View source for Tabernanthe iboga

{{Short description|Species of plant}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = Iboga
|image = Tabernanthe iboga MS 4098.jpg
|genus = Tabernanthe
|species = iboga
|authority = [[Henri Ernest Baillon|Baill.]]<ref>{{cite web 
|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:56090-1 
|title=Tabernanthe iboga Baill. 
|author=<!--Not stated--> 
|date=n.d. 
|website=Plants of the World Online 
|publisher=The Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 
|access-date=July 8, 2020 
|archive-date=July 10, 2020 
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710155103/http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:56090-1 
|url-status=live 
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web 
|url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000320183 
|title=Tabernanthe iboga Baill. 
|author=<!--Not stated--> 
|date=n.d. 
|website=World Flora Online 
|publisher=The World Flora Online Consortium 
|access-date=July 8, 2020 
|archive-date=July 8, 2020 
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708214514/http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000320183 
|url-status=live 
}}</ref>
}}

'''''Tabernanthe iboga''''' ('''iboga''') is an [[evergreen]] [[rainforest]] [[shrub]] native to Central Africa. A member of the [[Apocynaceae]] family indigenous to [[Gabon]], the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], and the [[Republic of Congo]], it is cultivated across Central Africa for its medicinal and other effects.

In [[African traditional medicine]] and [[ritual]]s, the yellowish root or bark is used to produce [[hallucination]]s and near-death outcomes, with some fatalities occurring.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Iboga |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/iboga.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=October 28, 2019 |date=January 23, 2019 |archive-date=June 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080601024047/https://www.drugs.com/npp/iboga.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In high doses, ibogaine is considered to be [[toxicity|toxic]], and has caused serious [[morbidity|comorbidities]] when used with [[opioid]]s or [[prescription drug]]s.<ref name=drugs/><ref name="toxnet">{{cite web |title=Ibogaine |url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/toxnet/index.html |publisher=ToxNet, National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health |access-date=October 28, 2019 |date=September 4, 2014 |archive-date=October 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028161615/https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/a%3Fdbs%2Bhsdb:@term%2B@DOCNO%2B8180 |url-status=live }}</ref> The United States [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] (DEA) lists [[ibogaine]] as a [[Controlled Substances Act#Schedule I controlled substances|controlled substance]] of the [[Controlled Substances Act]].<ref name=drugs/>

==Description==
{{more citations needed section||date=October 2019}}
''T. iboga'' is native to tropical forests, preferring moist soil in partial shade.<ref name=drugs/> It bears dark green, narrow leaves and clusters of tubular flowers on an erect and branching stem, with yellow-orange fruits resembling [[chili pepper]].<ref name=drugs/>

Normally growing to a height of 2&nbsp;m, ''T. iboga'' may eventually grow into a small tree up to 10&nbsp;m tall, given the right conditions. The flowers are yellowish-white or pink and followed by a fruit, orange at maturity, that may be either [[Sphere|globose]] or [[fusiform]]. Its yellow-fleshed roots contain a number of [[indole]] [[alkaloid]]s, most notably [[ibogaine]], which is found in the highest concentration in the bark of the roots. The root material, bitter in taste, causes a degree of anaesthesia in the mouth as well as systemic numbness of the skin.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens |edition=2nd |first1=Richard Evans |last1=Schultes |first2=Albert |last2=Hofmann |publisher=Charles C. Thomas |location=Springfield Illinois |year=1979}}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Baillon, Henri Ernest (1827-1895) CIPN21501.jpg|thumb|[[Henri Ernest Baillon]], publisher of the name ''Tabernanthe iboga''.]]

===Publication of binomial===
''Tabernanthe iboga'' was described by [[Henri Ernest Baillon]] and published in ''Bulletin Mensuel de la Société Linnéenne de Paris'' 1: 783 in the year 1889.

===Etymology===
The genus name ''[[Tabernanthe]]'' is a compound of the [[Latin]] ''taberna'', "[[tavern]]"/"[[hut]]"/"[[Market stall|(market) stall]]" and [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: {{lang|grc|ἄνθος}} (''anthos'') "flower" – giving a literal meaning of "tavern flower". On the other hand, it may equally well have been intended (by way of a type of botanical shorthand) to mean "having a flower resembling that of plants belonging to the genus ''[[Tabernaemontana]]'' " (q.v.). If the first conjecture is the correct one, the name could also have been intended to suggest that the plant is cultivated near huts, sold at market stalls or even that – like the beverages sold at a tavern – the plant is intoxicating, all of which alternatives would constitute apt descriptions of an oft-cultivated and popular [[psychoactive plant]]. 
The specific name ''iboga'' comes from the [[Myene language|Myene]] name for the plant,<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Furst|editor-first=Peter T.|year=1972|title=Flesh of the Gods|publisher=Praeger Publishers|location=New York, NY|page=243|isbn=978-0-88133-477-7|chapter=Tabernanthe Iboga: Narcotic Ecstasis and the Work of the Ancestors|chapter-url=https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ek/fernandez-tabernanthe-iboga-narcotic-ecstasis-work-ancestors.pdf|last=Fernandez|first=James W.}}</ref> which was also borrowed into a number of other regional languages with mild variation.<ref>Quattrocchi, Umberto (2012). ''CRC World dictionary of medicinal and poisonous plants: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms and etymology''. Vol. V, T–Z. CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group. p. 493 (p. 3659 in the single-volume edition).</ref>

==History==
The first (probable...and confused) reference to Iboga is that of [[Thomas Edward Bowdich|Bowdich]] in chapter 13 of his "Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee..." of 1819<blockquote>The Eroga, a favourite but violent medicine, is no doubt a fungus, for they describe it as growing on a tree called the Ocamboo, when decaying; they burn it first, and take as much as would lay on a shilling.</blockquote>
If this is indeed a reference to the drug derived from ''Tabernanthe iboga'' (''Eroga'' appears to be a variant form of the names ''iboga'' and ''eboka'') it is, of course, grossly in error in its assumption that iboga is not a plant but a fungus. Notable however is the observation of the potency of the drug – effective in small quantities. The description of the plant as growing on a tree is puzzling: ''Tabernanthe iboga'' does not usually grow as an [[epiphyte]] – if at all.<ref>Bowdich, Thomas Edward, ''Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, with a statistical account of that kingdom, and geographical notices of other parts of the interior of Africa'' Chap. XIII. — "Sketch of Gaboon, and its Interior", page 422.</ref><ref>Furst, Peter T. (ed.) ''Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens'', pub. George Allen & Unwin 1972 Copyright 1972 by Praeger Publishers, Inc. (Chapters 6 and 7 copyright 1972 by R. Gordon Wasson), {{ISBN|0 04 573009 1}}, Chapter 9, "Tabernanthe iboga: Narcotic Ecstasis and the Work of the Ancestors" by James W. Fernandez, Page 237.</ref>

The ritual use of iboga in Africa was first reported by French and Belgian explorers in the 19th century, beginning with the work of French [[naval surgeon]] and explorer of [[Gabon]] [[Marie-Théophile Griffon du Bellay|Griffon du Bellay]],<ref>http://ecole.nav.traditions.free.fr/officiers_griffon_theophile.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418011250/http://ecole.nav.traditions.free.fr/officiers_griffon_theophile.htm |date=April 18, 2021 }} Retrieved at 12.26 on 8/1/21</ref> who identified it correctly as a shrub belonging to the Apocynaceae – as recorded in a short essay by [[Charles Eugène Aubry-Lecomte]] on the plant poisons of West Africa, published in the year 1864.

<blockquote> Parmi les plantes rares ou nouvelles rapportées par le docteur Griffon du Bellay, la famille des apocynées contient encore deux poisons; l'un, nommé iboga, n'est toxique qu'à hautes doses et a l'état frais. Pris en petit quantité, il est aphrodisiaque et stimulante du systeme nerveux; les guerriers et chasseurs en font grand usage pour se tenir éveillés dans les affûts de nuit; de même que pour le ''M'boundou'', le principe actif réside dans la racine qu'on mâche comme la coca. 
<br /><br />[ Translation: Among the rare or new plants brought back by Dr. Griffon du Bellay, the plant family Apocynaceae contains two further poisons; the first of these, called ''Iboga'', is only toxic in high doses and in the fresh state. Taken in small quantities, it is an aphrodisiac and stimulant of the (central) nervous system; warriors and hunters make considerable use of it in order to stay awake during their night vigils; as with the (plant) ''M'boundou'', the active principle (of Iboga) resides in the root which is chewed like coca (leaf) ].<ref>Aubry-Lecomte, Charles Eugène, "Note sur quelque poisons de la côte occidentale d'Afrique", ''Revue Maritime et Coloniale'', vol. XII, 1864.</ref></blockquote>

==Chemistry==
Indole alkaloids make up about 6% of the root chemical composition of iboga.<ref name=drugs/> Alkaloids that are present in more than 1% in root bark are:<ref name="pmid30582133">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bading-Taika B, Akinyeke T, Magana AA, Choi J, Ouanesisouk M, Torres ER, Lione LA, Maier CS, Bobe G, Raber J, Miranda CL, Stevens JF |title=Phytochemical characterization of Tabernanthe iboga root bark and its effects on dysfunctional metabolism and cognitive performance in high-fat-fed C57BL/6J mice |journal=Journal of Food Bioactives|volume=3 |issue= |pages=111–123 |date=September 2018 |pmid=30582133 |pmc=6301038 |doi=10.31665/JFB.2018.3154 |url= |issn=}}</ref> (in descending order) 
*[[Ibogaine]]
*[[Iboxygaine]]
*[[Ibogaline]]
*[[Alloibogaine]]
*[[Catharanthine]]
*[[Ibogamine]]
*[[Noribogaine]]
*[[Voacangine]]
*[[Yohimbine]]
* [[Hydroxyibogamine]]

[[18-Methoxycoronaridine]], a synthetic derivative of ibogaine, also occurs naturally in this plant.<ref name=drugs/>

==Traditional use==
[[File:Tabernanthe iboga bark pieces.jpg|thumb|Bark of ''Tabernanthe iboga'']]

The Iboga tree is central to the ''[[Bwiti]]'' spiritual practices in West-Central Africa, mainly [[Gabon]], [[Cameroon]], and the [[Republic of the Congo]], where the alkaloid-containing roots or bark are used in various ceremonies, sometimes to create a near-death experience.<ref name=drugs/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Samorini |first=Giorgio |date=2024-06-24 |title=Studies on the iboga cults. I. The ancient documents |url=https://antrocom.net/archives/2024/volume-20-numer-1/studies-on-the-iboga-cults-i-the-ancient-documents/ |access-date=2024-12-02 |website=Antrocom |language=en-US}}</ref> Iboga is taken in massive doses by initiates of this spiritual practice, and on a more regular basis is eaten in smaller doses in connection with rituals and tribal dances performed at night.

While in lower doses iboga has a stimulant effect and is used to maintain alertness while hunting,<ref name="McGown">{{cite web |url=http://www.newscastmedia.com/4investors_africa.pdf |title=Out of Africa: Mysteries of Access and Benefit Sharing |first=Jay |last=McGown |date=2006 |access-date=July 28, 2014 |work=Edmonds Institute |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224144543/http://www.newscastmedia.com/4investors_africa.pdf |archive-date=December 24, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="VillVoice">{{cite web |url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2005-12-13/people/busted-for-iboga/ |title=Busted for Iboga |first=Aina |last=Hunter |work=Village Voice |date=December 13, 2005 |access-date=July 28, 2014 |archive-date=November 23, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123060633/http://www.villagevoice.com/2005-12-13/people/busted-for-iboga/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> in moderate or high doses, iboga induces dream-like states with vivid visions and [[hallucination]]s.<ref name=drugs/>

==Addiction treatment==
[[Anecdote|Anecdotal reports]] of self-treated opioid addicts indicated a reduced desire to sustain opiate abuse following iboga ingestion.<ref name=drugs/> Since 1970, iboga has been legally prohibited in the United States following several fatalities.<ref name=drugs/> Iboga extracts, as well as the purified alkaloid [[ibogaine]], have attracted attention because of their purported ability to reverse addiction to drugs such as [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] and [[opiate]]s.<ref name=drugs/> Due to the cardiac safety risks of iboga, research is also considering iboga analogues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Havel |first1=Václav |last2=Kruegel |first2=Andrew C. |last3=Bechand |first3=Benjamin |last4=McIntosh |first4=Scot |last5=Stallings |first5=Leia |last6=Hodges |first6=Alana |last7=Wulf |first7=Madalee G. |last8=Nelson |first8=Mel |last9=Hunkele |first9=Amanda |last10=Ansonoff |first10=Michael |last11=Pintar |first11=John E. |last12=Hwu |first12=Christopher |last13=Ople |first13=Rohini S. |last14=Abi-Gerges |first14=Najah |last15=Zaidi |first15=Saheem A. |date=2024-09-20 |title=Oxa-Iboga alkaloids lack cardiac risk and disrupt opioid use in animal models |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=8118 |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-51856-y |pmid=39304653 |issn=2041-1723|pmc=11415492 |bibcode=2024NatCo..15.8118H }}</ref>

Ibogaine is classified as a [[Schedule 1, Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs|schedule 1 controlled substance]] in the United States, and is not approved there for addiction treatment (or any other therapeutic use) because of its hallucinogenic and cardiovascular side effects, as well as the absence of safety and efficacy data in human subjects.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=toxnet/> In most other countries, it remains unregulated and unlicensed.<ref name = "BBC">Hegarty, S. (April 13, 2012). Can a hallucinogen from Africa cure addiction? [https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17666589 BBC News archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916030429/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17666589 |date=September 16, 2018 }}. Retrieved June 17, 2015.</ref>

Independent ibogaine treatment clinics have emerged in Mexico, Canada, the [[Netherlands]], South Africa, and New Zealand, all operating in what has been described as a "legal gray area".<ref name = "BBC"/><ref name="maps">{{cite web|title=Ibogaine therapy for drug addiction|url=http://www.maps.org/research/ibogaine-therapy|publisher=Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies|date=2019|access-date=October 27, 2019|archive-date=October 19, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019011751/https://maps.org/research/ibogaine-therapy|url-status=live}}</ref> Covert, illegal neighborhood clinics are also known to exist in the United States, despite active DEA surveillance.<ref name="VillVoice" /> Addiction specialists warn that the treatment of drug dependence with ibogaine in non-medical settings, without expert supervision and unaccompanied by appropriate psychosocial care, can be dangerous – and, in approximately one case in 300, potentially fatal.<ref name=drugs/><ref name = "maps"/>

==Adverse effects==
Ibogaine may induce nausea, vomiting, tremors, and headaches.<ref name=drugs/> When ibogaine is used chronically, [[Mania|manic episodes]] lasting for several days may occur, accompanied by [[insomnia]], irritability, delusions, aggressive behavior, and thoughts of suicide, among other effects.<ref name=drugs/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bwitihouse.com/iboga-retreat-bwiti-initiation-gabon|title=Iboga Retreat Bwiti Initiation Gabon}}</ref>

==Legal status==
{{Main|Legal status of ibogaine by country}}

Iboga is outlawed or restricted in [[Belgium]], [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Croatia]], France,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.admi.net/jo/20070325/SANP0721148A.html |title=Arrêté du 12 mars 2007 modifiant l'arrêté du 22 février 1990 fixant la liste des substances classées comme stupéfiants |trans-title=Decree of 12 March 2007 amending the Decree of 22 February 1990 establishing the list of substances classified as narcotics |work=admi.net |year=2007 |access-date=July 28, 2014 |language=fr |archive-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018200041/http://admi.net/jo/20070325/SANP0721148A.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Sweden]], and [[Switzerland]]. In the United States, [[ibogaine]] is classified by the [[Controlled Substances Act]] on the [[List of Schedule I drugs (US)|list of schedule I drugs]],<ref name=drugs/> although the plant itself remains unscheduled.

Non-profit organization ''Föreningen för hollistisk missbruksvård'' is trying to convince the Swedish government to start up clinical investigations of its anti-addictive properties, loosen up the prohibition law against ibogaine, and allow the creation of treatment facilities in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ibogain.se – Föreningen för Holistisk missbruksvård|url=http://ibogain.se/|access-date=June 2, 2020|language=sv-SE|archive-date=January 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125173706/http://ibogain.se/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Exportation of iboga from Gabon is illegal since the passage of a 1994 cultural protection law.<ref name="portant sur la protection des biens culturels">{{cite web |url=http://www.african-archaeology.net/heritage_laws/gabon_l23121995.html |title=Loi n°2/94 du 23 décembre 1994 portant sur la protection des biens culturels |trans-title=Law No. 2/94 of 23 December 1994 on the protection of cultural property |work=African Archaeology |year=2008 |access-date=July 28, 2014 |language=fr |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081318/http://www.african-archaeology.net/heritage_laws/gabon_l23121995.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Tabernanthe iboga bark powder.jpg|thumb|Shredded bark of ''Tabernanthe iboga'' for consumption. Contains ibogaine.]]

==Conservation status==
While little data is available on the exploitation and existing habitat of the iboga plant, the destructive effects of harvesting and slow growth could have already severely damaged the wild iboga population.<ref name="Limbe study">{{cite web |url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADS957.pdf |title=State of Knowledge Study on Tabernanthe Iboga Baillon: A Report For The Central African Regional Program For The Environment |first=Mahop Marcelin |display-authors=etal |last=Tonye |work=Limbe Botanic Garden |date=March 2000 |access-date=July 28, 2014 |archive-date=August 10, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810133516/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADS957.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Documentary films about iboga==
;''Iboga, les hommes du bois sacré'' (2002)
:In this French-language film, Gilbert Kelner documents modern Bwiti practices and [[Babongo]] perspectives on iboga.<ref>{{Citation|title=L' Iboga, Les Hommes du Bois Sacré| date=April 21, 2018 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MAH1Y9_0IBM |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/MAH1Y9_0IBM| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|language=en|access-date=June 2, 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Odisea (TV channel)|Odisea]] broadcast a Spanish-dubbed version titled ''Los Hombres de la Madera Sagrada'' ("The Men of the Sacred Wood").<ref>{{Cite web|title=Iboga, los Hombres de la Madera Sagrada [Documental]|url=https://vimeo.com/92516470|access-date=June 2, 2020|website=Vimeo|language=en|archive-date=April 12, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412010857/https://vimeo.com/92516470|url-status=live}}</ref>
;''Ibogaine: Rite of Passage'' (2004)
:Directed by Ben Deloenen.<ref>{{IMDb title|0431823|Ibogaine: Rite of Passage|(2004)}}</ref> A 34-year-old heroin addict undergoes ibogaine treatment with Dr Martin Polanco at the Ibogaine Association, a clinic in Rosarito Mexico. Deloenen interviews people formerly addicted to heroin, cocaine, and methamphetamine, who share their perspectives about ibogaine treatment. In [[Gabon]], a Babongo woman receives iboga root for her depressive malaise. Deloenen visually contrasts this Western, clinical use of ibogaine with the [[Bwiti]] use of iboga root bark, but emphasizes the Western context.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/vt0E8N4FRFY Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160128043956/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vt0E8N4FRFY&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Citation|title=IBOGAINE – Rite of Passage (Full Documentary)| date=January 27, 2016 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vt0E8N4FRFY|language=en|access-date=June 2, 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
;"Babongo" (2005)
:In this episode (series 1, episode 4) of the English documentary series ''[[Tribe (UK TV series)|Tribe]]'', presenter [[Bruce Parry]] ingests iboga during his time with the Babongo. [[BBC 2]] aired the episode on January 25, 2005.<ref>{{IMDb title|1037622|Tribe series 1, episode 4: "Babongo" (2005)}}</ref>
;"Dosed" (2019) : This documentary depicts the battle of an opioid addict against her addiction through psychedelic and iboga treatments.
;"Synthetic Ibogaine – Natural Tramadol" (2021)
:In this episode (series 3, episode 4) of the American documentary series ''[[Hamilton's Pharmacopeia]]'', presenter [[Hamilton Morris]] joins an Iboga ceremony in Gabon and later interviews Chris Jenks who shows a method to produce ibogaine from ''[[Voacanga africana]]''.<ref>{{IMDb title|14099132|Hamilton's Pharmacopeia series 3, episode 4: "Synethetic Ibogaine-Natural Tramadol" (2021)}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>File:Iboga.jpg|Plant in fruit: fusiform-fruited form.</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Entheogen]]
* [[Psychoactive plant]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}

* ''[https://psychedelictimes.com/2018/11/08/holy-war-bwiti-iboga-initiation-part-1/ Holy War- A Tale of Bwiti Initiation, Part 1]'' by Jim Dziura (Psychedelic Times, 2018)
* ''[https://psychedelictimes.com/2018/11/15/holy-war-bwiti-iboga-initiation-part-2/ Holy War- A Tale of Bwiti Initiation, Part 2]'' by Jim Dziura (Psychedelic Times, 2018)

{{WestAfricanPlants|Tabernanthe iboga}}
{{Traditional medicine}}
{{Hallucinogens}}
{{Psychedelics}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q132677}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Biopiracy]]
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Tabernanthe iboga| ]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens]]
[[Category:Oneirogens]]
[[Category:Rauvolfioideae]]
[[Category:Shrubs]]
[[Category:Psychedelic drugs]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Henri Ernest Baillon]]