View source for Tao

{{Short description|Philosophical concept native to China}}
{{Redirect|Dao|other uses|Tao (disambiguation)|and|Dao (disambiguation)}}
{{distinguish|Tau}}
{{Taoism}}
{{Infobox Chinese
 | c = {{linktext|lang=cn|道}}
 | l = way
 | p = dào
 | bpmf = ㄉㄠˋ
 | w = {{tonesup|tao4}}
 | myr = dàu
 | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|AUD|zh-dào.ogg|d|ao|4}}
 | wuu = doh<sup>入</sup>
 | y = douh
 | j = dou6
 | ci = {{IPAc-yue|d|ou|6}}
 | poj = tō
 | tl = tō
 | mc = dáw
 | qn = đạo
 | chuhan = 道
 | hangul = 도
 | hanja = 道
 | rr = do
 | mr = to
 | kanji = 道
 | romaji = dō
 | lang1 = English | lang1_content = {{IPAc-en|d|aʊ}} {{respell|DOW}}, {{IPAc-en|t|aʊ}} {{respell|TOW}}
}}
[[File:Doeh Symbol.gif|thumb|200px|Symbol of Tao (the Way)]]
[[File:Xiantian_Bagua.JPG |thumb|200px|Uncreated Eight Trigrams, representing the uncreated state of a being before it incarnates into the material world.]]
[[File:Houtian_Bagua.JPG |thumb|200px|Post-created Eight Trigrams, representing the state of a being after it is born into the material world.]]

The '''Tao''' or '''Dao''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 道; [[pinyin]]: ''dào''; [[Jyutping]]: ''dou6'') is the source and fundamental principle of the universe,<ref>Oxford Reference - [https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803102059226 Tao]</ref><ref>Merriam-Webster Dictionary - [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Tao Tao]</ref> primarily as conceived in [[East Asian philosophy]] and [[East Asian religions|religions]]. The concept is represented by the [[Chinese character]] {{lang|zh|道}}, which has meanings including 'way', 'path', 'road', and sometimes 'doctrine' or 'principle'.{{sfnp|Zai|2015|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}

According to ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'', [[Tao]] is self-existent, formless, eternal, omnipresent, and is the source of all existence. While all phenomena in the universe change continuously, [[Tao]], as the source of all, remains motionless and changeless intrinsically :
<blockquote>
There is something undifferentiated and yet complete.<br>
Which existed before heaven and earth.<br>
Soundless and formless.<br>
It depends on nothing and does not change.<br>
It operates everywhere and is free from danger.<br>
It may be considered the Mother of the universe.<br>
I do not know its name; I call it [[Tao]].<br>
::::: ━━━ from Chapter 25 of Tao Teh Ching <ref>[https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf Tao Teh Ching Translations]</ref><ref>Another translation of [https://www.thedaobums.com/topic/55458-the-one-in-different-religions/ Chapter 25 of Tao Teh Ching] : There is a thing that is perfect and complete in nature. It always exists, even before the creation of heaven and earth. Being quiescent and formless, it is self-existent and changeless. It circulates everywhere and never becomes exhausted. It is the Mother of heaven and earth. I do not know its name, but call it Tao.</ref><ref>Another translation of [[s:Tâo_Teh_King#25|Chapter 25 of Tâo Teh King]] : There was something undefined and complete, coming into existence before Heaven and Earth. How still it was and formless, standing alone, and undergoing no change, reaching everywhere and in no danger (of being exhausted)! It may be regarded as the Mother of all things. I do not know its name, and I give it the designation of the Tao (the Way or Course).</ref>
</blockquote>
[[Tao]] is also described as invisible, intangible, and beyond intellectual understanding, as it is written in ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' :
<blockquote>
We look at it, and we do not see it, and we name it 'the Equable.'<br>
We listen to it, and we do not hear it, and we name it 'the Inaudible.'<br>
We try to grasp it, and do not get hold of it, and we name it 'the Subtle.'<br>
With these three qualities, it cannot be made the subject of description;<br>
and hence we blend them together and obtain The One.
::::: ━━━ from Chapter 14 of Tao Teh Ching <ref>The nature of Tao described in [[s:Tâo_Teh_King#14|Chapter 14 of Tao Teh Ching]]</ref>
</blockquote>
Other chapters of ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'', as well as other Taoist scriptures such as ''Ultra Supreme Elder Lord's Ultra Plainness Scripture'', and ''The Wonderful Scripture on the Constant Purity and Tranquility Spoken by the Ultra Supreme Elder Lord'', etc., reiterate that [[Tao]] is formless, invisible, omnipresent, and is the source of all.<ref>It is written in [https://dharma-realm.blogspot.com/2025/09/ultra-supreme-elder-lords-ultra.html Ultra Supreme Elder Lord's Ultra Plainness Scripture] :<br>The Way (Tao) is immense and formless, also hidden and nameless. Beyond Heaven and Earth, it is profound and unseen. Inside Heaven and Earth, it is ample and vigorous. The Way is everywhere between Heaven and Earth.</ref><ref>It is written in [https://web.archive.org/web/20170504084337/http://taoistresource.net/0647sf.html The Wonderful Scripture on the Constant Purity and Tranquility, Spoken by the Ultra Supreme Elder Lord] :<br>The Great Tao, being formless, creates heavens and earths;<br>The Great Tao, being emotionless, runs the sun and the moon;<br>The Great Tao, being nameless, eternally nurtures all beings.<br>I do not know its name, and artificially call it "Tao".</ref><ref>[https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf Chapter 34 of Tao Teh Ching] says :<br>The Way is broad, reaching to the left as well as right.<br>The myriad creatures depend on it for life yet it claims no authority.<br>It accomplishes its task yet lays claim to no merit.<br>It clothes and feeds the myriad creatures yet lays no claim to being their master.</ref><ref>Another translation of [[s:Tâo_Teh_King#34|Chapter 34 of Tâo Teh King]] :<br>All-pervading is the Great Tao! It may be found on the left hand and on the right. All things depend on it for their production, which it gives to them, not one refusing obedience to it. When its work is accomplished, it does not claim the name of having done it. It clothes all things as with a garment, and makes no assumption of being their lord.</ref>

Based on these descriptions, [[Tao]] is considered to be the [[Absolute_(philosophy)|Absolute Truth]] independent of any conditions, and the [[Ultimate Reality]] behind all phenomena. It is the underlying natural order of the universe whose ultimate essence is difficult to circumscribe because it is non-conceptual yet evident in one's being of aliveness.

== Personification of Tao ==
In ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'', Tao is often described as a feminine concept or figure. For example, in some chapters, Tao is described as the Mother of the universe who gives birth to all existence and sustains them<ref>[https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf Tao Teh Ching Translations] Chapter 25, 52, 51</ref><ref>[https://journal.kci.go.kr/ksots/archive/articleView?artiId=ART003066877 A Comparison of the Femininity of Lady Wisdom of Proverbs in the Old Testament and Dao of Daodejing] by Soon-Young Kim</ref>, while in some other chapters, the practice of adhering to Tao is called "keeping to the Mother", "keeping to the Feminine" or "being fed by the Mother".<ref>[https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf Tao Teh Ching Translations] Chapter 52, 28, 20</ref><ref>[https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf Chapter 52 of Tao Teh Ching] :<br>There was a beginning of the universe<br>Which may be called the '''Mother of the Universe'''.<br>He who has found the mother (Tao)<br>And thereby understands her sons (things)<br>And having understood her sons,<br>Still '''keeps to its mother''',<br>Will be free from danger throughout his lifetime.</ref><ref>[https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf Another translation of Chapter 52] :<br>There was a beginning of the universe<br>Which may be regarded as the '''Mother of the Universe'''.<br>From the Mother, we may know her sons.<br>After knowing the sons, '''keep to the Mother'''.<br>Thus one's whole life may be preserved from harm.</ref><ref>[https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf Chapter 28 of Tao Teh Ching] :<br>Know the masculine.<br>'''Keep to the feminine'''.<br>And be the Brook of the World<br>To be the Brook of the World is<br>To move constantly in the path of Virtue<br>Without swerving from it<br>And to return again to infancy.<br></ref><ref>[https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf Another translation of Chapter 28] :<br>He who knows the male<br>and keeps to the female<br>Becomes the ravine of the world.<br>Being the ravine of the world.<br>He will never depart from eternal virtue.<br>But returns to the state of infancy.</ref><ref>[https://www.bu.edu/religion/files/pdf/Tao_Teh_Ching_Translations.pdf Chapter 20 of Tao Teh Ching] :<br>I alone am different from others<br>And value being '''fed by the Mother'''.</ref>

Additionally, some ancient Chinese classics describe a supreme goddess considered an embodiment of [[Tao]], known as '''[[Holy Mother the Original Lord]]''' (聖母元君), '''Ultimate One Original Lord''' (太一元君), '''Uncreated Original Empress''' (先天元后), '''Supreme Original Lord''' (無上元君), etc.<ref>''City Yung's Collective Record of Immortals'' ([[s:zh:墉城集仙錄/卷01|墉城集仙錄]]) : '''Holy Mother the Original Lord''' is an embodiment of the mysterious and harmonious energy of the Feminine Principle. She is the teacher of the Heavenly Emperor.</ref><ref>''Master Loy's Spring and Autumn Annals'' ([https://ctext.org/lv-shi-chun-qiu/zhong-xia-ji/zh 呂氏春秋.大樂]) : Tao is the ultimate essence, which is formless and nameless. To name it artificially, it can be called Ultimate One. (道也者，至精也，不可為形，不可為名，強為之，謂之太一。)</ref><ref>The ''Ultimate One generates Water'' ([[s:zh:太一生水|太一生水]]) : Heaven and Earth are created by Ultimate One.</ref> According to the ancient classics, She is the teacher of [[Yellow Emperor]], [[Lao Tzu]] and '''Ninth Heaven Mysterious Goddess''' (九天玄女).<ref>''Heavenly Classic of the Seven Essences'' ([[s:zh:雲笈七籤/114#九天玄女傳|雲笈七籤]]) : Ninth Heaven Mysterious Goddess is a disciple of Yellow Emperor's mentor known as Holy Mother the Original Lord.</ref><ref>''Master who Embraces the Plainness'' ([[s:zh:抱朴子/卷13|抱朴子]]) : Yellow Emperor and Lao Tzu received the essential teachings through learning from Ultimate One Original Lord.</ref><ref>''Record of Immortals throughout the Ages'' ([[s:zh:歷世真仙體道通鑑後集/1#太一元君|歷世真仙體道通鑑後集]]) : Lao Tzu traveled afar and arrived at Mountain Loe, where he met Ultimate One Original Lord. He learnt from her the secret teachings of Golden Elixir.</ref>

According to Taoist Scriptures, '''[[Ultra Supreme Elder Lord]]''' (太上老君) is also an embodiment of [[Tao]], and the historical [[Lao Tzu]] is considered an incarnation of him.<ref>''The Eighty-one Incarnations of the Elder Lord'' ([[s:zh:老子八十一化|老子八十一化]]) : The Elder Lord is the root of the Original Light, the true essence of creation. He is an embodiment of the Self-existent principle, which is Tao.</ref><ref>According to ''The Eighty-one Incarnations of the Elder Lord'' ([[s:zh:老子八十一化|老子八十一化]]), many important divine immortals in Taoist mythology are incarnations of the Elder Lord.</ref><ref>''Heavenly Classic of the Seven Essences'' ([[s:zh:雲笈七籤/102|雲笈七籤]]) : Lao Tzu is actually the Elder Lord, who is the embodiment of Tao, the source of the Original Energy, and the root of Heaven and Earth.</ref>

== Description and uses of the concept ==
The word "Tao" has a variety of meanings in both the ancient and modern Chinese language. Aside from its purely prosaic use meaning road, channel, path, principle, or similar,{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1996|p=113}} the word has acquired a variety of differing and often confusing metaphorical, philosophical, and religious uses. In most belief systems, the word is used symbolically in its sense of "way" as the right or proper way of existence, or in the context of ongoing practices of attainment or of the full coming into being, or the state of enlightenment or spiritual perfection that is the outcome of such practices.{{sfnp|LaFargue|1992|pp=245–247}}

Some scholars make sharp distinctions between the moral or ethical usage of the word "Tao" that is prominent in [[Confucianism]] and religious [[Taoism]] and the more metaphysical usage of the term used in philosophical Taoism and most forms of [[Mahayana Buddhism]];{{sfnp|Chan|1963|p=136}} others maintain that these are not separate usages or meanings, seeing them as mutually inclusive and compatible approaches to defining the principle.{{sfnp|Hansen|2000|p=206}} 

Conventionally used to refer to something that cannot otherwise be discussed in words, the term was originally used as a form of [[Praxis (process)|praxis]] rather than theory. Early writings such as the ''Tao Te Ching'' and ''[[I Ching]]'' are careful to distinguish between ''conceptions of'' the Tao (sometimes referred to as "named Tao") and the Tao itself (the "unnamed Tao"), which cannot be expressed or understood in language.{{NoteTag|''Tao Te Ching'', Chapter 1. "It is from the unnamed Tao<br />That Heaven and Earth sprang;<br /> The named is but<br />The Mother of the ten thousand creatures."}}{{NoteTag|''I Ching'', ''Ta Chuan'' (Great Treatise). "The kind man discovers it and calls it kind;<br/> the wise man discovers it and calls it wise;<br /> the common people use it every day<br/> and are not aware of it."}}{{sfnp|Liu|1981|pp=1-3}} Liu Da asserts that the Tao is properly understood as an experiential and evolving concept and that there are not only cultural and religious differences in the interpretation of the Tao but personal differences that reflect the character of individual practitioners.{{sfnp|Liu|1981|pp=2–3}}<!--Reference supports entire paragraph, including the references to primary sources.-->

The Tao can be roughly thought of as the "flow of the universe", or as some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the Universe balanced and ordered.{{sfnp|Cane|2002|p=13}} It is related to [[qi]], the essential energy of action and existence. The Tao is a non-dualistic principle—it is the greater whole from which all the individual elements of the Universe derive. [[Catherine Keller]] considers it similar to the [[negative theology]] of Western scholars,{{sfnp|Keller|2003|p=289}} but the Tao is rarely an object of direct worship, being treated more like the [[Hindu]] concepts of [[karma]], [[dharma]], or ''[[Ṛta]]'' than as a divine object.{{sfnp|LaFargue|1994|p=283}} The Tao is more commonly expressed in the relationship between ''[[Mu (negative)|wu]]'' (void or emptiness, in the sense of [[wuji (philosophy)|''wuji'']]) and the natural, dynamic balance between opposites, leading to its central principle of ''[[wu wei]]'' (inaction or inexertion).

The Tao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, and in particular, as similar to water.{{sfnp|Carlson |Flanagin |Martin |Martin |2010 |p=704}}{{sfnp|Jian-guang|2019|pp=754, 759}} Like water it is undifferentiated, endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful, and impassively generous.{{NoteTag|Water is soft and flexible, yet possesses an immense power to overcome obstacles and alter landscapes, even carving canyons with its slow and steady persistence. It is viewed as a reflection of, or close in action to, the Tao. The Tao is often expressed as a sea or flood that cannot be dammed or denied. It flows around and over obstacles like water, setting an example for those who wish to live in accord with it.{{sfnp|Ch'eng|Cheng|1991|pp=175–177}} }} The [[Song dynasty]] painter [[Chen Rong (painter)|Chen Rong]] popularized the [[analogy]] with his painting [[Nine Dragons (painting)|''Nine Dragons'']].{{sfnp|Carlson |Flanagin |Martin |Martin |2010 |p=704}}

Much of Taoist philosophy centers on the cyclical continuity of the natural world and its contrast to the linear, goal-oriented actions of human beings, as well as the perception that the Tao is "the source of all being, in which life and death are the same."{{sfnp|Wright|2006|p=365}}

In all its uses, the Tao is considered to have ineffable qualities that prevent it from being defined or expressed in words. It can, however, be ''known'' or ''experienced'', and its principles (which can be discerned by observing nature) can be followed or practiced. Much of East Asian philosophical writing focuses on the value of adhering to the principles of the Tao and the various consequences of failing to do so.

[[File:Pakua with frame.svg|thumb|right|The [[bagua|Eight Trigrams]], a system commonly used to represent Tao and its pursuit]]
The Tao was shared with Confucianism, [[Chan Buddhism]] and [[Zen]], and more broadly throughout East Asian philosophy and religion in general. In Taoism, Chinese Buddhism, and Confucianism, the object of spiritual practice is to "become one with the Tao" (''Tao Te Ching'') or to harmonize one's will with nature to achieve 'effortless action'. This involves meditative and moral practices. Important in this respect is the Taoist concept of ''[[De (Chinese)|de]]'' ('virtue'). In Confucianism and religious forms of Taoism, these are often explicitly moral/ethical arguments about proper behavior, while Buddhism and more philosophical forms of Taoism usually refer to the natural and mercurial outcomes of action (comparable to karma). The Tao is intrinsically related to the concepts of [[yin and yang]], where every action creates counter-actions as unavoidable movements within manifestations of the Tao, and proper practice variously involves accepting, conforming to, or working with these natural developments.

In Taoism and Confucianism, the Tao was sometimes traditionally seen as a "transcendent power that blesses" that can "express itself directly" through various ways, but most often shows itself through the speech, movement, or traditional ritual of a "prophet, priest, or king."{{sfnp|Carlson |Flanagin |Martin |Martin |2010 |p=730}} Tao can serve as a life energy instead of [[qi]] in some Taoist belief systems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Taoism |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/taoism |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref>

===''De''===
{{Main|De (Chinese)}}

''De'' ({{zhi|c=德|l=power', 'virtue', 'integrity}}) is the term generally used to refer to proper adherence to the Tao. ''De'' is the active living or cultivation of the way.{{sfnp|Maspero|1981|p=32}} Particular things (things with names) that manifest from the Tao have their own inner nature that they follow in accordance with the Tao, and the following of this inner nature is ''De''. ''Wu wei'', or 'naturalness', is contingent on understanding and conforming to this inner nature, which is interpreted variously from a personal, individual nature to a more generalized notion of human nature within the greater Universe.{{sfnp|Bodde|Fung|1997|pp=99–101}}

Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Taoists and Confucianists. Confucianism was largely a moral system emphasizing the values of humaneness, righteousness, and filial duty, and so conceived De in terms of obedience to rigorously defined and codified social rules. Taoists took a broader, more naturalistic, more metaphysical view on the relationship between humankind and the Universe and considered social rules to be at best a derivative reflection of the natural and spontaneous interactions between people and at worst calcified structure that inhibited naturalness and created conflict. This led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Taoists and Confucians. Several sections of the works attributed to [[Zhuang Zhou]] are dedicated to critiques of the failures of Confucianism.

==Interpretations==

===Taoism===
The translator [[Arthur Waley]] observed that
<blockquote>[Tao] means a road, path, way; and hence, the way in which one does something; method, doctrine, principle. The Way of Heaven, for example, is ruthless; when autumn comes 'no leaf is spared because of its beauty, no flower because of its fragrance'. The Way of Man means, among other things, procreation; and eunuchs are said to be 'far from the Way of Man'. ''Chu Tao'' is 'the way to be a monarch', i.e. the art of ruling. Each school of philosophy has its ''tao'', its doctrine of the way in which life should be ordered. Finally in a particular school of philosophy whose followers came to be called Taoists, ''tao'' meant 'the way the universe works'; and ultimately something very like God, in the more abstract and philosophical sense of that term.{{sfnp|Waley|1958|p={{page needed|date=March 2021}}}}</blockquote>

"Tao" gives Taoism its name in English, in both its philosophical and religious forms. The Tao is the fundamental and central concept of these schools of thought. Taoism perceives the Tao as a natural order underlying the substance and activity of the Universe. Language and the "naming" of the Tao is regarded negatively in Taoism; the Tao fundamentally exists and operates outside the realm of differentiation and linguistic constraints.{{sfnp|Kohn|1993|p=11}}

There is no single orthodox Taoist view of the Tao. All forms of Taoism center around Tao and De, but there is a broad variety of distinct interpretations among sects and even individuals in the same sect. Despite this diversity, there are some clear, common patterns and trends in Taoism and its branches.{{sfnp|Kohn|1993|pp=11–12}}

The diversity of Taoist interpretations of the Tao can be seen across four texts representative of major streams of thought in Taoism. All four texts are used in modern Taoism with varying acceptance and emphasis among sects. The ''Tao Te Ching'' is the oldest text and representative of a speculative and philosophical approach to the Tao. The ''[[Daotilun]]'' is an eighth century [[exegesis]] of the ''Tao Te Ching'', written from a well-educated and religious viewpoint that represents the traditional, scholarly perspective. The devotional perspective of the Tao is expressed in the ''[[Qingjing Jing]]'', a [[liturgical text]] that was originally composed during the [[Han dynasty]] and is used as a [[hymnal]] in religious Taoism, especially among [[eremite]]s. The ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' uses literary devices such as tales, allegories, and narratives to relate the Tao to the reader, illustrating a metaphorical method of viewing and expressing the Tao.{{sfnp|Kohn|1993|p=12}}

[[File:Taoist monk.jpg|thumbnail|right|A Taoist monk practicing calligraphy with water on stone. Water calligraphy, like [[sand mandala]]s, evokes the ephemeral nature of physical reality.]]
The forms and variations of religious Taoism are incredibly diverse. They integrate a broad spectrum of academic, ritualistic, supernatural, devotional, literary, and folk practices with a multitude of results. Buddhism and Confucianism particularly affected the way many sects of Taoism framed, approached, and perceived the Tao. The multitudinous branches of religious Taoism accordingly regard the Tao, and interpret writings about it, in innumerable ways. Thus, outside of a few broad similarities, it is difficult to provide an accurate yet clear summary of their interpretation of the Tao.{{sfnp|Fowler|2005|pp=5–7}}

A central tenet in most varieties of religious Taoism is that the Tao is ever-present, but must be manifested, cultivated, and/or perfected to be realized. It is the source of the Universe, and the seed of its primordial purity resides in all things. Breathing exercises, according to some Taoists, allowed one to absorb "parts of the universe."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Daoism |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555647/Daoism.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028043813/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555647/Daoism.html |archive-date=2009-10-28 |website=[[Encarta]] |publisher=[[Microsoft]]}}</ref> Incense and certain minerals were seen as representing the greater universe as well, and breathing them in could create similar effects.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} The manifestation of the Tao is ''de'', which rectifies and invigorates the world with the Tao's radiance.{{sfnp|Kohn|1993|pp=11–12}}

Alternatively, philosophical Taoism regards the Tao as a non-religious concept; it is not a deity to be worshiped, nor is it a mystical Absolute in the religious sense of the Hindu [[brahman]]. Joseph Wu remarked of this conception of the Tao, "Dao is not religiously available; nor is it even religiously relevant." The writings of Laozi and Zhuangzi are tinged with esoteric tones and approach [[humanism]] and [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] as paradoxes.{{sfnp|Moeller|2006|pp=133–145}} In contrast to the esotericism typically found in religious systems, the Tao is not transcendent to the self, nor is mystical attainment an escape from the world in philosophical Taoism. The self steeped in the Tao is the self grounded in its place within the natural Universe. A person dwelling within the Tao excels in themselves and their activities.{{sfnp|Fowler|2005|pp=5–6}}
<!--Historical, "elite"/"professional"/"scholarly" perspectives needed-->

However, this distinction is complicated by [[hermeneutic]] difficulties in the categorization of Taoist schools, sects, and movements.{{sfnp|Mair|2001|p=174}}

Some Taoists believe the Tao is an entity that can "take on human form" to perform its goals.{{sfnp|Stark|2007|p=259}}

The Tao represents human harmony with the universe and even more phenomena in the world and nature.

===Confucianism===
The Tao of [[Confucius]] can be translated as 'truth'. Confucianism regards the Way, or Truth, as concordant with a particular approach to life, politics, and tradition. It is held as equally necessary and well regarded as ''de'' and ''[[ren (Confucianism)|ren]]'' ('compassion', 'humanity'). Confucius presents a humanistic Tao. He only rarely speaks of the 'Way of Heaven'. The early Confucian philosopher [[Xunzi (philosopher)|Xunzi]] explicitly noted this contrast. Though he acknowledged the existence and celestial importance of the Way of Heaven, he insisted that the Tao principally concerns human affairs.{{sfnp|Taylor|Choy|2005|p=589}}

As a formal religious concept in Confucianism, Tao is the Absolute toward which the faithful move. In ''[[Doctrine of the Mean|Zhongyong]]'' (The Doctrine of the Mean), harmony with the Absolute is the equivalent to integrity and sincerity. The ''[[Great Learning]]'' expands on this concept explaining that the Way illuminates virtue, improves the people, and resides within the purest morality. During the [[Tang dynasty]], [[Han Yu]] further formalized and defined Confucian beliefs as an [[apologetics|apologetic]] response to Buddhism. He emphasized the ethics of the Way. He explicitly paired "Tao" and "De", focusing on humane nature and righteousness. He also framed and elaborated on a "tradition of the Tao" in order to reject the traditions of Buddhism.{{sfnp|Taylor|Choy|2005|p=589}}

Ancestors and the [[Mandate of Heaven]] were thought to emanate from the Tao, especially during the [[Song dynasty]].{{sfnp|Harl|2023|p=272}}

===Buddhism===
{{See also|Zen}}

Buddhism first started to spread in China during the first century AD and was experiencing a golden age of growth and maturation by the fourth century AD. Hundreds of collections of [[Pali]] and [[Sanskrit]] texts were translated into Chinese by Buddhist monks within a short period of time. [[Dhyāna in Buddhism|''Dhyana'']] was translated as {{zhi|c=禅|p=chán}}, and later as "zen", giving Zen Buddhism its name. The use of Chinese concepts, such as the Tao, that were close to Buddhist ideas and terms helped spread the religion and make it more amenable to the Chinese people. However, the differences between the Sanskrit and Chinese terminology led to some initial misunderstandings and the eventual development of Buddhism in East Asia as a distinct entity. As part of this process, many Chinese words introduced their rich semantic and philosophical associations into Buddhism, including the use of "Tao" for central concepts and tenets of Buddhism.{{sfnp|Dumoulin|2005|pp=63–65}}

Pai-chang Huai-hai told a student who was grappling with difficult portions of ''[[suttas]]'', "Take up words in order to manifest meaning and you'll obtain 'meaning'. Cut off words and meaning is emptiness. Emptiness is the Tao. The Tao is cutting off words and speech." Zen Buddhists regard the Tao as synonymous with both the Buddhist Path and the results of it, the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] and [[Buddhist enlightenment]]. Pai-chang's statement plays upon this usage in the context of the fluid and varied Chinese usage of "Tao". Words and meanings are used to refer to rituals and practices. The "emptiness" refers to the Buddhist concept of ''[[sunyata]]''. Finding the Tao and Buddha-nature is not simply a matter of formulations, but an active response to the [[Four Noble Truths]] that cannot be fully expressed or conveyed in words and concrete associations. The use of "Tao" in this context refers to the literal "way" of Buddhism, the return to the universal source, [[dharma]], proper meditation, and [[nirvana]], among other associations. "Tao" is commonly used in this fashion by Chinese Buddhists, heavy with associations and nuanced meanings.{{sfnp|Hershock|1996|pp=67–70}}

===Neo-Confucianism===
During the [[Song dynasty]], neo-Confucians regarded the Tao as the purest [[thing-in-itself]]. [[Shao Yong]] regarded the Tao as the origin of heaven, earth, and everything within them. In contrast, [[Zhang Zai]] presented a vitalistic Tao that was the fundamental component or effect of qi, the motive energy behind life and the world. A number of later scholars adopted this interpretation, such as [[Tai Chen]] during the [[Qing dynasty]].{{sfnp|Taylor|Choy|2005|p=589}}

[[Zhu Xi]], [[Cheng Ho]], and [[Cheng Yi (philosopher)|Cheng Yi]] perceived the Tao in the context of ''[[li (Neo-Confucianism)|li]]'' ('principle') and ''t'ien li'' ('principle of Heaven'). [[Cheng Hao]] regarded the fundamental matter of ''li'', and thus the Tao, to be humaneness. Developing compassion, altruism, and other humane virtues is following of the Way. [[Cheng Yi (philosopher)|Cheng Yi]] followed this interpretation, elaborating on this perspective of the Tao through teachings about interactions between yin and yang, the cultivation and preservation of life, and the axiom of a morally just universe.{{sfnp|Taylor|Choy|2005|p=589}}

On the whole, the Tao is equated with totality. [[Wang Fuzhi]] expressed the Tao as the ''[[Taiji (philosophy)|taiji]]'', or 'great ultimate', as well as the road leading to it. Nothing exists apart from the Principle of Heaven in Neo-Confucianism. The Way is contained within all things. Thus, the religious life is not an elite or special journey for Neo-Confucians. The normal, mundane life is the path that leads to the Absolute, because the Absolute is contained within the mundane objects and events of daily life.{{sfnp|Taylor|Choy|2005|p=589}}

=== Chinese folklore ===
Yayu, the son of [[Zhulong (mythology)|Zhulong]] who was reincarnated on Earth as a violent hybrid between a bull, a tiger, and a [[Chinese dragon|dragon]], was allowed to go to an afterlife that was known as "the place beyond the Tao".{{sfnp|Ni|2023|p=168}} This shows that some Chinese [[Folklore|folk storytelling]] and [[myth]]ological traditions had very differing interpretations of the Tao between each other and orthodox religious practices.

===Christianity===
Noted Christian author [[C.S. Lewis]] used the word Tao to describe "the doctrine of objective value, the belief that certain attitudes are really true, and others really false, the kind of thing the Universe is and the kind of things we are."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=C.S. |title=[[The Abolition of Man]] |page=18}}</ref> He asserted that every religion and philosophy contains foundations of universal ethics as an attempt to line up with the Tao—the way mankind was designed to be. In Lewis's thinking, [[God in Christianity|God]] created the Tao and fully displayed it through the person of [[Jesus Christ]].

Similarly, Eastern Orthodox [[hegumen]] Damascene (Christensen), a pupil of noted monastic and scholar of East Asian religions [[Seraphim Rose]], identified ''logos'' with the Tao. Damascene published a full commented translation of the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' under the title ''Christ the Eternal Tao''.{{sfnp|Damascene|2012|p={{page needed|date=April 2024}}}}

In some Chinese translations of the New Testament, the word {{lang|grc|λόγος}} (''[[logos]]'') is translated as {{zhi|c=道}}, in passages such as [[Gospel of John|John]] 1:1, indicating that the translators considered the concept of Tao to be somewhat equivalent to the Hellenic concept of ''logos'' in [[Platonism]] and Christianity.{{sfnp|Zheng|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M9YkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 187]}}

== Linguistic aspects ==
{{see also|Daoism–Taoism romanization issue}}
The Chinese character {{zhi|c=道}} is highly polysemous: its historical alternate pronunciation as {{zhi|p=dǎo}} possessed an additional connotation of 'guide'. The history of the character includes details of orthography and semantics, as well as a possible Proto-Indo-European etymology, in addition to more recent loaning into English and other world languages.

===Orthography===
{{multiple image|align=right|direction=vertical
|image1=道-bronze.svg|caption1=[[Bronze script]]
|image2=道-silk.svg|caption2=[[Bamboo and wooden slips|Chu slip and silk script]]
|image3=道-bigseal.svg|caption3=[[Large seal script]]
|image4=道-seal.svg|caption4=[[Small seal script]]
}}
"Tao" is written with the Chinese character {{zhi|c=道}} using both [[Traditional Chinese|traditional]] and [[Simplified Chinese|simplified]] characters. The traditional graphical interpretation of {{zhi|c=道}} dates back to the ''[[Shuowen Jiezi]]'' dictionary published in 121 CE, which describes it as a rare "compound ideogram" or "[[Chinese character classification#Ideogrammatic compounds|ideographic compound]]". According to the ''Shuowen Jiezi'', {{zhi|c=道}} combines the 'go' radical {{zhi|c=辶}} (a variant of {{zhi|c=辵}}) with {{zhi|c=首|l=head}}. This construction signified a "head going" or "leading the way".

"Tao" is graphically distinguished between its earliest nominal meaning of 'way', 'road', 'path', and the later verbal sense of 'say'. It should also be contrasted with {{zhi|c=導|l=lead the way', 'guide', 'conduct', 'direct}}. The simplified character {{zhi|s=导}} for {{zhi|c=導}} has {{zhi|c=巳|l=6th of the 12 [[Earthly Branches]]}} in place of {{zhi|c=道}}.

The earliest written forms of "Tao" are [[bronzeware script]] and [[seal script]] characters from the [[Zhou dynasty]] (1045–256 BCE) bronzes and writings. These ancient forms more clearly depict the {{zhi|c=首|l=head}} element as hair above a face. Some variants interchange the 'go' radical {{zhi|c=辵}} with {{zhi|c=行|l=go', 'road}}, with the original bronze "crossroads" depiction written in the seal character with two {{zhi|c=彳}} and {{zhi|c=亍|l=footprints}}.

Bronze scripts for {{zhi|c=道}} occasionally include an element of {{zhi|c=手|l=hand}} or {{zhi|c=寸|l=thumb', 'hand}}, which occurs in {{zhi|c=導|l=lead}}. The linguist [[Peter A. Boodberg]] explained,
<blockquote>This "''tao'' with the hand element" is usually identified with the modern character {{zhi|c=導}} ''tao'' < ''d'ôg'', 'to lead,', 'guide', 'conduct', and considered to be a ''derivative'' or verbal cognate of the noun ''tao'', "way," "path." The evidence just summarized would indicate rather that "''tao'' with the hand" is but a ''variant'' of the basic ''tao'' and that the word itself combined both nominal and verbal aspects of the etymon. This is supported by textual examples of the use of the primary ''tao'' in the verbal sense "to lead" (e. g., ''Analects'' 1.5; 2.8) and seriously undermines the unspoken assumption implied in the common translation of Tao as "way" that the concept is essentially a nominal one. Tao would seem, then, to be etymologically a more dynamic concept than we have made it translation-wise. It would be more appropriately rendered by "lead way" and "lode" ("way," "course," "journey," "leading," "guidance"; cf. "lodestone" and "lodestar"), the somewhat obsolescent deverbal noun from "to lead."{{sfnp|Boodberg|1957|p=599}}</blockquote>
These Confucian ''[[Analects]]'' citations of ''dao'' verbally meaning 'to guide', 'to lead' are: "The Master said, 'In guiding a state of a thousand chariots, approach your duties with reverence and be trustworthy in what you say" and "The Master said, 'Guide them by edicts, keep them in line with punishments, and the common people will stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame."{{sfnp|Lau|1979|loc=p. 59,  1.5; p. 63, 2.8}}

===Phonology===
In modern [[Standard Chinese]], {{zhi|c=道}}'s two primary pronunciations are [[Mandarin phonology#Tones|tonally]] differentiated between falling tone {{zhi|p=dào|l=way, path}} and dipping tone {{zhi|p=dǎo|l=guide, lead}} (usually written as {{zhi|c=導}}).

Besides the common specifications {{zhi|c=道|p=dào|l=way}} and {{zhi|c=道|p=dǎo}} (with variant {{zhi|c=導|l=guide}}), {{zhi|c=道}} has a rare additional pronunciation with the level tone, {{zhi|p=dāo}}, seen in the regional ''[[chengyu]]'' {{zhi|c=神神道道|p=shénshendāodāo|l=odd, bizarre}}, a [[reduplication]] of {{zhi|c=道}} and {{zhi|c=神|p=shén|l=spirit, god}} from northeast China.

In [[Middle Chinese]] ({{circa|6th–10th centuries CE}}) [[tone name]] categories, {{zhi|c=道}} and {{zhi|c=導}} were {{zhi|c=去聲|p=qùshēng|l=departing tone}} and {{zhi|c=上聲|p=shǎngshēng|l=rising tone}}. [[Historical linguistics|Historical linguists]] have reconstructed {{abbr|MC|Middle Chinese}} {{zhi|c=道|l=way}} and {{zhi|c=導|l=guide}} as {{Transliteration|ltc|d'âu-}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|d'âu}} ([[Bernhard Karlgren]]),{{sfnp|Karlgren |1957|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}} {{Transliteration|ltc|dau}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|dau}}{{sfnp|Zhou|1972|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}} {{Transliteration|ltc|daw<sup>'</sup>}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|daw<sup>h</sup>}},{{sfnp|Pulleyblank|1991|p=248}} {{Transliteration|ltc|daw<sup>X</sup>}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|daws}} (William H. Baxter),{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=753}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|dâu<sup>B</sup>}} and {{Transliteration|ltc|dâu<sup>C</sup>}}.{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}}

In [[Old Chinese]] ({{circa|7th–3rd centuries BCE}}) pronunciations, reconstructions for {{zhi|c=道}} and {{zhi|c=導}} are {{Transliteration|och|*d'ôg}} (Karlgren), {{Transliteration|och|*dəw}} (Zhou), {{Transliteration|och|*dəgwx}} and {{Transliteration|och|*dəgwh}},{{sfnp|Li|1971|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}} {{Transliteration|och|*luʔ}},{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=753}} and {{Transliteration|och|*lûʔ}} and {{Transliteration|och|*lûh}}.{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|p={{page needed|date=November 2023}}}}

===Semantics===
The word {{zhi|c=道}} has many meanings. For example, the ''[[Hanyu Da Zidian]]'' dictionary defines 39 meanings for {{zhi|c=道|p=dào}} and 6 for {{zhi|c=道|p=dǎo}}.{{sfnp|''Hanyu Da Zidian''|1989|pp=3864–3866}}

[[John DeFrancis]]'s Chinese-English dictionary gives twelve meanings for {{zhi|c=道|p=dào}}, three for {{zhi|c=道|p=dǎo}}, and one for {{zhi|c=道|p=dāo}}. Note that brackets clarify abbreviations and ellipsis marks omitted usage examples.
<blockquote>'''<sup>2</sup>dào''' {{zhi|c=道}} N. &#91;[[noun]]&#93; road; path ◆M. &#91;nominal [[measure word]]&#93; ① (for rivers/topics/etc.) ② (for a course (of food); a streak (of light); etc.) ◆V. &#91;[[verb]]&#93; ① say; speak; talk (introducing direct quote, novel style) ... ② think; suppose ◆B.F. &#91;bound form, [[bound morpheme]]&#93; ① channel ② way; reason; principle ③ doctrine ④ Daoism ⑤ line ⑥〈hist.〉 &#91;history&#93; ⑦ district; circuit canal; passage; tube ⑧ say (polite words) ... See also ''<sup>4</sup>dǎo'', ''<sup>4</sup>dāo''

'''<sup>4</sup>dǎo''' {{lang|zh|导/道[導/-}} B.F. &#91;bound form] ① guide; lead ... ② transmit; conduct ... ③ instruct; direct ...<br />
'''<sup>4</sup>dāo''' {{lang|zh|道}} in ''shénshendāodāo'' ... {{lang|zh|神神道道}} R.F. &#91;[[Reduplication|reduplicated]] form&#93; 〈topo.〉&#91;non-Mandarin form&#93; odd; fantastic; bizarre{{Sfnp|DeFrancis|2003|pp=172, 829}}</blockquote>''Dao'', starting from the [[Song dynasty]], also referred to an ideal in [[Chinese landscape painting]]s that artists sought to live up to by portraying "nature scenes" that reflected "the harmony of man with his surroundings."{{sfnp|Meyer|1994|p=96}}

===Etymology===
The etymological linguistic origins of ''dao'' "way; path" depend upon its Old Chinese pronunciation, which scholars have tentatively reconstructed as *''d'ôg'', *''dəgwx'', *''dəw'', *''luʔ'', and *''lûʔ''.

Boodberg noted that the ''shou'' {{lang|zh|首}} "head" phonetic in the ''dao'' {{lang|zh|道}} character was not merely phonetic but "etymonic", analogous with English ''to head'' meaning "to lead" and "to tend in a certain direction," "ahead," "headway".
<blockquote>Paronomastically, ''tao'' is equated with its homonym {{linktext|lang=zh|蹈}} ''tao'' < ''d'ôg'', "to trample," "tread," and from that point of view it is nothing more than a "treadway," "headtread," or "foretread "; it is also occasionally associated with a near synonym (and possible cognate) {{linktext|lang=zh|迪}} ''ti'' < ''d'iôk'', "follow a road," "go along," "lead," "direct"; "pursue the right path"; a term with definite ethical overtones and a graph with an exceedingly interesting phonetic, {{linktext|lang=zh|由}} ''yu'' < ''djôg''," "to proceed from." The reappearance of C162 &#91;{{lang|zh|辶}}&#93; "walk" in ''ti'' with the support of C157 &#91;{{lang|zh|⻊}}&#93; "foot" in ''tao'', "to trample," "tread," should perhaps serve us as a warning not to overemphasize the headworking functions implied in ''tao'' in preference to those of the lower extremities.{{sfnp|Boodberg|1957|p=602}}</blockquote>

[[Victor H. Mair]] proposes a connection with [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''drogh'', supported by numerous [[cognates]] in [[Indo-European languages]], as well as semantically similar [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words.
<blockquote>The archaic pronunciation of Tao sounded approximately like ''drog'' or ''dorg''. This links it to the Proto-Indo-European root ''drogh'' (to run along) and Indo-European ''dhorg'' (way, movement). Related words in a few modern Indo-European languages are Russian ''doroga'' (way, road), Polish ''droga'' (way, road), Czech ''dráha'' (way, track), Serbo-Croatian ''draga'' (path through a valley), and Norwegian dialect ''drog'' (trail of animals; valley). .... The nearest Sanskrit (Old Indian) cognates to Tao (''drog'') are ''dhrajas'' (course, motion) and ''dhraj'' (course). The most closely related English words are "track" and "trek", while "trail" and "tract" are derived from other cognate Indo-European roots. Following the Way, then, is like going on a cosmic trek. Even more unexpected than the panoply of Indo-European cognates for Tao (''drog'') is the Hebrew root ''d-r-g'' for the same word and Arabic ''t-r-q'', which yields words meaning "track, path, way, way of doing things" and is important in Islamic philosophical discourse.{{sfnp|Mair|1990|p=132}}</blockquote>

Axel Schuessler's etymological dictionary presents two possibilities for the tonal [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of ''dào'' {{lang|zh|道}} "road; way; method" < Middle Chinese ''dâu''<sup>B</sup> < Old Chinese *''lûʔ'' and ''dào'' {{lang|zh|道}} or {{lang|zh|導}} "to go along; bring along; conduct; explain; talk about" < Middle ''dâu''<sup>C</sup> < Old *''lûh''.{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|p=207}} Either ''dào'' {{lang|zh|道}} "the thing which is doing the conducting" is a Tone B (''shangsheng'' {{lang|zh|上聲}} "rising tone") "endoactive noun" derivation from ''dào'' {{lang|zh|導}} "conduct", or ''dào'' {{lang|zh|導}} is a Later Old Chinese ([[Warring States period]]) "general tone C" (''qusheng'' {{lang|zh|去聲}} "departing tone") derivation from ''dào'' {{lang|zh|道}} "way".{{sfnp|Schuessler|2007|pp=48–41}} For a possible etymological connection, Schuessler notes the ancient ''[[Fangyan (book)|Fangyan]]'' dictionary defines ''yu'' < *''lokh'' {{lang|zh|裕}} and ''lu'' < *''lu'' {{lang|zh|猷}} as Eastern [[Qi (Shandong)|Qi State]] dialectal words meaning ''dào'' < *''lûʔ'' {{lang|zh|道}} "road".

===Other languages===
Many languages have borrowed and adapted "Tao" as a [[loanword]].

In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], this character {{lang|zh|道}} is pronounced as [[Cantonese]] ''dou6'' and Hokkian ''to7''. In [[Sino-Xenic]] languages, {{lang|zh|道}} is pronounced as [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''dō'', ''tō'', or ''michi''; [[Korean language|Korean]] ''do'' or ''to''; and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] ''đạo''.

Since 1982, when the [[International Organization for Standardization]] adopted [[Pinyin]] as the standard [[romanization of Chinese]], many Western languages have changed from spelling this loanword ''tao'' in national systems (e.g., French [[EFEO Chinese transcription]] and English [[Wade–Giles]]) to ''dao'' in Pinyin.

The ''tao''/''dao'' "the way" [[List of English words of Chinese origin|English word of Chinese origin]] has three meanings, according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.
<blockquote>'''1. a.''' In Taoism, an absolute entity which is the source of the universe; the way in which this absolute entity functions.<br />
'''1. b.''' = ''Taoism'', ''taoist''<br />
'''2.''' In Confucianism and in extended uses, the way to be followed, the right conduct; doctrine or method.</blockquote>
The earliest recorded usages were ''Tao'' (1736), ''Tau'' (1747), ''Taou'' (1831), and ''Dao'' (1971).

The term "[[Taoist priest]]" ({{zhi|c=道士|p=Dàoshì}}), was used already by the Jesuits [[Matteo Ricci]] and [[Nicolas Trigault]] in their ''[[De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas]]'', rendered as ''Tausu'' in the original Latin edition (1615),{{NoteTag|text=''[https://books.google.com/books?id=iLsWAAAAQAAJ De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas suscepta ab Societate Jesu]'', Book One, Chapter 10, p. 125. Quote: "sectarii quidam ''Tausu'' vocant". Chinese gloss in [[Pasquale M. d' Elia]], Matteo Ricci. ''Fonti ricciane: documenti originali concernenti Matteo Ricci e la storia delle prime relazioni tra l'Europa e la Cina (1579-1615)'', Libreria dello Stato, 1942; can be found [https://books.google.com/books?id=zRw8AAAAMAAJ&q=tausu by searching for "tausu"]. [[Louis J. Gallagher]] (''China in the Sixteenth Century: The Journals of Matteo Ricci''; 1953), apparently has a typo (''Taufu'' instead of ''Tausu'') in the ''text'' of his translation of this line (p. 102), and ''Tausi'' in the index (p. 615)}} and ''Tausa'' in an early English translation published by [[Samuel Purchas]] (1625).{{NoteTag|text=''A discourse of the Kingdome of China, taken out of Ricius and Trigautius, containing the countrey, people, government, religion, rites, sects, characters, studies, arts, acts ; and a Map of China added, drawne out of one there made with Annotations for the understanding thereof'' (excerpts from ''[[De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas]]'', in English translation) in ''[[Samuel Purchas|Purchas his Pilgrimes]]'', Volume XII, p. 461 (1625).  Quote: "... Lauzu ... left no Bookes of his Opinion, nor seemes to have intended any new Sect, but certaine Sectaries, called Tausa, made him the head of their sect after his death..." Can be found in the [https://archive.org/stream/hakluytusposthu14purcgoog/hakluytusposthu14purcgoog_djvu.txt full text of "Hakluytus posthumus"] on archive.org.}}

==See also==
*[[Tathātā]]
*[[Holy Wisdom]]
*[[Ātman (Hinduism)]]
*[[Wu_wei|Actionlessness (無爲)]]
*[[Asha]]
*[[Brahman]]
*[[Absolute (philosophy)]]
*[[Nu (mythology)]]
*[[Wuji (philosophy)]]
*[[Manitou]]
*[[Teotl]]
*[[Logos (Christianity)]]
*[[Logos]]

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|24em}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Baxter |first=William H. |author-link=William H. Baxter |title=A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |year=1992 |isbn=978-3-110-12324-1 |location=Berlin}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Bodde |first1=Derk |title=A short history of Chinese philosophy |last2=Fung |first2=Yu-Lan |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=1997 |isbn=0-684-83634-3}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Boodberg |first=Peter A. |year=1957 |title=Philological Notes on Chapter One of the ''Lao Tzu'' |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=20 |issue=3/4 |pages=598–618 |doi=10.2307/2718364 |jstor=2718364}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cane |first=Eulalio Paul |title=Harmony: Radical Taoism Gently Applied |publisher=Trafford Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1-4122-4778-0}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Carlson |first1=Kathie |title=The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images |last2=Flanagin |first2=Michael N. |last3=Martin |first3=Kathleen |last4=Martin |first4=Mary E. |last5=Mendelsohn |first5=John |last6=Rodgers |first6=Priscilla Young |last7=Ronnberg |first7=Ami |last8=Salman |first8=Sherry |last9=Wesley |first9=Deborah A. |publisher=[[Taschen]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-3-8365-1448-4 |editor-last=Arm |editor-first=Karen |location=Köln |editor-last2=Ueda |editor-first2=Kako |editor-last3=Thulin |editor-first3=Anne |editor-last4=Langerak |editor-first4=Allison |editor-last5=Kiley |editor-first5=Timothy Gus |editor-last6=Wolff |editor-first6=Mary}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chang |first=Stephen T. |title=The Great Tao |publisher=Tao Publishing, imprint of Tao Longevity |year=1985 |isbn=0-942196-01-5}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Ch'eng |first1=Chung-Ying |title=New dimensions of Confucian and Neo-Confucian philosophy |last2=Cheng |first2=Zhongying |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1991 |isbn=0-7914-0283-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chan |first=Wing-tsit |title=A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy |publisher=Princeton |year=1963 |isbn=0-691-01964-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Damascene |first=Hieromonk |title=Christ the Eternal Tao |publisher=Valaam Books |year=2012 |edition=6th}}
* {{Cite book |title=ABC Chinese-English Dictionary: Alphabetically Based Computerized (ABC Chinese Dictionary) |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1996 |isbn=0-8248-1744-3 |editor-last=DeFrancis |editor-first=John}}
*{{Cite book |title=ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2003 |editor-last=DeFrancis |editor-first=John}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dumoulin |first=Henrik |title=Zen Buddhism: a History: India and China |publisher=World Wisdom |year=2005 |isbn=0-941532-89-5 |translator-last=Heisig |translator-first=James |translator-last2=Knitter |translator-first2=Paul}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane |title=An introduction to the philosophy and religion of Taoism: pathways to immortality |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2005 |isbn=1-84519-085-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hansen |first=Chad D. |title=A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical Interpretation |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-19-513419-2}}
* {{cite book |title=Hanyu Da Zidian |publisher=Hubei Cishu Chubanshe |location=Wuhan |language=Chinese |date=1989 |volume=6 |isbn=978-7-5403-0022-7 |ref={{sfnref|''Hanyu Da Zidian''|1989}}}}
* {{Cite book |last=Harl |first=Kenneth W. |author-link=Kenneth W. Harl |title=Empires of the Steppes: A History of the Nomadic Tribes Who Shaped Civilization |publisher=[[Hanover Square Press]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-335-42927-8 |location=United States}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hershock |first=Peter |title=Liberating intimacy: enlightenment and social virtuosity in Ch'an Buddhism |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1996 |isbn=0-7914-2981-4}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Jian-guang |first=Wang |date=December 2019 |title=Water Philosophy in Ancient Society of China: Connotation, Representation, and Influence |url=https://www.davidpublisher.com/Public/uploads/Contribute/5e05a4e1c4c77.pdf |journal=Philosophy Study |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=750–760}}
*{{Cite book |last=Karlgren |first=Bernhard |author-link=Bernhard Karlgren |title=Grammata Serica Recensa |publisher=Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities |year=1957}}
* {{Cite book |last=Keller |first=Catherine |title=The Face of the Deep: A Theology of Becoming |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-25648-8}}
*{{Cite book |last=Kirkland |first=Russell |title=Taoism: The Enduring Tradition |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-415-26321-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kohn |first=Livia |title=The Taoist experience |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1993 |isbn=0-7914-1579-1}}
*{{Cite book |last=Komjathy |first=Louis |title=Handbooks for Daoist Practice |publisher=Yuen Yuen Institute |year=2008 |location=Hong Kong}}
* {{Cite book |last=LaFargue |first=Michael |title=Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-7914-1601-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=LaFargue |first=Michael |title=The tao of the Tao te ching: a translation and commentary |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-7914-0986-4}}
*{{Cite book |last=Lau |title=The Analects (Lun yu) |publisher=Penguin |year=1979 |translator-last=Lau |translator-first=D. C.}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Fanggui |author-link=Li Fanggui |year=1971 |title=Shanggu yin yanjiu |script-title=zh:上古音研究 |journal=Tsinghua Journal of Chinese Studies |language=zh |volume=9 |pages=1–61}}
* {{Cite book |last=Liu |first=Da |url=https://archive.org/details/taochinesecultur0000dali |title=The Tao and Chinese culture |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1981 |isbn=0-7100-0841-4 |url-access=registration}}
*{{Cite book |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |title=Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way, by Lao Tzu; an entirely new translation based on the recently discovered Ma-wang-tui manuscripts |publisher=Bantam Books |year=1990}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |title=The Columbia History of Chinese Literature |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=0-231-10984-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Martinson |first=Paul Varo |url=https://archive.org/details/theologyofworldr0000mart |title=A theology of world religions: Interpreting God, self, and world in Semitic, Indian, and Chinese thought |publisher=Augsburg Publishing House |year=1987 |isbn=0-8066-2253-9 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Maspero |first=Henri |url=https://archive.org/details/taoismchineserel00henr |title=Taoism and Chinese Religion |publisher=University of Massachusetts Press |year=1981 |isbn=0-87023-308-4 |translator-last=Kierman |translator-first=Frank A. Jr. |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Meyer |first=Milton Walter |title=China: A Concise History |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield|Littlefield Adams Quality Paperbacks]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8476-7953-9 |edition=2nd |location=Lanham, Maryland}}
* {{Cite book |last=Moeller |first=Hans-Georg |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofdaod0000moel |title=The Philosophy of the Daodejing |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-231-13679-X |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ni |first=Xueting C. |year=2023 |title=Chinese Myths: From Cosmology and Folklore to Gods and Immortals |publisher=Amber Books |isbn=978-1-83886-263-3 |location=London}}
*{{Cite book |last=Pulleyblank |first=E.G. |author-link=Edwin G. Pulleyblank |title=Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin |publisher=UBC Press |year=1991}}
*{{Cite book |last=Schuessler |first=Axel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIvqAC7FNBQC |title=ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8248-2975-9}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sharot |first=Stephen |title=A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion |publisher=NYU Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-8147-9805-5 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stark |first=Rodney |author-link=Rodney Stark |title=Discovering God: The Origins of the Great Religions and the Evolution of Belief |publisher=[[HarperOne]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-06-117389-9 |edition=1st |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sterckx |first=Roel |title=Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding |publisher=Penguin |year=2019 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Rodney Leon |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Confucianism, Volume 2: N-Z |last2=Choy |first2=Howard Yuen Fung |publisher=Rosen Publishing Group |year=2005 |isbn=0-8239-4081-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Waley |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Waley |title=The way and its power: a study of the Tao tê ching and its place in Chinese thought |publisher=Grove Press |year=1958 |isbn=0-8021-5085-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Watts |first=Alan Wilson |title=''[[Tao: The Watercourse Way]]'' with Al Chung-liang Huang |publisher=Pantheon |year=1977 |isbn=0-394-73311-8}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7394-7809-7 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Edmund |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zai |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-WzMCQAAQBAJ |title=Taoism and Science: Cosmology, Evolution, Morality, Health and more |publisher=Ultravisum |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-9808425-5-5}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9YkDwAAQBAJ |title=Sinicizing Christianity |publisher=BRILL |year=2017 |isbn=978-90-04-33038-2 |editor-last=Zheng |editor-first=Yangwen}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Zhou|first=Fagao|author-mask=Zhou Fagao (周法高) |year=1972 |title=Shanggu Hanyu he Han-Zangyu |script-title=zh:上古漢語和漢藏語 |journal=Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong |language=zh |volume=5 |pages=159–244}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
*[https://taoism.net/tao-te-ching-online-translation/ Translation of the Tao te Ching by Derek Lin]
*[https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing Translation of the Dao de Jing by James Legge]
*[[gutenberg:216|Legge translation of the Tao Teh King]] at Project Gutenberg
*Feng, Gia-Fu & Jane English (translators). 1972. ''Laozi/Dao De Jing''. New York: Vintage Books.
*Komjathy, Louis. ''Handbooks for Daoist Practice.'' 10 vols. Hong Kong: Yuen Yuen Institute, 2008.
*Mitchell, Stephen (translator). 1988. ''Tao Te Ching: A New English Version''. New York: Harper & Row.
* {{Cite book |last1=Robinet |first1=Isabelle |title=Taoism: growth of a religion |last2=Brooks |first2=Phyllis |last3=Robinet |first3=Isabelle |year=1997 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-2839-3}}
* Sterckx, Roel. ''Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding.'' London: Penguin, 2019.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100726134842/http://www.daoistcenter.org/dao.html Dao entry from Center for Daoist Studies]
*''[[The Tao of Physics]]'', Fritjof Capra, 1975

== External links ==
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline|道}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline|tao}}

{{Chinese philosophy}}
{{Taoism footer}}

[[Category:Tao| ]]
[[Category:Etymologies]]
[[Category:Ancient Chinese philosophy]]
[[Category:Classical Chinese philosophy]]
[[Category:Concepts in Chinese philosophy]]
[[Category:Concepts in metaphilosophy]]
[[Category:Concepts in metaphysics]]
[[Category:Taoist philosophy|*]]