitch itself (e.g. high vs. low) has this effect, while in others, especially East Asian languages such as [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Thai language|Thai]] or [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], the shape or contour (e.g. level vs. rising vs. falling) also needs to be distinguished.

===Accent===
{{Main|Accent (phonetics)}}
Syllable structure often interacts with stress or pitch accent. In [[Latin]], for example, stress is regularly determined by [[syllable weight]], a syllable counting as heavy if it has at least one of the following:
* a long vowel in its [[Syllable nucleus|nucleus]]
* a [[diphthong]] in its nucleus
* one or more [[Syllable coda|coda]] consonants
In each case, the syllable is considered to have two [[Mora (linguistics)|morae]].

The first syllable of a word is the '''initial syllable''' and the last syllable is the '''final syllable'''.

In languages accented on one of the last three syllables, the last syllable is called the [[Ultima (linguistics)|ultima]], the next-to-last is called the [[penult]], and the third syllable from the end is called the antepenult. These terms come from Latin ''{{lang|la|ultima}}'' "last", ''{{lang|la|paenultima}}'' "almost last", and ''{{lang|la|antepaenultima}}'' "before almost last".

In [[Ancient Greek]], there are three [[Greek diacritics|accent marks]] (acute, circumflex, and grave), and terms were used to describe words based on the position and type of accent. Some of these terms are used in the description of other languages.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" | Placement of accent
|-
! Antepenult !! Penult !! Ultima
|-
! rowspan="3" | Type<br>of<br>accent !! Circumflex
| align="center" | — || align="center" | properispomenon || align="center" | perispomenon
|-
! Acute
| align="center" | proparoxytone || align="center" | paroxytone || align="center" | oxytone
|-
! Any
| colspan="2" align="center" | barytone || align="center" | —
|}

==History==
<!--relevance?-->
[[Guilhem Molinier]], a member of the {{Lang|oc|[[Consistori del Gay Saber]]|italic=no}}, which was the first literary academy in the world and held the [[Floral Games]] to award the best [[troubadour]] with the ''violeta d'aur'' top prize, gave a definition of the syllable in his ''[[Leys d'amor]]'' (1328–1337), a book aimed at regulating then-flourishing [[Occitan language|Occitan]] poetry:
{|
|-
|<poem>''Sillaba votz es literals.''
''Segon los ditz'' {{Not a typo|gramaticals}}.
''En un accen pronunciada.''
''Et en un trag: d'una alenada.''</poem>
|<poem>A syllable is the sound of several letters,
According to those called grammarians,
Pronounced in one accent
And uninterruptedly: in one breath.</poem>
|}

== Crosslinguistic patterns ==
''CV'' is purported to be the universal syllable type that is found in all languages of the world, although two Australian languages, [[Arrernte language|Arrernte]] and the Oykangand dialect of [[Kunjen language|Kunjen]], are possible exceptions.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|pp=4−5}} CV is the first syllable type to be [[Language acquisition|acquired by children]], and if a language has only one type of a syllable, it is always ''CV'' (e. g. [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and [[ǂʼAmkoe language|Hua]]).{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=5}}

Several asymmetries in onset and coda have been identified. All languages have syllables with onsets, but about 12.6% of languages in [[World Atlas of Language Structures|WALS]] do not allow codas.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=6}} The list of consonants allowed in the coda is usually smaller than the ones allowed in the onset (e. g. in Northern Germany, [[Standard German phonology#Coda devoicing|coda cannot have voiced consonants]]).{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=6}} All combinations of onset and nucleus are usually allowed, but the coda consonant is sometimes restricted by the nucleus.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=6}}

Consonant clusters are more typical in onsets than in codas.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=6–7}}

== Morphology ==
Complex syllables often occur as a result of morphological processes (e. g. the English word "texts" has an uncommon coda /kst-s/ after [[plural]]isation).{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=11}} Some models of the syllable even exclude morphologically complex syllables from their analysis.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=11}} At the same time, these clusters are acquired earlier by [[First language|L1]] speakers than the ones arising within a single morpheme, and are less reduced.{{sfn|Easterday|2019|p=12}}

==See also==
*[[English phonology#Phonotactics]]. Covers syllable structure in English.
*[[Line (poetry)]]
*[[List of the longest English words with one syllable]]
*[[Minor syllable]]
*[[Syllabary]] writing system
*[[Syllable (computing)]]
*[[Timing (linguistics)]]
*[[Vocalese]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources and recommended reading==
{{Div col}}
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal
 |author-link=Bruce Bagemihl
 |last=Bagemihl |first=Bruce
 |title=Syllable structure in Bella Coola
 |journal=Linguistic Inquiry
 |year=1991 |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=589–646 |jstor=4178744
 }}
* {{cite book
 |last1=Clements
 |first1=George N.
 |last2=Keyser
 |first2=Samuel J.
 |author1-link=George N. Clements
 |author2-link=Samuel Jay Keyser
 |title=CV phonology: a generative theory of the syllable
 |date=1983
 |publisher=The MIT Press
 |location=Cambridge, Mass.
 |isbn=9780262030984
 |volume=9
 |series=Linguistic Inquiry Monographs
 }}
* {{Cite journal
 |last1=Dell |first1=François |last2=Elmedlaoui |first2=Mohamed
 |title=Syllabic consonants and syllabification in Imdlawn Tashlhiyt Berber
 |journal=Journal of African Languages and Linguistics
 |year=1985 |volume=7 |pages=105–130
 |doi=10.1515/jall.1985.7.2.105
 |issue=2
 |s2cid=29304770 }}
* {{Cite journal
 |last1=Dell |first1=François |last2=Elmedlaoui |first2=Mohamed
 |title=Syllabic consonants in Berber: Some new evidence
 |journal=Journal of African Languages and Linguistics
 |year=1988 |volume=10 |pages=1–17
 |doi=10.1515/jall.1988.10.1.1
 |s2cid=144470527 }}
*{{Cite book
 |last=Easterday
 |first=Shelece
 |date=2019
 |title=Highly complex syllable structure: A typological and diachronic study
 |url=http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/249
 |publisher=Language Science Press
 |isbn=978-3-96110-194-8
 |access-date=2025-03-10
 }}
* {{Cite book
 |author-link=Peter Ladefoged
 |last=Ladefoged |first=Peter
 |title=[[A course in phonetics]]
 |edition=4th
 |location=[[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth, TX]]
 |publisher=Harcourt College Publishers
 |year=2001
 |isbn=0-15-507319-2
 }}
* {{cite conference
| title = Bare-Consonant Reduplication: Implications for a Prosodic Theory of Reduplication
| first = Kerry
| last = Sloan
| date = 1988
| conference = WCCFL 7
| editor-first = Hagit
| editor-last = Borer
| book-title = The Proceedings of the Seventh West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics
| publisher = University of Chicago Press
| location = Irvine, CA
| pages = 319–330
| isbn = 9780937073407
}}
*{{Cite book
 |last=Smyth
 |first=Herbert Weir
 |date=1920
 |title=A Greek Grammar for Colleges
 |url=http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/toc_uni.htm
 |publisher=American Book Company
 |via=[[Christian Classics Ethereal Library|CCEL]]
 |access-date=1 January 2014
 }}

{{Refend}}
{{div col end}}

{{Suprasegmentals}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Linguistic units]]
[[Category:Phonotactics]]
[[Category:Phonology]]