View source for Taxila

{{Short description|City in Punjab, Pakistan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2022}}
{{Redirect|Takshasila|other uses|Taxila (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name                     = Taxila

| native_name              = {{Nastaliq|ٹيکسلا}}
| settlement_type          = [[City]]
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| image_caption            = The [[Dharmarajika Stupa]], a [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]]-era [[Stupa|Buddhist stupa]] near the city of Taxila (2010)
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| subdivision_name2        = [[Rawalpindi Division]]
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| established_date         = {{circa|1000 BCE}}
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| elevation_m              = 549
| population_as_of         = [[2023 Pakistani census]] 
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| population_total         = 136,900 (population of Taxila including [[Taxila Cantonment]])<ref>[https://www.citypopulation.de/en/pakistan/cities/punjab/ Citypopulation.de] Population of Taxila including Taxila Cantonment per 2023 Pakistani census</ref>
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| coordinates              = {{coord|33|44|45|N|72|47|15|E|region:PK|display=inline,title}}
| postal_code              = 47080
| postal_code_type         = [[Postal codes in Pakistan|Postal code]]
| area_code_type           = [[List of dialling codes in Pakistan|Dialing code]]
| area_code                = 596
{{designation list|embed=yes
| designation1 = WHS
| designation1_criteria = iii, vi
| designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/139 139]
| designation1_date = 1980
}}
| subdivision_type3        = [[List of districts in Punjab, Pakistan|District]]
| subdivision_name3        = [[Rawalpindi District]]
| subdivision_type4        = [[List of tehsils of Punjab, Pakistan|Tehsil]]
| subdivision_name4        = [[Taxila Tehsil]]
| native_name_lang         = ur
| pushpin_label            = Taxila
| timezone1                = [[Pakistan Standard Time|PKT]]
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'''Taxila''' ({{langx|pnb|{{Nastaliq|ٹيکسلا}}|Ṭeksilā}}), historically known as '''Takshashila''',{{efn|Ancient names include {{langx|sa| 𑀢𑀓𑁆𑀓𑀰𑀺𑀮𑀸|Takṣaśilā}}; {{langx|pi|{{transliteration|pi|[[wikt:Takkasilā|Takkasilā]]}}}}; {{Text|{{langx|pra|[[wikt:𑀢𑀔𑀲𑀺𑀮𑀸|𑀢𑀔𑀲𑀺𑀮𑀸]]|label=[[Ashokan Prakrit]]}}, {{transliteration|pra|Takkhasilā}}}}; {{Text|{{langx|grc|Τάξιλα|Táxila}}}}}} is a city and [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]] on the [[Pothohar Plateau]] of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], Pakistan. Founded around {{circa|1000 BC}}, it is one of the oldest cities in [[South Asia]]. Taxila is located within the [[Taxila Tehsil]] of [[Rawalpindi District]] in [[Rawalpindi Division|northern Punjab]], and it lies approximately {{convert|25|km|abbr=}} northwest of the [[Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area]] and is just south of the [[Haripur District]] of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]].

Established during the Vedic period, Old Taxila was for a time the capital city of [[Gandhara|ancient Gandhāra]]. Situated on the eastern shore of the [[Indus River]]—the pivotal junction of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Central Asia]]—it was possibly founded around 1000 BCE.<ref name="Raymond Allchin p.127">Raymond Allchin, Bridget Allchin, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC&pg=PA127 ''The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan''.] Cambridge University Press, 1982 p.127 {{ISBN|052128550X}}</ref> Takshashila and [[Pushkalavati]] remained prominent cities in Gandhāra during the [[Mahajanapadas]]. The city is believed to have become part of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] during 550 – 326 BCE. In 326 BCE, it was claimed by [[Alexander the Great]], after overthrowing the Achaemenids. Alexander gained control of the city without a battle since it immediately surrendered to his [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian Empire]]. This was followed successively by the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryans]] (~317 – ~200 BCE), the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greeks]] (~200 BCE – ~55 BCE), the [[Indo-Scythians]] (~80 BCE – ~30 CE), and the [[Kushan Empire]] (~30 CE – ~375 CE), who destroyed the existing city, in the first century CE, to build their own on a site to the north of the ruins.<ref name="whc.unesco.org" /> Owing to its strategic location, Taxila has changed hands many times over the centuries, with many polities vying for its control. When the great ancient trade routes connecting these regions ceased to be important, the city sank into insignificance and was finally destroyed in the 5th century by the invading [[Huna people|Hunas]]. In mid-19th century [[British Raj|British India]], ancient Taxila's ruins were rediscovered by British archaeologist [[Alexander Cunningham]] and extensively excavated by [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]]. In 1980, [[UNESCO]] designated Taxila as a [[World Heritage Site]]. The area was part of the ancient [[Gandhara]] region. Taxila (ancient city) was designated a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 1980 and is located in the town of Taxila.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/139/multiple=1&unique_number=153|title=UNESCO World Heritage Sites List (Taxila is included)|date=26 October 2006|url-status=dead|website=UNESCO: World Heritage Convention website|archive-date=13 August 2025|access-date=4 October 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250813014732/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/139/multiple=1&unique_number=153}}</ref>


By some accounts, the [[University of ancient Taxila]] is considered to be one of the earliest universities or education centre in South Asia.<ref name=Needham>{{cite book |first=Joseph |last=Needham |author-link=Joseph Needham |year=2004 |title=Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue of East and West |publisher=Routledge |isbn= 978-0-415-36166-8}}</ref>{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|ps=:<br />{{blockquote|"In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship was the University of Taxila."}}}}<ref name="entrepreneurship2007">[[Balakrishnan Muniapan]], [[Junaid M. Shaikh]] (2007), "Lessons in corporate governance from Kautilya's [[Arthashastra]] in ancient India", ''World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development'' '''3''' (1):<br />{{blockquote|"Kautilya was also a [[Professor]] of Politics and Economics at Taxila University. Taxila University is one of the oldest known universities in the world and it was the chief learning centre in ancient India."}}</ref>{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|p=478|ps=:<br />{{blockquote|"Thus the various centres of learning in different parts of the country became affiliated, as it were, to the educational centre, or the central university, of Taxila which exercised a kind of intellectual [[suzerain]]ty over the wide world of letters in India."}}}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|p=479|ps=:<br />{{blockquote|"This shows that Taxila was a seat not of elementary, but higher, education, of colleges or a university as distinguished from schools."}}}} Other scholars argue that it was not a university in the modern sense, noting that teachers may not have belonged to formal colleges and that purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters may not have existed. In a 2010 report, the [[Global Heritage Fund]] identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites that were "on the verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and armed conflict as primary threats.<ref name=GHF>{{cite web |title=Global Heritage in the Peril: Sites on the Verge |url=http://globalheritagefund.org/index.php/what_we_do/sites_on_the_verge/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820022935/http://globalheritagefund.org/index.php/what_we_do/sites_on_the_verge/ |archive-date=20 August 2012|url-status=dead |website=Global Heritage Fund}}</ref> However, significant preservation efforts have since been carried out by the [[Government of Pakistan|Pakistani government]], which has resulted in the site's recategorization as "well-preserved" by different international publications.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |author=Raheela Nazir |date=12 May 2018 |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/12/c_137172822.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511203509/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-05/12/c_137172822.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 May 2018 |title=Feature: Pakistan in efforts to rejuvenate Taxila, one of most important archaeological sites in Asia |website=XINHUANET.com |access-date=15 October 2018}}</ref> Because of the extensive preservation efforts and upkeep, Taxila is one of [[Tourism in Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab's popular tourist spots]], attracting up to one million tourists every year.<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{Cite news |date=13 May 2018 |url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/239407/taxila-an-illustration-of-fascinating-influences-of-multiple-civilisations/ |title=Taxila: an illustration of fascinating influences of multiple civilisations |work=Daily Times}}</ref>

==Etymology==
[[File:Takhkhasila in the Heliodorus Pillar inscription.jpg|thumb|upright|The name for the city of Taxila ([[Pāli]] [[Brahmi]]: {{Script|Brah|𑀢𑀔𑁆𑀔𑀲𑀺𑀮𑀸}}, {{Transliteration|pi|Takhkhasilā}}), as it appears on the [[Heliodorus Pillar]] inscription, circa 100 BCE<ref name="Ancient India">{{cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=E. J. |title=Ancient India |date=1914 |page=157 |url=https://archive.org/details/RapsonAncientIndia1914pdf/page/n183}}</ref>]]

In ancient times, Taxila was known as {{Transliteration|sa|Takṣaśilā}} in [[Sanskrit]] (per [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]) and as {{Transliteration|pi|Takkhasilā}} in [[Pali]]. The city's Sanskrit name translates to "City of Cut Stone" or "Rock of Taksha" in reference to a story in the ''[[Ramayana]]'' that states that the city was founded by [[Bharata (Ramayana)|Bharata]], the younger brother of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] deity [[Rama]], and named in honour of Bharata's son, Taksha.<ref name="EB">{{cite web|title=Taxila, ancient city, Pakistan|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Taxila|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 May 2017|language=en}}</ref>

The city's modern name, however, is derived from the [[ancient Greek]] rendering<ref name="EB"/><ref name="lahiri">{{cite book|last1=Lahiri|first1=Nayanjot|title=Ashoka in Ancient India|publisher=Harvard University Press|chapter=Chapter 3|isbn=9780674915251|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ|date=2015|language=en}}</ref> noted in [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]''.<ref>J. W. McCrindle, ''The Invasion of India by Alexander the Great as Described by Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch and Justin,'' Westminster, Constable, 1893, pp.343–344.</ref> The Greek-language transcription of ''Taxila'' became universally favoured over time, and both the Sanskrit and Pali names fell out of use.

[[Faxian]], a [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] pilgrim who visited the city via the [[Silk Road]], had given its name's meaning as "cut-off head". With the help of a [[Jataka tales|''Jataka'']], he had interpreted it to be the place where [[Gautama Buddha]]—during a previous birth as ''Pusa'' or ''Chandaprabha''—cut off his head to feed a hungry lion. This tradition still persists with the area in front of [[Sirkap]] (also meaning "cut-off head"), which was known in the 19th century as ''Babur Khana'' ('House of Tiger'), alluding to the place where [[Gautama Buddha]] had offered his head. In addition, a hill range to south of the Taxila Valley is called ''Margala'' ({{Literal translation|cut-off throat}}).<ref name=Origin>{{cite journal|journal= The Panjab Past and Present|title=Antiquity, Meaning and Origin of the Name Takshashila or Taxila|volume= 11|issue=2|author=Saifur Rahman Dar|page=11}}</ref>

==In traditional sources==
In Vedic texts such as the [[Shatapatha Brahmana]], it is mentioned that the Vedic philosopher [[Uddalaka Aruni]] (c. 7th century BCE) had travelled to the region of Gandhara. In later Buddhist texts, the 4th - 3rd century BCE [[Jataka tales|Jatakas]], it is specified that Taxila was the city where Aruni and his son [[Shvetaketu]] each had received their education.<ref>{{Citation |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Hem Chandra |title=Political history of ancient India, from the accession of Parikshit to the extinction of the Gupta dynasty |year=1923 |pages=17–18, 25–26 |publisher=Calcutta, Univ. of Calcutta |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00raycuoft}}</ref>

One of the earliest mentions of Taxila is in [[Pāṇini]]'s {{Transliteration|sa|[[Aṣṭādhyāyī]]}},{{sfn|Scharfe|2002a|pp=140–141}} a Sanskrit grammar treatise dated to the 4th century BCE.

Much of the Hindu epic, the [[Mahabharata]], is a conversation between [[Vaishampayana]] (a pupil of the sage, [[Vyasa]]) and King [[Janamejaya II|Janamejaya]]. It is traditionally believed that the story was first recited by Vaishampayana at the behest of Vyasa during the snake sacrifice performed by Janamejaya at Takshashila.<ref name="EB"/> The audience also included [[Ugrashravas]], an itinerant bard, who would later recite the story to a group of priests at an [[ashram]] in the [[Naimisha Forest]] from where the story was further disseminated.{{sfn|Davis|2014|p=38}} The [[Kuru kingdom]]'s heir, [[Parikshit]] (grandson of Arjuna) is said to have been enthroned at Takshashila.{{sfn|Kosambi|1975|p=126}}

The Ramayana describes Takshashila as a magnificent city famed for its wealth which was founded by Bharata, the younger brother of [[Rama]]. Bharata, who also founded nearby [[Pushkalavati]], installed his two sons, Taksha and Pushkala, as the rulers of the two cities.{{sfn|Marshall|2013|p=10}}

In the Buddhist Jatakas, Taxila is described as the capital of the kingdom of Gandhara and a great centre of learning with world-famous teachers.<ref name="EB" /> The Jatakas mention non-Buddhist institutions and teachers in Taxila. They show the predominance of [[Vedas|Vedic]] and technical disciplines including law, medicine, and military science.{{sfn|Scharfe|2002b|p=142}} The Takkasila Jataka, more commonly known as the Telapatta Jataka, tells the tale of a prince of [[Benares]] who is told that he would become the king of Takkasila if he could reach the city within seven days without falling prey to the [[yakshini]]s who waylaid travellers in the forest.{{sfn|Malalasekera|1937|loc=Telapatta Jātaka (No.96)|ps=:<br />{{blockquote|"The Bodhisatta was once the youngest of one hundred sons of the king of Benares. He heard from the Pacceka Buddhas, who took their meals in the palace, that he would become king of Takkasilā if he could reach it without falling a prey to the ogresses who waylaid travellers in the forest. Thereupon, he set out with five of his brothers who wished to accompany him. On the way through the forest the five in succession succumbed to the charms of the ogresses, and were devoured. One ogress followed the Bodhisatta right up to the gates of Takkasilā, where the king took her into the palace, paying no heed to the Bodhisatta's warning. The king succumbed to her wiles, and, during the night, the king and all the inhabitants of the palace were eaten by the ogress and her companions. The people, realising the sagacity and strength of will of the Bodhisatta, made him their king."}}}}{{sfn|Appleton|2016|pp=23, 82}} According to the [[Dipavamsa]], one of Taxila's early kings was a [[Kshatriya]] named Dipankara who was succeeded by twelve sons and grandsons. {{IAST|Kuñjakarṇa}}, mentioned in the [[Avadanakalpalata]], is another king associated with the city.{{sfn|Marshall|2013|p=10}}

=== In Jainism ===
Takshashila was closely associated with [[Jainism]]. According to the Jaina tradition, [[Rishabhanatha]], the first [[Tirthankara]], entrusted the region of [[Ayodhya]] to his son [[Bharata chakravarti|Bharata]] and the region of Takshashila to his son [[Bahubali]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=22 September 2017 |title=Part 3: Decision to go to war |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/jainism/book/trishashti-shalaka-purusha-caritra/d/doc212496.html |access-date=6 February 2025 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

As per canonical [[Śvetāmbara]] [[Jainism|Jaina]] texts ''Āvaśyaka Cūrṇi'' and ''Āvaśyaka Niryukti'', [[Tirthankara]] [[Rishabhanatha]] visited Takshashila while wandering after initiation as a monk millions of years ago. Upon learning of his arrival, [[Bahubali]], who was not in the city at that moment, rushed to the city, but the Rishabhanatha had already departed before Bahubali arrived.<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=20 September 2017 |title=Part 7: The fast-breaking of Ṛṣabha |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/jainism/book/trishashti-shalaka-purusha-caritra/d/doc212455.html |access-date=6 February 2025 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref> His footprints were subsequently consecrated by Bahubali who erected a throne and a [[dharmachakra]] ('wheel of the law') over them several miles in height and circumference.{{sfn|Marshall|2013|p=10}} The 14th century [[Vividha Tirtha Kalpa]] mentions this establishment, stating:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jinaprabhasuri |first=Acharya |title=Vividha Tirtha Kalpa |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/009519/117}}</ref>
 "तक्षशिलायां बाहुबलीविनिर्मितं धर्मचक्रम् ॥"
 - Ācārya Jinaprabhāsūri in "''Vividha Tirtha Kalpa"'' (p. 85)
As per the canonical Jaina text ''Mahanishith Sutra'', the ''Dharmachakra Tirtha'' established by Bahubali is recognized as the abode of [[Chandraprabha]], and Takshashila is also referred to as ''"Dharmachakra Bhumi,"'' marking its significance as a center of [[Jainism]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Jaina Trust |first=Anandji Kalyanji Pedhi |title=Jaina Tirtha Sarva Sangraha |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/011536/145}}</ref>

While there is limited information about the subsequent period, it is noted that during the medieval era, Takshashila faced challenges due to the proliferation of fraudulent ascetics and a lack of proper sustenance, leading to restrictions on [[Jain monasticism|Jaina ascetics]]' wandering in the region, as documented in six ancient Jaina texts known as the ''[[Jain literature|Chedasūtras]]''.<ref name=":1" />

[[Samprati|Emperor Samprati]] built a Jaina temple known as ''"[[Kunala Stupa]]"'' in honor of his father [[Kunala]]. During Samprati's rule, the extent of the wandering of Jaina monks developed multifold times, and later also included this region.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jaina Trust |first=Anandji Kalyanji Pedhi |title=Jaina Tirtha Sarva Sangraha |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/011536/146}}</ref>

According to the [[Prabhavakacarita|Prabhavakacharita]], by the second to third century CE, there were approximately 500 Jaina temples in Takshashila, and it was occupied by a significant number of Jainas. However, a devastating [[Plague (disease)|plague]] struck the city, leading to widespread death and chaos.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prabhachandrasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabhavaka Charitra (in Hindi) |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/033038/396}}</ref> The Jaina community sent a [[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|Sravaka]] named Virchand to [[Nadol]], who conveyed their suffering to Acharya Manadevasuri. Suri gave "''Laghu Shanti Stava''," stating that reciting it would alleviate the plague. Following the recitation, the plague subsided within a few days. However, in the third year, the Turks devastated the city.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prabhachandrasuri |first=Acharya |title=Prabhavaka Charitra (in Gujarati) |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/036467/77}}</ref>

According to Acharya Dhaneswarasuri's "''Shatrunjaya Mahatmya''," Javad Shah, a merchant from Mahuva, renovated [[Palitana temples]] in [[Vikram Samvat|Vikrama Samvat]] 108. He retrieved an image of [[Rishabhanatha]] from Takshashila and established it as the principal deity at the principal shrine amongst Shatrunjaya temples.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dhaneswarasuri |first=Acharya |title=Shatrunjaya Mahatmya |url=https://jainqq.org/explore/022723/345}}</ref>

Excavations in Takshashila support these traditions. Dr. Sir John Marshall noted that Indo-Greek kings displaced the city from its fortified position and settled it in [[Sirkap]] during the early years of the second century BCE. The city remained inhabited through the [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Saka|Shaka]], [[Pahlavas|Pahlava]], and [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] periods. Numerous small and large temples have been discovered along the main road of Sirkap. Dr. Marshall concluded that the temples in blocks 'F' and 'G' of Sirkap are Jaina temples due to their architectural similarities with [[Kankali Tila]], a Jaina stupa, found in [[Mathura]].{{sfn|Marshall|2013|p=10}} In block 'G,' located on the right side of the main road, numerous ruins of large buildings have been found, characterized by the presence of small temples alongside these structures, which were accessible to devotees. This evidence strongly supports claims by the Jaina tradition that Takshashila was a significant center for [[Jainism]].{{sfn|Marshall|2013|p=10}}

==History==

===Early settlement===
The region around Taxila was settled by the [[Neolithic]] era, with some ruins at Taxila dating to 1000 BCE.<ref name="tourism.punjab.gov.pk">{{Cite web |title=Taxila – Once a Great Centre Of Buddhist Civilization {{!}} Tourism Department Punjab |url=https://tourism.punjab.gov.pk/taxila#:~:text=Taxila%20was%20an%20important%20Buddhist,Taxila%20in%20mid-19th%20century. |access-date=4 November 2022 |website=tourism.punjab.gov.pk |archive-date=4 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104091820/https://tourism.punjab.gov.pk/taxila#:~:text=Taxila%20was%20an%20important%20Buddhist,Taxila%20in%20mid-19th%20century. |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfn|Allchin|Allchin|1988|p=127}} Ruins dating from the Early Harappan period around 1300 BCE<ref name="tourism.punjab.gov.pk"/> have also been discovered in the Taxila area,{{sfn|Allchin|Allchin|1988|p=127}} though the area was eventually abandoned after the collapse of the Indus Valley civilisation.

The earliest settled occupation in Taxila Valley was found at [[Sarai Khola]], located 2&nbsp;km to the south-west of [[Taxila Museum]], where three radiocarbon dates from Period I suggest the site was first occupied between the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BCE, with deposits of polished stone celts, chert blades and a distinctive type of highly burnished pottery that shows clear signs of the use of woven baskets in the manufacturing process and the application of a slurry to the exterior surface.<ref name="Petrie">Petrie, Cameron, (2013). [https://www.academia.edu/6784964/Petrie_C.A._2013_._Taxila "Taxila"], in D. K. Chakrabarti and M. Lal (eds.), ''History of Ancient India III: The Texts, and Political History and Administration till c. 200 BC'', Vivekananda International Foundation, Aryan Books International, Delhi, p. 654.</ref>

Periods IA and II at Sarai Khola seem to show continuity from Period I, with the appearance of red burnished wares. However, [[Kot Diji]]-style wares were found in greater numbers, and the Kot Diji-style forms show signs of having been wheel-thrown, marking a clear technological change from the Period I material. Seven radiocarbon dates were also taken from the earlier and later Period II/Kot Diji, and seem to show this phase dates from the mid-late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE.<ref name="Petrie" />

===Gandhāra kingdom===
{{main|Gandhāra (kingdom)}}

Gandhara was an ancient [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] [[Monarchy|kingdom]] of western [[South Asia]] whose existence was attested during the [[Iron Age in India|Iron Age]]. The capital of the kingdom was in Taxila. The first major settlement at Taxila, in [[Hathial]] mound, was established around 1000 BCE.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allchin|Allchin|1988|p=314}}: "The first city of Taxila at Hathial goes back at least to c. 1000 B.C."</ref><ref name="whc.unesco.org">{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/139|title=Taxila|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=whc.unesco.org}}</ref>{{sfn|Scharfe|2002a|p=141}} By 900 BCE, the city was already involved in regional commerce, as the discovered pottery shards reveal trading ties between the city and [[Puṣkalāvatī]].<ref>Mohan Pant, Shūji Funo, [https://books.google.com/books?id=W-K5_Z8qsJEC&pg=PA222 ''Stupa and Swastika: Historical Urban Planning Principles in Nepal's Kathmandu Valley.''] NUS Press, 2007 {{ISBN|9971693720}}, citing Allchin: 1980</ref>

Later, Taxila was inhabited at [[Bhir Mound]], dated to some time around the period 800-525 BCE with these early layers bearing grooved red burnished ware.<ref>Petrie, Cameron, (2013). [https://www.academia.edu/6784964/Petrie_C.A._2013_._Taxila "Taxila"], in D. K. Chakrabarti and M. Lal (eds.), ''History of Ancient India III: The Texts, and Political History and Administration till c. 200 BC'', Vivekananda International Foundation, Aryan Books International, Delhi, p. 656.</ref>

[[File:Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|Eastern border of the [[Achaemenid Empire]]]]

===Achaemenid Empire===
{{See also|Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley}}
Archaeological excavations show that the city may have grown significantly during the rule of the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] in the 6th century BCE. In 516 BCE, [[Darius I]] embarked on a campaign to conquer [[Central Asia]], ''[[Ariana]]'' and ''[[Bactria]]'', before marching onto what is now [[Afghanistan]] and northern Pakistan. Emperor Darius spent the winter of 516-515 BCE in the Gandhara region surrounding Taxila, and prepared to conquer the [[Indus River|Indus Valley]], which he did in 515 BCE,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.livius.org/da-dd/darius/darius_i_8.html|title=Darius the Great - 8. Travels - Livius|website=www.livius.org|access-date=26 March 2020|archive-date=23 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923045459/http://www.livius.org/da-dd/darius/darius_i_8.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=These are highly contentious claims and need better sources than a website. See [[WP:HISTRS]]|date=July 2025}} after which he appointed [[Scylax of Caryanda]] to explore the [[Indian Ocean]] from the mouth of the Indus to the [[Suez]]. Darius then returned to [[Persia]] via the [[Bolan Pass]]. The region continued under Achaemenid suzerainty under the reign of Xerxes I, and continued under Achaemenid rule for over a century.{{sfn|Marshall|1951|p=83}}{{Better source needed|reason=This source is too old, essentially [[WP:PRIMARY]].|date=July 2025}}

Taxila was sometimes ruled as part of the Gandhara kingdom (whose capital was Pushkalavati), particularly after the Achaemenid period, but Taxila sometimes formed its own independent district or city-state.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA36 | title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys| isbn=9780875868592| last1=Samad| first1=Rafi U| year=2011| publisher=Algora}}</ref>{{sfn|Marshall|1951|pp=16–17, 30, 71}}

===Hellenistic===
{{See also|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great}}
[[File:AlexanderIndiaMap.jpg|thumb|A map of Alexander's campaign in [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|ancient India]].]]
During his invasion of the [[Indus Valley]], [[Alexander the Great]] was able to gain control of Taxila ({{langx|grc|Τάξιλα}})<ref>[https://topostext.org/work/241#T602.8 Stephanus of Byzantium, Ethnica, § T602.8]</ref> in 326 BCE without a battle, as the city was surrendered by its ruler, king [[Āmbhi|Omphis]] (Āmbhi).{{sfn|Marshall|1951|p=83}} Greek historians accompanying Alexander described Taxila as "wealthy, prosperous, and well governed".{{sfn|Marshall|1951|p=83}} [[Arrian]] writes that Alexander was welcomed by the citizens of the city, and he offered sacrifices and celebrated a gymnastic and equestrian contest there.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0074.tlg001.perseus-grc1:5.8 Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander, § 5.8]</ref>

On Alexander's death, in 323 BCE, the province and much of the once Achaemenid territories would pass to his general [[Seleucus I Nicator]] and founder of the successor [[Seleucid Empire]].

===Mauryan Empire===
By 303 BCE, the [[Seleucid Empire]]'s [[satrap]]s in South Asia had been formally annexed by the expanding Mauryan empire, following the [[Seleucid–Mauryan war]],{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=31}} with the provincial capital and center of higher education at Taxila under the control of [[Chandragupta Maurya]]. His advisor, [[Chanakya|Kautilya/Chanakya]], was said to have taught at Taxila's university.{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=22, 54}} Under the reign of [[Ashoka|Ashoka the Great]], Chandragupta's grandson, the city was made a great seat of Buddhist learning, though the city was home to a minor rebellion during this time.{{sfn|Thapar|1997|p=52}}

Taxila was founded in a strategic location along the ancient [[Grand Trunk Road|"Royal Highway"]] that connected the Mauryan capital at [[Pataliputra]] in [[Bihar]], with ancient Peshawar, Puṣkalāvatī, and onwards towards Central Asia via [[Kashmir]], Bactria, and [[Kapisa (city)|Kāpiśa]].{{sfn|Thapar|1997|p=237}} Taxila thus changed hands many times over the centuries, with many empires vying for its control.

===Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, and Indo-Parthian Kingdoms===
In the 2nd century BCE, Taxila was annexed by the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] of [[Bactrian Greek|Bactria]]. Indo-Greeks built a new capital, Sirkap, on the opposite bank of the river from Taxila.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=75}} During this new period of Bactrian Greek rule, several dynasties (like [[Antialcidas]]) likely ruled from the city as their capital. During lulls in Greek rule, the city managed profitably on its own, to independently control several local trade guilds, who also minted most of the city's autonomous coinage. In about the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE, an [[Indo-Scythian]] king named [[Azilises]] had three mints, one of which was at Taxila, and struck coins with obverse legends in Greek and [[Kharoṣṭhī]].

The last Greek king of Taxila was overthrown by the Indo-Scythian chief [[Maues]] around 90 BCE.{{sfn|Marshall|1951|p=84}} [[Gondophares]], founder of the [[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]], conquered Taxila around 20 BCE, and made Taxila his capital.{{sfn|Marshall|1951|p=85}} According to early Christian legend, [[Thomas the Apostle]] visited Gondophares IV around 46 CE,{{sfn|Medlycott|1905|loc=Chapter: The Apostle  and Gondophares the Indian King}} possibly at Taxila given that city was Gondophares' capital city.

===Kushan Empire===
Around the year 50 CE, the Greek [[Neopythagorean]] philosopher [[Apollonius of Tyana]] allegedly visited Taxila, which was described by his biographer, [[Life of Apollonius of Tyana|Philostratus]], writing some 200 years later, as a fortified city laid out on a symmetrical plan, similar in size to [[Nineveh]]''.'' Modern archaeology confirms this description.{{sfn|Marshall|2013|pp=28–30, 69, 88–89}} Inscriptions dating to 76 CE demonstrate that the city had come under [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] rule by that time, after the city was captured from the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] by [[Kujula Kadphises]], founder of the [[Kushan Empire]].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=80}} The great Kushan ruler [[Kanishka]] later founded [[Sirsukh]], the most recent of the ancient settlements at Taxila.

===Gupta Empire===
In the mid-fourth century CE, the Gupta Empire occupied the territories in Eastern Gandhara, establishing a Kumaratya's post at Taxila. The city became well known for its trade links, including silk, sandalwood, horses, cotton, silverware, pearls, and spices. It is during this time that the city heavily features in classical Indian literature – both as a centre of culture as well as a militarised border city.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/30145861|title=Treasures of the Gupta Empire - A Catalogue of Coins of the Gupta Dynasty|last=Kumar |first=Sanjeev |year=2017}}</ref><ref>Ancient India by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar</ref>

Taxila's university remained in existence during the travels of Chinese pilgrim Faxian, who visited Taxila around 400 CE.{{sfn|Needham|2005|p=135}} He wrote that Taxila's name translated as "the Severed Head", and was the site of a story in the life of Buddha "where he gave his head to a man".<ref>''A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, Being an Account by the Chinese Monk Fa-Hsien of his Travels in India and Ceylon in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline'', Chapter 11</ref>

===Decline===
The [[Kidarites]], vassals of the [[Hephthalite Empire]] are known to have invaded Taxila in c. 450 CE. Though repelled by the Gupta Emperor [[Skandagupta]], the city would not recover- probably on account of the strong Hunnic presence in the area, breakdown of trade as well as the [[Kidarites#Conflicts with the Gupta Empire|three-way war among Persia, the Kidarite State, and the Huns in Western Gandhara]].

The [[Hephthalite Empire|White Huns]] and [[Alchon Huns]] swept over [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]] and [[Punjab]] around 470 CE, causing widespread devastation and destruction of Taxila's famous Buddhist monasteries and [[stupa]]s, a blow from which the city would never recover. From 500 CE to 540 CE, the city languished{{Sfn|Marshall|1951|p=86}} after falling under the control of the Hunnic Empire ruled by [[Mihirakula]]. Mihirakula presided over some destruction of Buddhist sites, monasteries and Hindu temples across northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=rongxi97>Li Rongxi (1996), ''The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions'', Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai and Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, Berkeley, pp. 97–100</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=Political Violence in Ancient India |date=2017 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-97527-9 |page=241 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Xuanzang]] visited India between 629 and 645 CE. Taxila which was desolate and half-ruined was visited by him in 630 CE, and found most of its [[sangharama]]s still ruined and desolate. Only a few monks remained there. He adds that the kingdom had become a dependency of Kashmir with the local leaders fighting amongst themselves for power. He noted that it had some time previously been a subject of [[Ancient Kapisa|Kapisa]]. By the ninth century, it became a dependency of the Kabul Shahis. The [[Turk Shahis|Turki Shahi]] dynasty of Kabul was replaced by the [[Hindu Shahis|Hindu Shahi]] dynasty which was overthrown by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] with the defeat of [[Trilochanpala]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JEMbH2aDO0UC&pg=PA39|title=A Guide to Taxila|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=39, 46|isbn=9781107615441|date=20 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title= Persepolis to the Punjab: Exploring Ancient Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan|author1=Elizabeth Errington |author2=Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis|publisher=British Museum Press|page=134}}</ref>

Al-Usaifan's king during the reign of [[Al-Mu'tasim]] is said to have converted to Islam by [[Al-Biladhuri]] and abandoned his old faith due to the death of his son despite having priests of a temple pray for his recovery. Said to be located between Kashmir, Multan and Kabul, al-Usaifan is identified with kingdom of Taxila by some authors.<ref>The Panjab Past and Present - Volume 11 - Page 18</ref><ref>Pakistan Journal of History and Culture - Volumes 4-5 - Page 11</ref>

==Centre of learning==
[[File:SirkapCity.JPG|thumb|A view over the ruins of Sirkap.]]
{{main|Ancient higher-learning institutions}}
By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be one of the earliest (or the earliest) universities in the world.{{sfn|Needham|2005|p=135}}{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=157}}{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|pp=478–479}} The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the religious instruction was provided on an individualistic basis.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Scharfe |first1=Hartmut |last2=Bronkhorst |first2=Johannes |last3=Spuler |first3=Bertold |last4=Altenmüller |first4=Hartwig |title=Handbuch Der Orientalistik: India. Education in ancient India |year=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-12556-8 |page=141 |publisher=BRILL }}</ref> Others do not consider it a university in the modern sense, in that the teachers living there may not have had official membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters in Taxila,<ref name=Altekar>{{harvnb|Altekar|1965|p=109}}:<br />{{blockquote|"It may be observed at the outset that Taxila did not possess any colleges or university in the modern sense of the term."}}</ref><ref name="Thomas (1944)">F. W. Thomas (1944), in {{harvp|Marshall|1951|p=81}}:<br />{{blockquote|"We come across several [[Jātaka]] stories about the students and teachers of Takshaśilā, but not a single episode even remotely suggests that the different 'world renowned' teachers living in that city belonged to a particular college or university of the modern type."}}</ref> in contrast to the later [[Nalanda]] university in eastern India.<ref name=Encarta>"Nalanda" (2007). ''Encarta''.</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">"Nalanda" (2001). ''[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]''.</ref><ref name="EB"/>

Taxila became a noted centre of learning (including the religious teachings of [[Historical Vedic Religion]] and [[Buddhism]]) at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students from around the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th century. It has been suggested that at its height, Taxila exerted a sort of "intellectual [[suzerainty]]" over other centres of learning in India and its primary concern was not with elementary, but higher education.{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|pp=478–479}} Generally, a student entered Taxila at the age of sixteen. The ancient and the most revered scriptures, and the Eighteen ''Silpas'' or Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of [[military science]].{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|pp=478–489}} Students came to Taxila from far-off places such as [[Varanasi|Kashi]], [[Kosala]] and Magadha, in spite of the long and arduous journey they had to undergo, on account of the excellence of the learned teachers there, all recognised as authorities on their respective subjects.<ref>{{harvnb|Prakash|1964|p={{page needed|date=June 2017}}}}:<br />{{blockquote|"Students from Magadha traversed the vast distances of northern India in order to join the schools and colleges of Taxila. We learn from Pali texts that Brahmana youths, Khattiya princes and sons of [[setthi]]s from Rajagriha, Kashi, Kosala and other places went to Taxila for learning the Vedas and eighteen sciences and arts."}}</ref>{{sfn|Apte|p=9}} The admission to Takshashila 
was not only limited to the students belonging to the elite 
class, some evidence mentions the sons of kings, nobles, 
merchants, tailors, and even fishermen getting education at 
Takshashila.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://jsshuok.com/oj/index.php/jssh/article/view/233#:~:text=Takshsashila%20University%20was%20the%20oldest%20center%20for,made%20it%20an%20eminent%20trade%20center%20also. | title=University of Takshashila: An Ancient Seat of Learning | journal=Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities | date=30 June 2012 | volume=51 | issue=1 | pages=97–107 | last1=Shahid | first1=Kiran Kiran }}</ref>

===Notable students and teachers===
Taxila had great influence on Hindu culture and the Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known for its association with Chanakya, also known as [[Kautilya]], the strategist who guided Chandragupta Maurya and assisted in the founding of the [[Mauryan]] empire. The [[Ayurvedic]] healer [[Charaka]] also studied at Taxila.{{sfn|Mookerji|1989|pp=478–489}} He also started teaching at Taxila in the later period.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Note on Ancient History |publisher=Takshila Institute |url=http://www.taksha.org/about/history |access-date=1 April 2012}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=June 2017}} Pāṇini, the grammarian who codified the rules that would define [[Classical Sanskrit]], has also been part of the community at Taxila.<ref>{{harvnb|Prakash|1964|p={{page needed|date=June 2017}}}}:<br />{{blockquote|"Pāṇini and Kautilya, two masterminds of ancient times, were also brought up in the academic traditions of Taxila"}}</ref>

[[Jīvaka]], the court physician of the Magadha emperor [[Bimbisara]] who once cured the Buddha, and the Buddhism-supporting ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some important personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied at Taxila.<ref>{{harvnb|Prakash|1964|p={{page needed|date=June 2017}}}}:<br />{{blockquote|"Likewise, Jivaka, the famous physician of Bimbisara who cured the Buddha, learnt the science of medicine under a far-famed teacher at Taxila and on his return was appointed court-physician at Magadha. Another illustrious product of Taxila was the enlightened ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, who is intimately associated with the events of the time of the Buddha."}}</ref>

No external authorities like kings or local leaders subjected the scholastic activities at Taxila to their control. Each teacher formed his own institution, enjoying complete autonomy in work, teaching as many students as he liked and teaching subjects he liked without conforming to any centralised syllabus. Study terminated when the teacher was satisfied with the student's level of achievement. In general, specialisation in a subject took around eight years, though this could be lengthened or shortened in accordance with the intellectual abilities and dedication of the student in question. In most cases the "schools" were located within the teachers' private houses, and at times students were advised to quit their studies if they were unable to fit into the social, intellectual and moral atmosphere there.{{sfn|Apte|pp=9–10}}

Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for money, and hence any stipulation that fees ought to be paid was vigorously condemned{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}. Financial support came from the society at large, as well as from rich merchants and wealthy parents{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}. Though the number of students studying under a single Guru sometimes numbered in the hundreds, teachers did not deny education even if the student was poor; free boarding and lodging was provided, and students had to do manual work in the household{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}. Paying students, such as princes, were taught during the day, while non-paying ones were taught at night.{{sfn|Apte|pp=16–17}} [[Dakshina#Gurudakshina|Gurudakshina]] was usually expected at the completion of a student's studies, but it was essentially a mere token of respect and gratitude - many times being nothing more than a turban, a pair of sandals, or an umbrella. In cases of poor students being unable to afford even that, they could approach the king, who would then step in and provide something. Not providing a poor student a means to supply his Guru's Dakshina was considered the greatest slur on a King's reputation.{{sfn|Apte|pp=18–19}}

Examinations were treated as superfluous, and not considered part of the requirements to complete one's studies{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}. The process of teaching was critical and thorough- unless one unit was mastered completely, the student was not allowed to proceed to the next{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}. No convocations were held upon completion, and no written "degrees" were awarded, since it was believed that knowledge was its own reward. Using knowledge for earning a living or for any selfish end was considered sacrilegious.{{sfn|Apte|pp=9–10}}

Students arriving at Taxila usually had completed their primary education at home (until the age of eight), and their secondary education in the Ashrams (between the ages of eight and twelve), and therefore came to Taxila chiefly to reach the ends of knowledge in specific disciplines.{{sfn|Apte|p=11}}

==Ruins==
[[File:Dharmarajika stupa,Taxila.jpg|thumb|The Dharmarajika Stupa]]
The sites of a number of important cities noted in ancient Indian texts were identified by scholars early in the 19th century. The lost city of Taxila, however, was not identified until later, in 1863-64. Its identification was made difficult partly due to errors in the distances recorded by [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] in his [[Naturalis Historia]] which pointed to a location somewhere on the [[Haro River|Haro river]], two days march from the Indus. [[Alexander Cunningham]], the founder and the first director-general of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], noticed that this position did not agree with the descriptions provided in the itineraries of Chinese pilgrims and in particular, that of Xuanzang, the 7th-century Buddhist monk. Unlike Pliny, these sources noted that the journey to Taxila from the Indus took three days and not two. Cunningham's subsequent explorations in 1863–64 of a site at Shah-dheri convinced him that his hypothesis was correct.{{sfn|Singh, Upinder|2008|p=265}}
{{blockquote|Now as Hwen Thsang, on his return to China, was accompanied by laden elephants, his three days' journey from {{sic|''Takhshasila''}} to the Indus at ''Utakhanda'', or Ohind, must necessarily have been of the same length as those of modern days, and, consequently, the site of the city must be looked for somewhere in the neighbourhood of ''Kâla-ka-sarâi''. This site is found near ''Shah-dheri'', just one mile to the north-east of ''Kâla-ka-sarâi'', in the extensive ruins of a fortified city, around which I was able to trace no less than 55 stupas, of which two are as large as the great [[Manikyala]] tope, twenty eight monasteries, and nine temples.|author=Alexander Cunningham|source={{sfn|Cunningham|1871|p=105}}}}

Taxila's archaeological sites lie near [[Taxila (modern)|modern Taxila]] about {{convert|35|km|abbr=on}} northwest of the city of Rawalpindi.<ref name="EB"/> The sites were first excavated by [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]], who worked at Taxila over a period of twenty years from 1913.<ref>{{cite ODNB|last1=Wheeler|first1=Mortimer|author-link1=Mortimer Wheeler|title=Marshall, Sir John Hubert (1876–1958) |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/34896|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/34896 |access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Jaulian Buddhist Monastery in Taxila.jpg|thumb|Panorama of the [[Jaulian]] monastery]]
The vast archaeological site includes neolithic remains dating to 3360 BCE, and Early Harappan remains dating to 2900–2600 BCE at ''Sarai Kala''.{{sfn|Allchin|Allchin|1988|p=127}} Taxila, however, is most famous for ruins of several settlements, the earliest dating from around 1000 BCE. It is also known for its collection of Buddhist religious monuments, including the [[Dharmarajika|Dharmarajika stupa]], the [[Jaulian]] monastery, and the [[Mohra Muradu]] monastery.

The main ruins of Taxila include four major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period, at three different sites. The earliest settlement at Taxila is found in the Hathial section, which yielded pottery shards that date from as early as the late 2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. The Bhir Mound ruins at the site date from the 6th century BCE, and are adjacent to Hathial. The ruins of Sirkap date to the 2nd century BCE, and were built by the region's [[Greco-Bactrian]] kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great's invasion of the region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that of [[Sirsukh]], which was built by rulers of the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] empire, who ruled from nearby Purushapura (modern Peshawar).

=== World Heritage Site ===
Taxila was designated a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 1980 in particular for the ruins of the four settlement sites which "reveal the pattern of urban evolution on the Indian subcontinent through more than five centuries". The serial site includes a number of monuments and other historical places of note in the area besides the four settlements at Bhir, Saraikala, Sirkap, and Sirsukh.<ref name=unesco>{{cite web |title=Taxila |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/139|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=1 June 2017}}</ref> They number 18 in all:<ref name="unescomap">{{cite web|title=Taxila Map |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/139/multiple=1&unique_number=153|website=whc.unesco.org|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=29 June 2017}}</ref>

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
# Khanpur Cave
# [[Saraikala]], prehistoric mound
# [[Bhir Mound]]
# [[Sirkap]] (fortified city)
# [[Sirsukh]] (fortified ruined city)
# [[Dharmarajika Stupa|Dharmarajika stupa]] and monastery
# Khader Mohra (Akhuri)
# [[Kalawan]] group of buildings
# Giri complex of monuments
# [[Kunala stupa]] and monastery
# [[Jandial]] complex
# [[Lalchak]] and [[Badalpur, Pakistan|Badalpur]] Buddhist stuppa
# [[Mohra Muradu|Mohra Moradu stupa]] and monastery
# [[Pippala stupa]] and monastery
# [[Jaulian|Jaulian stupa]] and monastery
# Lalchak mounds
# Buddhist remains around [[Bhallar stupa]] 
# Giri Mosque and tombs
}}

In a 2010 report, [[Global Heritage Fund]] identified Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites most "on the Verge" of irreparable loss and damage, citing insufficient management, development pressure, looting, and war and conflict as primary threats.<ref name=GHF/> In 2017, it was announced that [[Thailand]] would assist in conservation efforts at Taxila, as well as at Buddhist sites in the [[Swat Valley]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Thailand to provide assistance for restoration of Ghandhara Archelogical [sic] sites |url=http://nation.com.pk/national/16-Jan-2017/thailand-to-provide-assistance-for-restoration-of-ghandhara-archelogical-sites|access-date=1 June 2017|agency=The Nation|date=16 January 2017}}</ref>

== Demographics ==

=== Population ===
{{Historical populations|1951|...|1961|...|1972|...|1981|38374|1998|71,882|2017|121,952|2023|136,900|align=center|percentages=pagr|footnote=Sources:<ref>{{cite web |title=Population by administrative units 1951-1998 |url=https://repository.lahoreschool.edu.pk/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/13673/Administrative%20Units.pdf?isAllowed=y&sequence=1 |publisher = [[Pakistan Bureau of Statistics]]}}</ref>}}
According to [[2023 Pakistani census|2023 census]], Taxila had a population of 136,900.

== Geography ==
Taxila is located {{convert|32|km|abbr=on}} north-west of the Pakistani capital Islamabad. The city is located approximately {{convert|549|m}} above [[sea level]].

===Climate===
Taxila features a [[humid subtropical climate]] ([[Köppen-Geiger climate classification system|Köppen]]: Cwa)<ref name="Climate-Data.org">{{cite web|title=Climate: Taxila – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table|url=http://en.climate-data.org/location/1009/|publisher=Climate-Data.org|access-date=14 June 2017}}</ref>

{{Weather box
| metric first = yes
| single line  = yes
| location     = Taxila
| Jan high C = 17
| Feb high C = 19.5
| Mar high C = 24.2
| Apr high C = 29.9
| May high C = 35.4
| Jun high C = 39.5
| Jul high C = 35.8
| Aug high C = 33.7
| Sep high C = 33.6
| Oct high C = 30.9
| Nov high C = 25
| Dec high C = 19.3
| Jan mean C = 9.8
| Feb mean C = 12.5
| Mar mean C = 17.3
| Apr mean C = 22.6
| May mean C = 27.6
| Jun mean C = 32
| Jul mean C = 30.3
| Aug mean C = 28.6
| Sep mean C = 27.6
| Oct mean C = 22.7
| Nov mean C = 16.2
| Dec mean C = 11.3
| Jan low C = 2.7
| Feb low C = 5.5
| Mar low C = 10.4
| Apr low C = 15.3
| May low C = 19.9
| Jun low C = 24.5
| Jul low C = 24.8
| Aug low C = 23.6
| Sep low C = 21.6
| Oct low C = 14.5
| Nov low C = 7.5
| Dec low C = 3.3
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation mm = 58
| Feb precipitation mm = 56
| Mar precipitation mm = 68
| Apr precipitation mm = 44
| May precipitation mm = 38
| Jun precipitation mm = 37
| Jul precipitation mm = 237
| Aug precipitation mm = 236
| Sep precipitation mm = 92
| Oct precipitation mm = 23
| Nov precipitation mm = 16
| Dec precipitation mm = 36
| source 1 = ''Climate-Data.org'', altitude: 497m<ref name="Climate-Data.org"/>
}}

==Economy==
===Tourism===
[[File:Double-Headed Eagle Stupa at Sirkap 06.jpg|thumb|Taxila's ruins, a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], date from as early as 1000 BCE, and are a major tourist draw.]]
Taxila is one of northern Pakistan's most important tourist destinations and is home to the [[Taxila Museum]] which holds a large number of artifacts from Taxila's excavations. Though the number of foreign visitors to the site drastically declined following the start of an Islamist insurgency in Pakistan in 2007, visitor numbers began to noticeably improve by 2017,<ref>{{cite news|title=Tourism industry picking up as law and order situation improved|url=http://aaj.tv/2017/01/tourism-industry-picking-up-as-law-and-order-situation-improved/|access-date=1 June 2017|agency=Aaj TV|date=24 January 2017}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> after the law and order situation in the region had greatly improved following the start of the 2014 ''[[Zarb-e-Azb]]'' campaign launched by the [[Pakistani Army]] against radical Islamist militants.

In 2017, the Pakistani government announced its intention to develop Taxila into a site for Buddhist religious pilgrimage.<ref>{{cite news|title=PTDC to organize Buddhists' conference to promote tourism|url=https://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2017/03/11/ptdc-to-organize-buddhists-conference-to-promote-tourism/|access-date=1 June 2017|agency=Pakistan Today|date=11 March 2017}}</ref> As part of the efforts, it announced that an exhibition on the Buddhist heritage of the region would be held in [[Thailand]], and that the Thai government would assist in conservation efforts at the site.<ref>{{cite news|title=Pakistan to organise Buddhism heritage exhibition in Thailand|url=https://www.geo.tv/latest/134148-Pakistan-to-organise-Buddhism-heritage-exhibition-in-Thailand|access-date=1 June 2017|agency=Geo News|date=13 March 2017}}</ref> Relics from Taxila were also sent to [[Sri Lanka]] for the 2017 ''[[Vesak]]'' holiday as part of an effort to showcase the region's Buddhist heritage.<ref>{{cite news|title=As China Pushes for a 'Buddhist' Globalisation, India Isn't Making the Most of Its Legacy|url=https://thewire.in/133670/india-china-buddhist/|access-date=1 June 2017|agency=The Wire|date=11 May 2017}}</ref> The [[PTDC|Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation]] also announced in 2017 that a tour bus service would be launched between the Taxila Museum and Islamabad.<ref>{{cite news|title=Double decker tourist buses to be run in twin cities: PTDC|url=http://dailytimes.com.pk/pakistan/02-Jan-17/double-decker-tourist-buses-to-be-run-in-twin-cities-ptdc|access-date=1 June 2017|agency=Daily Times|date=2 January 2017}}</ref>

In addition to the ruins of ancient Taxila, relics of [[Mughal garden]]s and vestiges of historical [[Grand Trunk Road]] are also found in Taxila. [[Nicholson's Obelisk]], named in honor of Brigadier [[John Nicholson (East India Company officer)|John Nicholson]] who died during the [[Sepoy Mutiny]] of 1857, is a monument from the British era that welcomes travelers arriving from Rawalpindi/Islamabad.

===Industry===
Taxila is home to [[Heavy Industries Taxila]], a major Pakistani [[Military|defence]], [[military contractor]], [[Engineering consultant|engineering]] conglomerate. The city's economy is also closely linked to the large [[Pakistan Ordnance Factories]] at nearby [[Wah Cantt]], which employs 27,000 people.  Cottage and household industries include [[stoneware]], pottery and footwear. [[Heavy Mechanical Complex]] is  also located in Taxila city.

==Transportation==
===Rail===
Taxila is served by the [[Taxila Cantonment Junction railway station]]. Taxila Junction is served by the [[Karachi–Peshawar Railway Line]], and is the southern terminus of the [[Khunjerab Railway]], which connects Taxila to the [[Havelian railway station]]. A planned extension of the railway will eventually connect Taxila to China's [[Southern Xinjiang Railway]] in [[Kashgar]], as part of the [[China–Pakistan Economic Corridor]].

===Road===
[[File:Motorway taxila.jpg|thumb|The [[M1 motorway (Pakistan)|M-1 Motorway]], pictured near Taxila, links the city to [[Islamabad]] and [[Peshawar]].]]
The ancient [[Grand Trunk Road]] is designated as [[N-5 National Highway]], and connects the city to the Afghan border, and northern [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]. The [[Karakoram Highway]]'s southern terminus is in nearby [[Hasan Abdal]], and connects Taxila to the Chinese border near the [[Hunza Valley]].

The city is linked to Peshawar and Islamabad by the [[M1 motorway (Pakistan)|M-1 Motorway]], which in turn offers wider motorway access to [[Lahore]] via the [[M2 motorway (Pakistan)|M-2 Motorway]], and [[Faisalabad]] via the [[M4 motorway (Pakistan)|M-4 Motorway]].

=== Air===
The nearest airport to Taxila is [[Islamabad International Airport]] located 36.5 kilometers away. Peshawar's [[Bacha Khan International Airport]] is 155 kilometers away.

==Education==
[[File:UET Taxila Gate000.jpg|thumb|[[University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila]] is a local branch of the [[University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore]].]]
Taxila is home to many secondary educational institutes including [[Comsats|CIIT Wah Campus]], and [[HITEC University]]. The [[University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila]] was established in 1975 as a campus of the [[University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore]], 
and offers bachelor, master, and doctoral degrees in engineering.

==Ancient ruins==
The [[Ruins of Taxila]] include four major cities, each belonging to a distinct time period, at three different sites. The earliest settlement at Taxila is found in the '''Hathial''' section, which yielded pottery shards that date from as early as the late 2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. The [[Bhir Mound]] ruins at the site date from the 6th century BCE, and are adjacent to ''Hathial''. The ruins of [[Sirkap]] date to the 2nd century BCE, and were built by the region's [[Greco-Bactrian]] kings who ruled in the region following Alexander the Great's invasion of the region in 326 BCE. The third and most recent settlement is that of [[Sirsukh]], which was built by rulers of the Kushan empire, who ruled from nearby ''Purushapura'' (modern Peshawar).

==Culture==
Modern Taxila is a mix of relatively wealthy urban, and poorer rural environs. Urban residential areas are general in the form of planned housing colonies populated by workers of the heavy mechanical complex & heavy industries, educational institutes and hospitals that are located in the area.

===Museums===

[[Taxila Museum]] has one of the most significant and comprehensive collections of stone Buddhist sculpture from the first to the seventh centuries in Pakistan (known as [[Greco-Buddhist art|Gandharan art]]. The core of the collection comes from excavated sites in the Taxila Valley, particularly the excavations of Sir John Marshall. Other objects come from excavated sites elsewhere in Gandhara, from donations such as the Ram Das Collection, or from material confiscated by law enforcement and customs authorities.

<gallery mode="packed">
Image:TaxilaCoinBM.JPG|A coin from 2nd century BCE Taxila.
Image:Coin of Antialcidas.jpg|The [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Antialcidas]] ruled in Taxila around 100 BCE, according to the [[Heliodorus pillar]] inscription.
Image:Taxila Pakistan juillet 2004.jpg|Jaulian, a [[World Heritage Site]] at Taxila.
Image:JaulianTaxilaSilverReliquaryAndContent.jpg|Jaulian silver Buddhist reliquary, with contents. [[British Museum]].
Image:Double-Headed Eagle Stupa at Sirkap 08.jpg|Stupa base at Sirkap, decorated with Hindu, Buddhist and Greek temple fronts.
Image:Stupa in Taxila Pakistan.JPG|Stupa in Taxila.
Image:TaxilaCoin200-100BCE.JPG|A Taxila coin, 200–100 BCE. [[British Museum]].
</gallery>

[[Image:IndoGreekArtifactsDrawings.JPG|thumb|Archaeological artifacts from the [[Indo-Greek]] strata at Taxila ([[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] "Taxila, Archeological excavations"). From top, left:
* Fluted cup (Bhir Mound, stratum 1)
* Cup with rosacea and decorative scroll ([[Bhir Mound]], stratum 1)
* [[Stone palette]] with an individual on a couch being crowned by a standing woman, and served ([[Sirkap]], stratum 5)
* Handle with a double depiction of a [[philosopher]] (Sirkap, stratum 5)
* Woman with [[smile]] (Sirkap, stratum 5)
* Man with [[moustache]] (Sirkap, stratum 5)]]

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed">
File:CrystalGoose.JPG|Reliquary in the form of a crystal goose dating to the 1st Century AD in the British Museum.
File:SirkapJainTemple.JPG|Jain Temple at [[Sirkap]]
</gallery>

==See also==
{{Portal|Pakistan}}
* [[Taxila (satrapy)]]
* [[Harappa]]
*[[Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Hund]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==References==
{{Notelist}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Allchin|first1=F. Raymond|author-link1=Raymond Allchin|title=The Urban Position of Taxila and Its Place in Northwest India-Pakistan|journal=Studies in the History of Art|date=1993|volume=31 |pages=69–81 |jstor=42620473}}
* {{cite book|last1=Allchin|first1=Bridget|last2=Allchin|first2=Raymond|author-link1=Bridget Allchin|author-link2=Raymond Allchin|title=The rise of civilization in India and Pakistan|date=1988|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge [u.a.]|isbn=978-0521285506|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Altekar|first1=Anant Sadashiv|author-link1=Anant Sadashiv Altekar|title=Education in Ancient India|date=1965|publisher=Nand Kishore|edition=6th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWqdDAEACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Appleton|first1=Naomi|title=Jataka Stories in Theravada Buddhism: Narrating the Bodhisatta Path|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317111252|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2EUfDAAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Apte|first1=DG|title=Universities in ancient India|date=c. 1950<!--Based on his other publications; Catalogues just use 19--. -->|publisher=Faculty of Education and Psychology, Maharaja Sayajirao University |location=Baroda|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924005633130|ref={{harvid|Apte}}}}{{unreliable source?|date=June 2017}}
* {{cite book|last1=Cunningham|first1=Alexander|author-link1=Alexander Cunningham|date=1871|title=The Ancient Geography of India: The Buddhist Period, Including the Campaigns of Alexander, and the Travels of Hwen-Thsang |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, NY|isbn=9781108056458 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kT5JvRZCixQC}}
* {{cite book|last1=Davis|first1=Richard H.|title=The "Bhagavad Gita": A Biography|date=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9781400851973 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vQ3rAwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kosambi |first=Damodar Dharmanand |title=An Introduction to the Study of Indian History |publisher=[[Popular Prakashan]] |year=1975 |edition=Revised Second |location=Bombay |page=126 |author-link=Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi |orig-year=first published 1956 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Kulke|first1=Hermann|last2=Rothermund|first2=Dietmar|author-link1=Hermann Kulke|author-link2=Dietmar Rothermund|title=A History of India|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=978-0-415-32919-4 |edition=4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C}}
* {{cite book|last1=Lahiri|first1=Nayanjot|title=Ashoka in Ancient India|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674915251|date=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaVRCgAAQBAJ|access-date=16 May 2017}}
* {{cite book|last1=Malalasekera|first1=G. P.|author-link1=Gunapala Piyasena Malalasekera|title=Dictionary of Pali Proper Names|publication-date=2003|year=1937|publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=9788120618237 |url=http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/t/telapatta_jat_96.htm}}
* {{cite book|last1=Marshall|first1=John|author-link1=John Marshall (archaeologist)|title=Taxila: Structural remains – Volume 1|date=1951|publisher=University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6w6voAEACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Marshall|first1=John|author-link1=John Marshall (archaeologist)|title=A guide to Taxila |date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-year=1960 | isbn=9781107615441|edition=Fourth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JEMbH2aDO0UC}}
* {{cite book|last=Medlycott|first=A.E.|author-link1=Adolph Medlycott |title=India and the Apostle Thomas |url=https://archive.org/details/indiaandapostle00medlgoog |location=London |publisher=David Nutt |year=1905}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mookerji|first1=Radha Kumud|author-link1=Radha Kumud Mookerji|title=Chandragupta Maurya and his times|date=1988|orig-year=1966|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0405-0 |edition=4th}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mookerji|first1=Radha Kumud|author-link1=Radha Kumud Mookerji|title=Ancient Indian education: Brahmanical and Buddhist|date=1989|orig-year=1951|edition=2nd|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-208-0423-4}}
* {{cite book|last1=Needham|first1=Joseph|author-link1=Joseph Needham|title=Within the four seas : the dialogue of East and West|date=2005|orig-year=1969|publisher=Routledge|location=London and New York |isbn=978-0-415-36166-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbX5AQAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Prakash|first1=Buddha|title=Political And Social Movements in Ancient Punjab|date=1964 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=9788120824584|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6QSPwAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1=Scharfe|first1=Hartmut|title=Education in ancient India|date=2002a |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden [u.a.]| isbn=9789004125568| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I05tAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Scharfe |first=Hartmut |url= |title=Handbook of Oriental Studies |date=2002b |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-12556-8 |language=en}}
* {{cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Upinder|author-link1=Upinder Singh|title=A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century|date=2008|publisher=Pearson Education|location=New Delhi |isbn=9788131711200|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC|ref={{sfnref|Singh, Upinder|2008}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Thapar|first1=Romila|author-link1=Romila Thapar|title=Aśoka and the decline of the Mauryas|date=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Delhi|isbn=978-0-19-563932-2 |edition=Rev. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aR3aSAAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Trautmann |first=Thomas R. |author-link=Thomas Trautmann |year=1971 |title=Kauṭilya and the Arthaśāstra: a statistical investigation of the authorship and evolution of the text |publisher=Brill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3iDAAAAMAAJ}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Taxila}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110817054052/http://ghn.globalheritagefund.org/?id=1118 Explore Taxila with Google Earth] on [[Global Heritage Network]]
* [http://www.heritage.gov.pk/html_Pages/guide_to_historic_taxila.htm ''Guide to Historic Taxila'' by Ahmad Hasan Dani in 10 chapters]
* [https://www.livius.org/ta-td/taxila/taxila.htm "Taxila", by Jona Lendering] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121223171457/https://www.livius.org/ta-td/taxila/taxila.htm |date=23 December 2012 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051231191035/http://kaladarshan.arts.ohio-state.edu/maps/gandh.html Map of Gandhara archaeological sites, from the Huntington Collection, Ohio State University (large file)]
* [https://www.srikanta-sastri.org/taxila-an-ancient-indian-university Taxila: An Ancient Indian University] by [[S. Srikanta Sastri]]
* [https://archive.org/details/cu31924024121125 John Marshall, ''A guide to Taxila'' (1918)] on [[Archive.org]]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/j1/j1099.htm ''Telapatta Jataka''] also known as the ''Takkasila Jataka''

{{Archaeological sites in Taxila |state=expanded}}
{{PakistanCities}}
{{Ancient Dharmic centres of Higher Learning}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Pakistan}}
{{Pakistan topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Taxila Tehsil]]
[[Category:Places in Hindu mythology]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Punjab, Pakistan]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Hinduism in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Buddhism in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Gandhara]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Buddhist sites in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Indo-Parthian kingdom]]
[[Category:Populated places in Taxila Tehsil]]
[[Category:Cities in Rawalpindi District]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 1st millennium BC]]

[[Category:Ancient cities]]