View source for Teenage pregnancy

{{Short description|Pregnancy in under-20 year olds}}
{{Infobox medical condition
| synonyms      = Teen pregnancy, adolescent pregnancy
| image         = Preventing Teen Pregnancy in the US-CDC Vital Signs-April 2011.pdf
| alt           =
| caption       = A US government poster on teen pregnancy. Over 1,100 teenagers, mostly aged 18 or 19,<ref name="Historic">{{cite journal |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db89.htm |title=Birth Rates for U.S. Teen Reach Historic Lows for All Age and Ethnic Groups |author1=Hamilton, Brady E. |author2=Ventura, Stephanie J. |journal=NCHS Data Brief |date=10 April 2012 |issue=89 |pages=1–8 |publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] |pmid=22617115 |access-date=18 April 2012}}</ref> give birth every day in the United States.
| pronounce     =
| field         = [[Obstetrics]]
| symptoms      = [[Pregnancy]] under the age of 20<ref name=WHO2004/>
| complications = {{hlist | [[Eclampsia]] | [[postpartum infection]] | [[preterm birth]]}}<ref name=WHO2018/>
| onset         =
| duration      =
| types         =
| causes        =
| risks         =
| diagnosis     =
| differential  =
| prevention    = {{hlist | [[Comprehensive sex education]] | [[birth control]]<ref name=Ori2016/> | [[Abstinence]] }}
| treatment     =
| medication    =
| prognosis     =
| frequency     = 23 million per year in the developed world, 2018<ref name=WHO2018/>
| deaths        = Leading cause of death in 15 to 39 year old females, 2018<ref name=WHO2018/>
}}

<!-- Definition -->
'''Teenage pregnancy''', also known as '''adolescent pregnancy''', is [[pregnancy]] in a female under the age of 20.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pietras |first1=Joanna |last2=Jarząbek-Bielecka |first2=Grażyna |last3=Mizgier |first3=Małgorzata |last4=Markowska |first4=Anna |title=Adolescent pregnancy – medical, legal and social issues |journal=[[The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine]] |date=2024 |volume=37 |issue=1 |article-number=2391490 |doi=10.1080/14767058.2024.2391490 |doi-access=free|pmid=39183188 }}</ref>

Worldwide, pregnancy complications are the leading cause of death for women and girls 15 to 19 years old.<ref name="WHO2018">{{cite web |title=Adolescent pregnancy |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy |website=World Health Organization |access-date=2 November 2018 |date=23 February 2018}}</ref> The definition of teenage pregnancy includes those who are [[age of majority|legally considered adults]] in their country.<ref name="WHO2004">{{cite book|title=Adolescent Pregnancy|date=2004|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=978-92-4-159145-4|page=5|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/42903/1/9241591455_eng.pdf|access-date=28 July 2017}}</ref> The [[World Health Organization]] defines ''adolescence'' as the period between the ages of 10 and 19 years.<ref name="WHO1">{{cite web |title=Adolescent health |url=https://www.who.int/health-topics/adolescent-health#tab=tab_1 |access-date=7 November 2022 |website=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Pregnancy can occur with [[sexual intercourse]] after the start of [[ovulation]], which can happen before the [[Menarche|first menstrual period]] (''menarche'').<ref>{{cite web |last=Hirsch |first=Larissa |date=September 2016 |title=Can a Girl Get Pregnant if She Has Never Had Her Period? |url=http://kidshealth.org/teen/expert/periods/pre_period.html |website=[[KidsHealth]]}}</ref> In healthy, well-nourished girls, the first period usually takes place between the ages of 12 and 13.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=8734600 | date=2022 | last1=Marques | first1=P. | last2=Madeira | first2=T. | last3=Gama | first3=A. | title=Menstrual cycle among adolescents: Girls' awareness and influence of age at menarche and overweight | journal=Revista Paulista de Pediatria | volume=40 | article-number=e2020494 | doi=10.1590/1984-0462/2022/40/2020494 | pmid=35019010 }}</ref>

<!-- Health effects -->
Pregnant teenagers face many of the same pregnancy-related issues as older women.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Nolen |first1=Stephanie |title=What Pregnancy and Childbirth Do to the Bodies of Young Girls |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/18/health/young-girls-pregnancy-childbirth.html |website=[[The New York Times]] |date=July 18, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeha |first1=D. |last2=Usta |first2=I. |last3=Ghulmiyyah |first3=L. |last4=Nassar |first4=A. |title=A review of the risks and consequences of adolescent pregnancy |journal=Journal of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine |date=2015 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.3233/NPM-15814038|pmid=25766198 }}</ref> Teenagers are more likely to experience pregnancy complications or [[maternal death]] than women aged 20 or older. There are additional concerns for those under the age of 15 as they are less likely to be physically developed to sustain a healthy pregnancy or to give birth.<ref name=savethechildren>{{cite journal | author = Mayor S |title = Pregnancy and childbirth are leading causes of death in teenage girls in developing countries | journal = BMJ | volume = 328 | issue = 7449 | page = 1152 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15142897 | pmc = 411126 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.328.7449.1152-a }}</ref> For girls aged 15–19, risks are associated more with [[socioeconomic]] factors than with the biological effects of age.<ref name=makinson>{{cite journal | author = Makinson C | title = The health consequences of teenage fertility | journal = Family Planning Perspectives | volume = 17| issue = 3 | pages = 132–139 | year = 1985 | pmid = 2431924 | doi = 10.2307/2135024 | jstor = 2135024 }}</ref> Risks of [[low birth weight]], [[premature labor]], [[anemia]], and [[pre-eclampsia]] are not connected to [[biological age]] by the time a girl is aged 16, as they are not observed in births to older teens after controlling for other risk factors, such as access to high-quality [[prenatal care]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Loto OM, Ezechi OC, Kalu BK, Loto A, Ezechi L, Ogunniyi SO | title = Poor obstetric performance of teenagers: Is it age- or quality of care-related? | journal = Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology | volume = 24 | issue = 4 | pages = 395–398 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15203579 | doi = 10.1080/01443610410001685529 | s2cid = 43808921 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raatikainen |first1=Kaisa |last2=Heiskanen |first2=Nonna |last3=Verkasalo |first3=Pia K. |last4=Heinonen |first4=Seppo |date=1 April 2006 |title=Good outcome of teenage pregnancies in high-quality maternity care |url=http://academic.oup.com/eurpub/article/16/2/157/505752/Good-outcome-of-teenage-pregnancies-in-highquality |journal=European Journal of Public Health |language=en |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=157–161 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/cki158 |pmid=16141302 |issn=1464-360X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

<!-- Risk factors and prevention -->
Teenage pregnancies are related to [[social issues]], including lower [[educational]] levels and [[poverty]].<ref name=WHO2018/> Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of [[marriage]] and is often associated with a [[social stigma]].<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/newsbeat-26326035|title=Young mothers face stigma and abuse, say charities|work=BBC News|date=25 February 2014}}</ref> Teenage pregnancy in developing countries often occurs within marriage and approximately half are planned.<ref name=WHO2018/> However, in these societies, early pregnancy may combine with [[malnutrition]] and poor health care to cause medical problems. When used in combination, [[Comprehensive sex education|educational interventions]] and access to [[birth control]] can reduce unintended teenage pregnancies.<ref name=Ori2016>{{cite journal|last1=Oringanje|first1=Chioma|last2=Meremikwu|first2=Martin M|last3=Eko|first3=Hokehe|last4=Esu|first4=Ekpereonne|last5=Meremikwu|first5=Anne|last6=Ehiri|first6=John E|title=Interventions for preventing unintended pregnancies among adolescents|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2016|article-number=CD005215|date=3 February 2016|issue=2|doi=10.1002/14651858.cd005215.pub3|pmid=26839116|pmc=8730506|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002607/260770e.pdf|title=International technical guidance on sexuality education: An evidence-informed approach|publisher=UNESCO|year=2018|isbn=978-92-3-100259-5|location=Paris|page=18}}</ref>

<!-- Epidemiology -->
In 2023, globally, about 41 females per 1,000 gave birth between the ages of 15 and 19, compared with roughly 65 births per 1,000 in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adolescent pregnancy |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy |access-date=13 September 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> From 2015 to 2021, an estimated 14 percent of adolescent girls and young women globally reported giving birth before age 18.<ref name="UNICEF2022">{{cite web|url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/adolescent-health/ |title=Early childbearing can have severe consequences for adolescent girls|publisher=[[UNICEF]]|date=December 2022}}</ref> The adolescent birth rate is higher in lower- and middle-income countries (LMIC), compared to higher- income countries. In the developing world, approximately 2.5 million females aged 15 to 19 years old have children each year.<ref name=WHO2018/> Another 3.9 million have [[abortion]]s.<ref name=WHO2018/> It is more common in rural than urban areas.<ref name=WHO2018/>

In 2021, 13.3 million babies, or about 10 percent of the total worldwide, were born to mothers under 20 years old.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf|title=World Population Prospects 2022. Summary of Results|location=New York|author=[[United Nations]]. Department of Economic and Social Affairs}}</ref>

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==Definition==
The [[World Health Organization]] defines [[adolescence]] as the period between the ages of 10 and 19 years.<ref name="WHO1"/>

The mother's age is determined by the easily verified date when the pregnancy ''ends'', not by the estimated date of conception.<ref name="Kost">{{cite web|vauthors=Kost K, Henshaw S, Carlin L | title = U.S. Teenage Pregnancies, Births and Abortions: National and State Trends and Trends by Race and Ethnicity| year = 2010| url = http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/USTPtrends.pdf| quote = Pregnancies are the sum of births, abortions and miscarriages. Please note that in these tables, "age" refers to the woman's age when the pregnancy ended. Consequently, actual numbers of pregnancies that occurred among teenagers are higher than those reported here, because most of the women who conceived at age 19 had their births or abortions after they turned 20 and, thus, were not counted as teenagers.}}</ref> Consequently, the statistics do not include pregnancies that began at age 19, but that ended on or after the woman's 20th birthday.<ref name="Kost" /> Similarly, statistics on the mother's marital status are determined by whether she is married at the end of the pregnancy, not at the time of conception.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mosher |first1=William D. |last2=Jones |first2=Jo |last3=Abma |first3=Joyce C. |date=24 July 2012 |title=Intended and unintended births in the United States: 1982–2010 |journal=National Health Statistics Reports |issue=55 |pages=1–28 |issn=2164-8344 |pmid=23115878}}</ref>

==History==
Teenage pregnancy, with conceptions normally involving girls between ages 16 and 19, was far more normal in previous centuries, and common in developed countries in the 20th century. Among Norwegian women born in the early 1950s, nearly a quarter became teenage mothers by the early 1970s. The rates have steadily declined throughout the developed world since that 20th-century peak. Among those born in Norway in the late 1970s, less than 10% became teenage mothers, and rates have fallen since then.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lappegård |first1=Trude |title=New fertility trends in Norway |journal=Demographic Research |date=15 March 2000 |volume=2 |article-number=3 |doi=10.4054/DemRes.2000.2.3 |jstor=26348001 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jun/23/broadband-falling-teenage-pregnancy-rates-research-internet|title=Is broadband responsible for falling teenage pregnancy rates?|author=Alex Hern|work=The Guardian|date=23 June 2015}}</ref>

In the United States, the [[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act]] of 1996 included the objective of reducing the number of young Black and Latina single mothers on welfare, which became the foundation for teenage pregnancy prevention in the United States and the founding of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, now known as Power to Decide.<ref name="BusinessInsider">{{Cite web|url=https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/New/other/sotu.html|title=President William Jefferson Clinton State of the Union Address |website=clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov}}</ref>

==Effects==
According to the [[United Nations Population Fund]] (UNFPA), "Pregnancies among girls less than 18 years of age have irreparable consequences. It violates the rights of girls, with life-threatening consequences in terms of sexual and reproductive health, and poses high development costs for communities, particularly in perpetuating the cycle of poverty."<ref name="Adolescent Pregnancy">{{cite web |url=http://www.unfpa.org/publications/adolescent-pregnancy |title=Adolescent Pregnancy |year=2013 |publisher= UNFPA}}</ref> Health consequences include not yet being physically ready for pregnancy and childbirth leading to complications and malnutrition as the majority of adolescents tend to come from lower-income households. The risk of maternal death for girls under age 15 in low and middle income countries is higher than for women in their twenties.<ref name="Adolescent Pregnancy"/> Teenage pregnancy also affects girls' education and income potential as many are forced to drop out of school which ultimately threatens future opportunities and economic prospects.<ref name="unfpa.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/adolescent-pregnancy|title=Adolescent pregnancy – UNFPA – United Nations Population Fund|work=United Nations Population Fund }}</ref>

Studies have examined the [[socioeconomics|socioeconomic]], [[medicine|medical]], and [[psychology|psychological]] impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Corcoran |first1=Jacqueline |title=Teenage Pregnancy and Mental Health |journal=[[Societies (journal)|Societies]] |date=2016 |volume=6 |issue=3 |page=21 |doi=10.3390/soc6030021 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary. Other factors, such as [[poverty]] or [[social support]], may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can rely on family and community support, social services and child-care support are more likely to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Adolescent pregnancy|url=https://www.unfpa.org/adolescent-pregnancy|access-date=19 February 2022|website=United Nations Population Fund|language=en}}</ref><ref>Stepp, G. (2009) [http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/family-relationships/teen-pregnancy/15432.aspx Teen Pregnancy: The Tangled Web]. vision.org</ref>

A holistic approach is required in order to address teenage pregnancy. This means not focusing on changing the behaviour of girls but addressing the underlying reasons of adolescent pregnancy such as poverty, gender inequality, social pressures and coercion. This approach should include "providing age-appropriate comprehensive sexuality education for all young people, investing in girls' education, preventing [[Child marriage in the United States|child marriage]], sexual violence and coercion, building gender-equitable societies by empowering girls and engaging men and boys and ensuring adolescents' access to sexual and reproductive health information as well as services that welcome them and facilitate their choices".<ref name="unfpa.org" />

In the United States one third of high school students reported being sexually active. In 2011–2013, 79% of females reported using birth control. Teenage pregnancy puts young women at risk for health issues, economic, social and financial issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2015/p0407-teen-pregnancy.html|title=Few teens use the most effective types of birth control{{!}} CDC Online Newsroom {{!}} CDC|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=26 July 2017|date=7 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.guttmacher.org/fact-sheet/american-teens-sexual-and-reproductive-health|title=American Teens' Sexual and Reproductive Health|date=1 June 2016|work=Guttmacher Institute|access-date=26 July 2017|language=en}}</ref>

===Teenager===
Being a young mother in a first world country can affect one's [[education]]. Teen mothers are more likely to [[Dropping out|drop out]] of [[high school]].<ref name=natcamp>The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2002). {{cite web|url=http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/data/pdf/notjust.pdf |title=Not Just Another Single Issue: Teen Pregnancy Prevention's Link to Other Critical Social Issues |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011106/http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/data/pdf/notjust.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}&nbsp;{{small|(147&nbsp;KB)}}. Retrieved 27 May 2006.</ref> A 2001 study found that women who gave birth during their teens completed [[secondary education|secondary-level schooling]] 10–12% as often and pursued [[post-secondary education]] 14–29% as often as women who waited until age 30.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofferth SL, Reid L, Mott FL | title = The effects of early childbearing on schooling over time | journal = Family Planning Perspectives | volume = 33 | issue = 6 | pages = 259–267 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11804435 | doi = 10.2307/3030193 | jstor = 3030193 }}</ref> 

According to the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, nearly 1 in 4 teen mothers will experience another pregnancy within two years of having their first.<ref name="Statistics on Teen Pregnancy">"Statistics on Teen Pregnancy". National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy</ref> Pregnancy and giving birth significantly increases the chance that these mothers will become high school dropouts and as many as half have to go on welfare. Many teen parents do not have the intellectual or emotional maturity that is needed to provide for another life.<ref name="Day 2009" /> Often, these pregnancies are hidden for months, resulting in a lack of adequate prenatal care and dangerous outcomes for the babies.<ref name="Day 2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cornelius MD, Goldschmidt L, Willford JA, Leech SL, Larkby C, Day NL | title = Body Size and Intelligence in 6-year-olds: Are Offspring of Teenage Mothers at Risk? | journal = Maternal and Child Health Journal | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 847–856 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18683038 | pmc = 2759844 | doi = 10.1007/s10995-008-0399-0 }}</ref> Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have closely spaced repeat births, include marriage and education. The likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kalmuss DS, Namerow PB | title = Subsequent childbearing among teenage mothers: the determinants of a closely spaced second birth | journal = Fam Plann Perspect | volume = 26 | issue = 4 | pages = 149–53, 159 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7957815 | doi = 10.2307/2136238 | jstor = 2136238 }}</ref>

===Child===
Early motherhood can affect the [[developmental psychology|psychosocial development]] of the infant. The children of teen mothers are more likely to be born prematurely with a low birth weight, predisposing them to many other lifelong conditions.<ref name="Gibbs-2012">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Gibbs | first1 = CM. | last2 = Wendt | first2 = A. | last3 = Peters | first3 = S. | last4 = Hogue | first4 = CJ. | title = The impact of early age at first childbirth on maternal and infant health | journal = Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol | volume = 26 Suppl 1 | pages = 259–84 |date=Jul 2012 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3016.2012.01290.x | pmid = 22742615 | pmc = 4562289 }}</ref> Children of teen mothers are at higher risk of intellectual, language, and socio-emotional delays.<ref name="Day 2009"/> [[developmental disability|Developmental disabilities]] and [[behavior]]al issues are increased in children born to teen mothers.<ref name=aap>{{cite journal | title = American Academy of Pediatrics: Care of adolescent parents and their children | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 107 | issue = 2 | pages = 429–34 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11158485 | doi = 10.1542/peds.107.2.429 | last1 = American Academy Of Pediatrics. Committee On Adolescence Committee On Early Childhood Adoption | first1 = Dependent Care | s2cid = 71188516 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hofferth SL, Reid L | title = Early Childbearing and Children's Achievement And Behavior over Time | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 34 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–49 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11990638 | doi = 10.2307/3030231 | jstor = 3030231 | s2cid = 13558045 }}</ref> One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to [[stimulation|stimulate]] their infant through [[affection|affectionate behaviors]] such as [[Haptic communication|touch]], [[smile|smiling]], and [[linguistics|verbal communication]], or to be [[Sensitivity (human)|sensitive]] and [[acceptance|accepting]] toward their needs.<ref name=aap/> Another found that those who had more [[social support]] were less likely to show [[anger]] toward their children or to rely upon [[punishment]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Crockenberg S | title = Predictors and correlates of anger toward and punitive control of toddlers by adolescent mothers | journal = Child Dev | volume = 58 | issue = 4 | pages = 964–75 | year = 1987 | pmid = 3608666 | doi = 10.2307/1130537 | jstor = 1130537 }}
</ref>

Poor [[Grading in education|academic performance]] in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of the children being held back a grade level, scoring lower on standardized tests, and/or failing to graduate from secondary school.<ref name=natcamp/> Daughters born to adolescent [[parent]]s are more likely to become teen mothers themselves.<ref name=natcamp/><ref name="Furstenberg"/> Sons born to teenage mothers are three times more likely to [[sentence (law)|serve time]] in [[prison]].<ref>Maynard, Rebecca A. (Ed.). (1996).''[http://www.urban.org/pubs/khk/index.htm Kids Having Kids] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051126231940/http://www.urban.org/pubs/khk/index.htm |date=26 November 2005 }}.'' Retrieved 27 May 2006.</ref>

===Medical===
===Prenatal care===
Maternal and [[prenatal]] health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of [[premature birth]] and [[birth weight|low birth weight]] is higher among adolescent mothers.<ref name=makinson/><ref name=natcamp/><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Belsky DH | title = Prenatal care and maternal health during adolescent pregnancy: A review and meta-analysis | journal = The Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | pages = 444–456 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7811676 | doi = 10.1016/1054-139X(94)90491-K }}</ref> In a rural hospital in West Bengal, teenage mothers between 15 and 19 years old were more likely to have anemia, preterm delivery, and a baby with a lower birth weight than mothers between 20 and 24 years old.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Banerjee B, Pandey G, Dutt D, Sengupta B, Mondal M, Deb S | title = Teenage pregnancy: A socially inflicted health hazard | journal = Indian Journal of Community Medicine | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 227–231 | year = 2009 | pmid = 20049301 | pmc = 2800903 | doi = 10.4103/0970-0218.55289 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive [[prenatal care]], often seeking it in the [[third trimester]], if at all.<ref name=makinson/> The [[Guttmacher Institute]] reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to have health issues in childhood or be [[Inpatient care|hospitalized]] than those born to older women.<ref>Guttmacher Institute. (September 1999).[http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/fb_teen_sex.html Teen Sex and Pregnancy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403024149/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/fb_teen_sex.html |date=3 April 2005 }}. Retrieved 29 May 2006.</ref>

In the United States, teenage [[Latinas]] who become pregnant face barriers to receiving healthcare because they are the least insured group in the country.<ref name="Sterling 2009 19–28">{{Cite journal|last=Sterling|first=Sandra P.|date=2009|title=Contraceptive Use Among Adolescent Latinas Living in the United States: The Impact of Culture and Acculturation|journal=Journal of Pediatric Health Care|volume=23|issue=1|pages=19–28|doi=10.1016/j.pedhc.2008.02.004|pmid=19103403}}</ref>

Young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those who do not. Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers appear to result from lack of access to adequate medical care.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Raatikainen K, Heiskanen N, Verkasalo PK, Heinonen S | title = Good outcome of teenage pregnancies in high-quality maternity care | journal = The European Journal of Public Health | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 157–161 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16141302 | doi = 10.1093/eurpub/cki158 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Many pregnant teens are at risk of [[illnesses related to poor nutrition|nutritional deficiencies]] from poor [[diet (nutrition)|eating habit]]s common in adolescence, including attempts to [[weight loss|lose weight]] through [[dieting]], [[fasting|skipping meal]]s, [[food faddism]], [[Snack food|snacking]], and consumption of [[fast food]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gutierrez Y, King JC | title = Nutrition during teenage pregnancy | journal = Pediatric Annals | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 99–108 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8493060 | doi=10.3928/0090-4481-19930201-07}}</ref>

Inadequate [[nutrition and pregnancy|nutrition during pregnancy]] is an even more marked problem among teenagers in [[developing country|developing countries]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sanchez PA, Idrisa A, Bobzom DN, Airede A, Hollis BW, Liston DE, Jones DD, Dasgupta A, Glew RH | title = Calcium and vitamin D status of pregnant teenagers in Maiduguri, Nigeria | journal = Journal of the National Medical Association | volume = 89 | issue = 12 | pages = 805–811 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9433060 | pmc = 2608295 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Peña E, Sánchez A, Solano L | title = Profile of nutritional risk in pregnant adolescents | journal = Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutricion | volume = 53 | issue = 2 | pages = 141–149 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14528603 }}</ref> [[Complications of pregnancy]] result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting [[HIV]].<ref name=savethechildren/> The [[World Health Organization]] estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as high for girls aged 15–19 than for women aged 20–24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged 10–14 than for women aged 20–24. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as [[sub-Saharan Africa]].<ref name=subsahara/>

Risks for medical complications are greater for girls aged under 15, as an underdeveloped [[human pelvis|pelvis]] can lead to difficulties in [[childbirth]]. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by [[caesarean section]] in [[developed country|industrialized nations]]. In developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to [[eclampsia]], [[obstetric fistula]], [[infant mortality]], or [[maternal death]].<ref name=savethechildren/><ref name="unfpa.org"/> For mothers who are older than fifteen, age is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology.<ref name=makinson/>

===Antenatal care===
In 2022, UNICEF noted that: ECONOMICS ABOUT TEENAGE PREGNANCY 15-19 YEARS OLD ADOLESCENT GIRL,YOUT

{{blockquote|84 percent of pregnant adolescents aged 15–19 attended at least one antenatal care visit as compared to 88 percent of all women and girls aged 15–49. Fewer adolescent girls received skilled delivery care as compared to all women and girls (77 to 84 percent). Additionally, fewer adolescent girls received postnatal care for themselves as compared to all women and girls (66 percent vs 69 percent).<ref name="UNICEF dec22"/>}}

The agency noted regional disparities, noting that in West and Central Africa, "48 percent of newborns to adolescent mothers had a postnatal contact as compared to 52 percent of newborns to all mothers".<ref name="UNICEF dec22">{{cite web |title=Early childbearing |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/adolescent-health/ |website=UNICEF Data |publisher=[[UNICEF]]}}</ref>

`Economics`

The lifetime [[opportunity cost]] caused by teenage pregnancy in different countries varies, from 1% to 30% of the annual GDP, with 30% being the figure in [[Uganda]].<ref name="UNFPA">{{Cite news| title = Population and poverty| author = United Nations Population Fund| newspaper = United Nations Population Fund| date = 2014| access-date = 22 March 2019| url = https://www.unfpa.org/resources/population-and-poverty}}</ref> In the United States, teenage pregnancy costs taxpayers between $9.4 and $28 billion in 2016, due to factors such as foster care and lost tax revenue.<ref name="HHS">{{Cite web| title = Negative Impacts of Teen Childbearing| author = United States Department of Health and Human Services| date = 2016| access-date = 22 March 2019| url = https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/reproductive-health-and-teen-pregnancy/teen-pregnancy-and-childbearing/teen-childbearing/index.html| archive-date = 21 March 2019| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190321175033/https://www.hhs.gov/ash/oah/adolescent-development/reproductive-health-and-teen-pregnancy/teen-pregnancy-and-childbearing/teen-childbearing/index.html}}</ref> A 2014 study estimated that an increase in economic productivity from ending teenage pregnancy in Brazil and India would be worth $3.5 billion and $7.7 billion respectively.<ref name="UNFPA"/>

Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance.<ref>O'Halloran, Peggy (April 1998) [https://web.archive.org/web/20070720035204/http://www.moappp.org/Documents/pregnancypovertyschoolandemployment.pdf Pregnancy, Poverty, School and Employment]. moappp.org. Retrieved 3 December 2011.</ref> The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women.<ref name=natcamp/> One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were [[poverty|impoverished]] at the time of giving birth.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Coley RL, Chase-Lansdale PL | title = Adolescent pregnancy and parenthood. Recent evidence and future directions | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 53 | issue = 2 | pages = 152–166 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9491745 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.152 }}</ref> A 2002 study found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought [[welfare (financial aid)|social assistance]] within the first five years of their child's life.<ref name=natcamp/>

A 1999 study of 100 teenaged mothers in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] found that only 11% received a [[salary]], while the remaining 89% were [[unemployment|unemployed]].<ref>Social Exclusion Unit. (1999). [https://web.archive.org/web/20061012205401/http://www.socialexclusion.gov.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=69 Teenage Pregnancy]. Retrieved 29 May 2006.</ref> Most British teenage mothers live in [[poverty]], with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.<ref name=dfes>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081008194146/http://www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/teenagepregnancy/?FileName=teenpreg.pdf Teenage pregnancy]. everychildmatters.gov.uk</ref>

==Risk factors==

===Culture===
Rates of teenage pregnancies are higher in societies where it is traditional for girls to marry young and where they are encouraged to bear children as soon as they are able. For example, in some sub-Saharan African countries, early pregnancy is often seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's [[fertility]].<ref name=subsahara/> Countries where [[teenage marriage]]s are common experience higher levels of teenage pregnancies. In the [[Indian subcontinent]], early marriage and pregnancy is more common in traditional rural communities than in cities.<ref name=escap/> Many teenagers are not taught about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before they are ready. Many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = MacLeod | first1 = C. | title = The 'Causes' of Teenage Pregnancy: Review of South African Research – Part 2 | journal = South African Journal of Psychology | volume = 29 | pages = 8–16 | year = 1999 | doi = 10.1177/008124639902900102 | s2cid = 144455158 }}</ref>

[[Economic incentive]]s also influence the decision to have children. In societies where children are set to work at an early age, it is economically attractive to have many children.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wi1PmIdkVA8C&q=having+children+to+avoid+poverty+in+old+age&pg=PA254|title=Cultural Selection|isbn=978-0-7923-5579-3|last1=Fog|first1=A.|year= 1999|publisher=Springer }}</ref>

In societies where adolescent marriage is less common, such as many developed countries, young age at first [[Sexual intercourse|intercourse]] and lack of use of [[contraceptive]] methods (or their inconsistent and/or incorrect use; the use of a method with a high failure rate is also a problem) may be factors in teen pregnancy.<ref name=oecd/><ref name=toosoon>[https://web.archive.org/web/19991207224652/http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/cyp/xsteesex.htm Beginning Too Soon: Adolescent Sexual Behavior, Pregnancy And Parenthood], US Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 25 January 2007.</ref> Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned.<ref name=toosoon/><ref name=psi>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170324184650/http://www.psi.org.uk/news/pressrelease.asp?news_item_id=37 Teenage Mothers: Decisions and Outcomes – Provides a unique review of how teenage mothers think]}} Policy Studies Institute, University of Westminster, 30 October 1998</ref> Many Western countries have instituted [[sex education]] programs, the main objective of which is to reduce unplanned pregnancies and [[Sexually transmitted infection|STIs]]. Countries with low levels of teenagers giving birth accept sexual relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality.<ref name=guttmacher2>Guttmacher Institute. (2005). [http://www.guttmacher.org/sections/sexandrelationships.php Sex and Relationships]. Retrieved 8 August 2006.{{clarify|date=May 2011|reason=This is a long list of reports: Which one did the information actually come from?}}</ref>

Teenage pregnancies are common among [[Romani people]] because they marry earlier.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Avci |first1=Ilknur Aydin |last2=Cavusoglu |first2=Figen |last3=Aydin |first3=Mesiya |last4=Altay |first4=Birsen |title=Attitude and practice of family planning methods among Roma women living in northern Turkey |journal=International Journal of Nursing Sciences |date=17 January 2018 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=33–38 |doi=10.1016/j.ijnss.2018.01.002 |pmid=31406798 |pmc=6626220 }}</ref>

===Other family members===
Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of [[education]] and [[employment]] and more likely to accept [[human sexual behavior]], [[parenting]], and [[marriage]] at younger ages. Younger brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of [[illegitimacy|non-marital]] and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to [[Recklessness (psychology)|high-risk behavior]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | author = East PL | title = Do adolescent pregnancy and childbearing affect younger siblings? | journal = Family Planning Perspectives| volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 148–153 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8853279 | doi = 10.2307/2136190 | jstor = 2136190 }}</ref> If the younger sisters of teenage parents babysit the children, they have an increased probability of getting pregnant themselves.<ref name="Jacobson"/> Once an older daughter has a child, parents often become more accepting as time goes by.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1207/s1532480xads0202_1| title = Impact of Adolescent Childbearing on Families and Younger Sibling: Effects that Increase Younger Siblings' Risk for Early Pregnancy| journal = Applied Developmental Science| volume = 2| issue = 2| pages = 62–74| year = 1998| last1 = East | first1 = P. L. }}</ref> A 2011 study in Norway found that the probability of a younger sister having a teenage pregnancy went from 1:5 to 2:5 if the elder sister had a baby as a teenager.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-14442709 | work=BBC News | title=Teenage pregnancy is 'contagious' | date=9 August 2011}}</ref>

===Sexuality===
{{See also|Adolescent sexuality}}
In most countries, most males experience sexual intercourse for the first time before their 20th birthday.<ref name=GImen>Guttmacher Institute (2003) [http://www.guttmacher.org/presentations/itor_slides_US.html ''In Their Own Right: Addressing the Sexual and Reproductive Health Needs of Men Worldwide.''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927100558/http://www.guttmacher.org/presentations/itor_slides_US.html |date=27 September 2013 }} pp. 19–21.</ref> Males in Western developed countries have sex for the first time sooner than in undeveloped and culturally conservative countries such as sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia.<ref name=GImen />

In a 2005 [[Kaiser Family Foundation]] study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn't really want to do".<ref name=kaiser>{{cite web|url=http://www.kff.org/youthhivstds/upload/U-S-Teen-Sexual-Activity-Fact-Sheet.pdf |title=U.S.Teen Sexual Activity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216015345/http://www.kff.org/youthhivstds/upload/U-S-Teen-Sexual-Activity-Fact-Sheet.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2008 }}&nbsp;{{small|(147&nbsp;KB)}} Kaiser Family Foundation, January 2005. Retrieved 23 January 2007</ref> Several polls have indicated [[peer pressure]] as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex.<ref name="pollingdata">The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1997). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070223214706/http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/data/polling97.asp What the Polling Data Tell Us: A Summary of Past Surveys on Teen Pregnancy]. teenpregnancy.org (April 1997).</ref><ref name=psychologytoday>Allen, Colin. (22 May 2003). "[https://archive.today/20130419001411/http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-20030522-000002.html Peer Pressure and Teen Sex]." ''Psychology Today.'' Retrieved 14 July 2006.</ref> The increased sexual activity among adolescents is manifested in increased teenage pregnancies and an increase in [[sexually transmitted diseases]].

===Role of drug and alcohol use===
Inhibition-reducing [[Drug abuse|drugs]] and [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] may possibly encourage unintended sexual activity.<ref>Theuri, Joseph and Nzioka, David (2021). Alcohol and drug abuse as ecological predictors of risk taking behaviour among secondary school students in Kajiado North Sub-County, Kajiado County, Kenya. African Journal of Empirical Research, 2 (1), 50–55. {{doi|10.51867/ajer.v2i1.9}}</ref> If so, it is unknown if the drugs themselves directly influence teenagers to engage in riskier behavior, or whether teenagers who engage in drug use are more likely to engage in sex. [[Correlation does not imply causation]]. The drugs with the strongest evidence linking them to teenage pregnancy are [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]], [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[MDMA|"ecstasy"]] and other [[substituted amphetamine]]s. The drugs with the least evidence to support a link to early pregnancy are [[opioids]], such as [[heroin]], [[morphine]], and [[oxycodone]], of which a well-known effect is the significant reduction of [[libido]] – it appears that teenage [[opioid dependence|opioid]] [[recreational drug use|users]] have significantly reduced rates of conception compared to their peers who do not use opioids, and peers who do use  [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]], [[MDMA|"ecstasy"]], cannabis, and [[amphetamine]].<ref name=oecd/><ref name="kaiser"/><ref name=Besharov/><ref>Sax, Leonard (2005) [http://www.whygendermatters.com/ ''Why Gender Matters'']. Doubleday books, p.&nbsp;128, {{ISBN|0786176814}}</ref>

===Early puberty===
{{main|Precocious puberty}}

Girls who mature early (precocious puberty) are more likely to engage in sexual intercourse at a younger age, which in turn puts them at greater risk of teenage pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=16322170 | doi=10.1542/peds.2005-0542 | volume=116 | issue=6 | title=Early puberty and adolescent pregnancy: the influence of alcohol use | year=2005 | journal=Pediatrics | pages=1451–6 | last1=Deardorff |first1=J |last2=Gonzales |first2=NA |last3=Christopher |first3=FS |last4=Roosa |first4=MW |last5=Millsap |first5=RE| citeseerx=10.1.1.558.9628 | s2cid=36296702 }}</ref>

===Lack of contraception===
{{main|Birth control}}

Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information.<ref name="pollingdata"/><ref name="britsexed">Slater, Jon. (2000). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070703000657/http://www.unesco.org/courier/2000_07/uk/apprend.htm Britain: Sex Education Under Fire]." ''The UNESCO Courier'' Retrieved 7 July 2006.</ref> Contraception for teenagers presents a huge challenge for the clinician. In 1998, the government of the UK set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41.7 per 1,000 women.<ref name="Teenage contraception">{{cite journal|author1=Adams, A. |author2=D'Souza, R.|year=2009|title= Teenage contraception|journal= General Practice Update|volume= 2|issue=6|pages= 36–39}}</ref>

Young women often think of contraception either as 'the pill' or condoms and have little knowledge about other methods. They are heavily influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of contraception from their friends and the media. [[Prejudice]]s are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for example [[weight gain]] and [[acne]], often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure.<ref name="Teenage contraception"/>

In the US, according to the 2002 [[National Survey of Family Growth]], sexually active adolescent women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than older women to use contraceptives (18% of 15–19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% for women aged 15–44).<ref name=trusell&Wynn>National Surveys of Family Growth{{cite journal | vauthors = Trussell J, Wynn LL | title = Reducing unintended pregnancy in the United States | journal = Contraception | volume = 77 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–5 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18082659 | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2007.09.001 | url = http://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/contraception-journal/january-2008 | access-date = 8 September 2008 | archive-date = 19 August 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180819115227/http://www.arhp.org/Publications-and-Resources/Contraception-Journal/January-2008 | url-access = subscription }}</ref> More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended.<ref name=speidel>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2008.06.001| title = The potential of long-acting reversible contraception to decrease unintended pregnancy| journal = Contraception| volume = 78| issue = 3| pages = 197–200| year = 2008| last1 = Speidel | first1 = J. J. | last2 = Harper | first2 = C. C. | last3 = Shields | first3 = W. C. | pmid=18692608}}
</ref> Over half of [[unintended pregnancy|unintended pregnancies]] were to women not using [[contraceptives]],<ref name=trusell&Wynn /> most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use.<ref name=speidel /> 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 ''[[Seventeen (American magazine)|Seventeen]]'' magazine poll admitted to having had [[Safe sex|unprotected sex]] with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 ''[[Parade (magazine)|PARADE]]'' poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor.<ref name="pollingdata"/>

In 1995, the [[National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health]] surveyed 1,027 students in the US in grades 7–12 to compare the use of contraceptives among Whites, Blacks, and [[Hispanic]]s. 36.2% of Hispanics said they never used contraception during intercourse, compared to 23.3% of Black teens and 17.0% of White teens who did not use contraceptives during intercourse.<ref name="Sterling 2009 19–28"/>

In a 2012 US study, over 1,000 females were surveyed to find out factors contributing to not using contraception. Of those surveyed, almost half had been involved in unprotected sex within the previous three months. These women gave three main reasons for not using contraceptives: trouble obtaining birth control (the most frequent reason), lack of intention to have sex, and the misconception that they "could not get pregnant".<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 22555219| year = 2012| last1 = Biggs| first1 = M. A.| title = Unprotected intercourse among women wanting to avoid pregnancy: Attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs| journal = Women's Health Issues| volume = 22| issue = 3| pages = e311–8| last2 = Karasek| first2 = D| last3 = Foster| first3 = D. G.| doi = 10.1016/j.whi.2012.03.003}}</ref>

In a 2011 study for the [[Guttmacher Institute]], researchers found that from a comparative perspective, however, teenage pregnancy rates in the US are less nuanced than one might initially assume. "Since timing and levels of sexual activity are quite similar across [Sweden, France, Canada, Great Britain, and the US], the high U.S. rates arise primarily because of less, and possibly less-effective, contraceptive use by sexually active teenagers."<ref name="DJE">{{cite web|last=Darroch|first=Jacqueline E.|title=Teenage Sexual and Reproductive Behavior in Developed Countries: Can More Progress Be Made?|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/eurosynth_rpt.pdf|publisher=The Alan Guttmacher Institute|access-date=14 February 2011|author2=Jennifer J. Frost |author3=Susheela Singh }}</ref> Thus, the cause for the discrepancy between rich nations can be traced largely to contraceptive-based issues.

Among teens in the UK seeking an abortion, a 2007 study found that the rate of contraceptive use was roughly the same for teens as for older women.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6279601.stm | work=BBC News | title=Teenage pregnancy myth dismissed | date=22 January 2007 | access-date=25 May 2010}}</ref>

In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use [[condom]]s incorrectly, forget to take [[combined oral contraceptive pill|oral contraceptives]], or fail to use the contraceptives they had previously chosen. [[Pearl index|Contraceptive failure rates]] are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users.<ref name=Besharov>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0190-7409(97)00022-4| pmid = 12295352| title = Trends in Teen Sexual Behavior| journal = Children and Youth Services Review| volume = 19| issue = 5–6| pages = 341–367| year = 1997| last1 = Besharov | first1 = D. J. | last2 = Gardiner | first2 = K. N. | citeseerx = 10.1.1.673.5213}}</ref> Long-acting contraceptives such as [[intrauterine device]]s, subcutaneous [[contraceptive implant]]s, and contraceptive injections (such as [[Depo-Provera]] and [[combined injectable contraceptive]]), which prevent pregnancy for months or years at a time, are more effective in women who have trouble remembering to take pills or using barrier methods consistently.

According to ''Encyclopedia of Women's Health'', published in 2004, there has been an increased effort to provide contraception to adolescents via family planning services and school-based health, such as HIV prevention education.<ref name="Teen Pregnancy"/>

A 2025 study, using Swedish data, found that the introduction of the birth control pill could explain half of the decline in teenage pregnancy following its introduction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ragan |first=Kelly Suzanne |date=2025 |title=The Power of The Pill: Evidence from Oral Contraceptive Sales* |url=https://academic.oup.com/ej/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/ej/ueaf017/8026880?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=The Economic Journal |volume=135 |issue=670 |pages=2054–2066 |doi=10.1093/ej/ueaf017 |issn=0013-0133|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Sexual abuse===
{{See also|Sexual abuse}}

Studies from South Africa have found that 11–20% of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape. About 60% of teenage mothers had unwanted sexual experiences preceding their pregnancy. Before age 15, a majority of first-intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary. The Guttmacher Institute found that 60% of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males, who on average were six years their senior.<ref>{{Cite journal | pmid = 19372525| pmc = 3515795| year = 2009| last1 = Speizer| first1 = I. S.| title = Sexual violence and reproductive health outcomes among South African female youths: A contextual analysis| journal = American Journal of Public Health| volume = 99| pages = S425–31| last2 = Pettifor| first2 = A| last3 = Cummings| first3 = S| last4 = MacPhail| first4 = C| last5 = Kleinschmidt| first5 = I| last6 = Rees| first6 = H. V.| issue = Suppl 2| doi = 10.2105/AJPH.2008.136606}}</ref> In 2003, one in five teenage fathers admitted to forcing girls to have sex with them.<ref>Cullinan, Kerry [https://web.archive.org/web/20081120202426/http://www.csa.za.org/article/articleview/259/1/1/ Teen mothers often forced into sex]. www.csa.za.org. 23 November 2003</ref>

Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries. Up to 70% of women who gave birth in their teens were molested as young girls. By contrast, 25% of women who did not give birth as teens were molested.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Saewyc EM, Magee LL, Pettingell SE | title = Teenage pregnancy and associated risk behaviors among sexually abused adolescents | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 98–105 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15306268 | doi = 10.1363/3609804 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Saewyc | first1 = E. M. | last2 = Magee | first2 = L. L. | last3 = Pettingell | first3 = S. E. | title = Teenage pregnancy and associated risk behaviors among sexually abused adolescents | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 36 | issue = 3 | pages = 98–105 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1363/3609804| pmid = 15306268 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/1998/D/199803609.html Study Links Childhood Sexual Abuse, Teen Pregnancy] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120629082937/http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/1998/D/199803609.html |date=29 June 2012 }} University of Southern California, Science Blog, 2004</ref>

In some countries, sexual intercourse between a minor and an adult is not considered consensual under the law because a minor is believed to lack the maturity and competence to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult. In those countries, sex with a minor is therefore considered [[statutory rape]]. In most European countries, by contrast, once an adolescent has reached the age of consent, he or she can legally have sexual relations with adults because it is held that in general (although certain limitations may still apply), reaching the age of consent enables a juvenile to consent to sex with any partner who has also reached that age. Therefore, the definition of statutory rape is limited to sex with a person under the minimum age of consent. What constitutes statutory rape ultimately differs by jurisdiction (see [[age of consent]]).

===Dating violence===
{{See also|Dating abuse|Teen dating violence}}

Studies have indicated that adolescent girls are often in abusive relationships at the time of their conceiving.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal |author=Rosen D |title="I Just Let Him Have His Way" Partner Violence in the Lives of Low-Income, Teenage Mothers |journal=Violence Against Women |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=6–28|year=2004 |doi=10.1177/1077801203256069|s2cid=72957028 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Quinlivan J |title=Teenage pregnancy |journal=O&G |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=25–6 |date=Winter 2006 |url=http://www.ranzcog.edu.au/publications/o-g_pdfs/OG-Winter-2006/teenage-pregnancy.pdf |access-date=22 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720215040/http://www.ranzcog.edu.au/publications/o-g_pdfs/OG-Winter-2006/teenage-pregnancy.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2008 }}</ref> They have also reported that knowledge of their pregnancy has often intensified violent and controlling behaviors on part of their boyfriends. Girls under age 18 are twice as likely to be beaten by their child's father than women over age 18. A UK study found that 70% of women who gave birth in their teens had experienced adolescent domestic violence. Similar results have been found in studies in the US. A Washington State study found 70% of teenage mothers had been beaten by their boyfriends, 51% had experienced attempts of [[birth control sabotage]] within the last year, and 21% experienced school or work sabotage.

In a study of 379 pregnant or parenting teens and 95 teenage girls without children, 62% of girls aged 11–15 and 56% of girls aged 16–19 reported experiencing domestic violence at the hands of their partners. Moreover, 51% of the girls reported experiencing at least one instance where their boyfriend attempted to sabotage their efforts to use birth control.<ref>[http://www.cpeip.fsu.edu/resourceFiles/resourceFile_73.pdf Violence, Abuse and Adolescent Childbearing] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927202303/http://www.cpeip.fsu.edu/resourceFiles/resourceFile_73.pdf |date=27 September 2013 }}. Florida State University Center for Prevention & Early Intervention Policy (2005)</ref>

===Socioeconomic factors===
[[File:The Child Mother.jpg|thumb|A young poverty-stricken girl clutches her child. [[Book frontispiece|Frontispiece]] illustration from ''Street Arabs and Gutter Snipes'' by George Carter Needham, Boston, 1884.]]

Teenage pregnancy has been defined predominantly within the research field and among social agencies as a social problem. [[Poverty]] is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy.<ref name=Besharov/> Economically poor countries such as [[Niger]] and [[Bangladesh]] have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as [[Switzerland]] and [[Japan]].<ref name=globalis>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070713173733/http://globalis.gvu.unu.edu/indicator.cfm?IndicatorID=127 Indicator: Births per 1000 women (aged 15–19) – 2002] UNFPA, State of World Population 2003. Retrieved 22 January 2007.</ref>

In the UK in 2001, around half of all pregnancies to those under 18 were concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived.<ref>"[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Product.asp?vlnk=6725 Teenage Conceptions By Small Area Deprivation In England and Wales 2001–2]" (Spring 2007)''Health Statistics Quarterly Volume 33''</ref> For example, in [[Italy]] in 2001, the teenage birth rate in the well-off [[Central Italy|central regions]] is only 3.3 per 1,000, while in the poorer [[Mezzogiorno]] it is 10.0 per 1,000.<ref name=oecd/> Similarly, in the US in 2001, sociologist [[Mike A. Males]] noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in [[California]]:<ref>Males, Mike (2001) [http://home.earthlink.net/~mmales/yt-sex.htm America's Pointless "Teen Sex" Squabble] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013092427/http://home.earthlink.net/~mmales/yt-sex.htm |date=13 October 2018 }}, c Youth Today.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!County
!Poverty rate
!Birth rate*
|-
|[[Marin County, California|Marin County]]
|5%
|5
|-
|[[Tulare County, California|Tulare County]] (Caucasians)
|18%
|50
|-
|[[Tulare County, California|Tulare County]] (Hispanics)
|40%
|100
|}
<small>* per 1,000 women aged 15–19</small>

Teen pregnancy cost the US over $9.1 billion in 2004, including $1.9 billion for health care, $2.3 billion for child welfare, $2.1 billion for incarceration, and $2.9 billion in lower tax revenue.<ref>[http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/55373.php Teen Births Cost U.S. Government $9.1B In 2004 Despite Drop In Teen Birth, Pregnancy Rates, Report Says] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512174552/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/55373.php |date=12 May 2011 }}. ''Medical News Today''. Retrieved 3 December 2011.</ref>

There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or financial aid before they got pregnant, and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong.<ref name=psi/>

===Childhood environment===
Girls exposed to abuse, [[domestic violence]], and family strife in childhood are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers, and the risk of becoming pregnant as a teenager increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/swr/20.3.131|title=The link between childhood maltreatment and teenage pregnancy|journal= Social Work Research |year=1996|volume= 20 |issue=3|pages= 131–141|author=Smith, Carolyn }}</ref> In a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence, and family strife. The researchers note that "family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond." When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences.<ref>Tamkins, T. (2004) [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NNR/is_2_36/ai_n6069104/pg_1 Teenage pregnancy risk rises with childhood exposure to family strife] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071104231437/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0NNR/is_2_36/ai_n6069104/pg_1 |date=4 November 2007 }} Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, March–April 2004</ref> A 2001 study suggested that boys raised by mothers who experienced physical abuse, or who experienced domestic violence directly, were more likely to be involved in a teenage pregnancy.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Chapman DP, Croft JB, Williamson DF, Santelli J, Dietz PM, Marks JS | title = Abused boys, battered mothers, and male involvement in teen pregnancy | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 107 | issue = 2 | article-number = E19 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11158493 | doi = 10.1542/peds.107.2.e19 }}</ref>

A 2003 study found that girls whose fathers left the family early in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate of early sexual activity. The lowest rates are found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early father-absent girls were still about five times more likely in the US and three times more likely in New Zealand to become pregnant as adolescents than were father-present girls.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ellis BJ, Bates JE, Dodge KA, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Pettit GS, Woodward L | title = Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy? | journal = Child Development | volume = 74 | issue = 3 | pages = 801–821 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12795391 | pmc = 2764264 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8624.00569 }}</ref><ref>Quigley, Ann (2003) [http://mentalhealth.about.com/cs/familyresources/a/teensex503_2.htm Father's Absence Increases Daughter's Risk of Teen Pregnancy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906023159/http://mentalhealth.about.com/cs/familyresources/a/teensex503_2.htm |date=6 September 2015 }} Health Behavior News Service, 27 May 2003</ref>

Low [[education]]al expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Allen E, Bonell C, Strange V, Copas A, Stephenson J, Johnson AM, Oakley A | title = Does the UK government's teenage pregnancy strategy deal with the correct risk factors? Findings from a secondary analysis of data from a randomised trial of sex education and their implications for policy | journal = J Epidemiol Community Health | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–7 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17183010 | pmc = 2465587 | doi = 10.1136/jech.2005.040865 }}</ref> A girl is more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens.<ref name="Furstenberg">{{cite journal |vauthors=Furstenberg FF, Levine JA, Brooks-Gunn J | title = The children of teenage mothers: patterns of early childbearing in two generations | journal = Fam Plann Perspect | volume = 22 | issue = 2 | pages = 54–61 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2347409 | doi = 10.2307/2135509 | jstor = 2135509 }}</ref><ref name="Jacobson">{{cite journal |vauthors=East PL, Jacobson LJ | title = The younger siblings of teenage mothers: a follow-up of their pregnancy risk | journal = Dev Psychol | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 254–64 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11269393 | pmc = 3878983 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.37.2.254 }}
</ref> A majority of respondents in a 1988 [[Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies]] survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of [[Interpersonal communication|communication]] between parents and child and also to inadequate [[parental supervision]].<ref name="pollingdata"/>

[[Foster care]] youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the US, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly three times the rate for girls in the general population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teenpregnancy.org/fostercare/Foster_Care_Project_FactSheet2.pdf |title=Fostering Hope: Preventing Teen Pregnancy Among Youth in Foster Care |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011130/http://www.teenpregnancy.org/fostercare/Foster_Care_Project_FactSheet2.pdf |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}&nbsp;{{small|(42.1&nbsp;KB)}} A Joint Project of The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy and UCAN (Uhlich Children's Advantage Network) 16 February 2006</ref>

=== Media influence ===
A 2006 study found that adolescents who were more exposed to sexuality in the media were more likely to engage in sexual activity themselves.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = L'Engle |first1=KL |last2=Brown |first2=JD |last3=Kenneavy |first3=K | title = The mass media are an important context for adolescents' sexual behavior | journal = Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 186–192 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16488814 | doi = 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.03.020 }}</ref> According to ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', "teens exposed to the most sexual content on TV are twice as likely as teens watching less of this material to become pregnant before they reach age 20".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1855842,00.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081106102203/http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1855842,00.html | archive-date=6 November 2008 | magazine=Time | first=Alice | last=Park | title=Sex on TV Increases Teen Pregnancy, Says Report | date=3 November 2008}}</ref>

==Prevention==
Comprehensive [[sex education]] and access to [[birth control]] appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Oringanje |first1=Chioma |last2=Meremikwu |first2=Martin M |last3=Eko |first3=Hokehe |last4=Esu |first4=Ekpereonne |last5=Meremikwu |first5=Anne |last6=Ehiri |first6=John E |title=Interventions for preventing unintended pregnancies among adolescents |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=3 February 2016 |volume=2016 |issue=2 |article-number=CD005215 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005215.pub3 |pmid=26839116 |pmc=8730506 }}</ref> It is unclear which type of intervention is most effective.<ref name=":0" />

In the US free access to a [[Long-acting reversible contraception|long acting form of reversible birth control]] along with education decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by around 80% and the rate of abortions by more than 75%.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Secura|first1=Gina M.|last2=Madden|first2=Tessa|last3=McNicholas|first3=Colleen|last4=Mullersman|first4=Jennifer|last5=Buckel|first5=Christina M.|last6=Zhao|first6=Qiuhong|last7=Peipert|first7=Jeffrey F.|title=Provision of No-Cost, Long-Acting Contraception and Teenage Pregnancy|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|date=2 October 2014|volume=371|issue=14|pages=1316–1323|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1400506|pmid=25271604|pmc=4230891}}</ref> Currently there are four federal programs aimed at preventing teenage pregnancy: Teen Pregnancy Prevention (TPP), Personal Responsibility Education Program (PREP), Title V Sexual Risk Avoidance Education, and Sexual Risk Avoidance Education.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fernandes-Alcantara|first1=Adrienne L.|title=Teen Pregnancy: Federal Prevention Programs|date=30 April 2018|publisher=Congressional Research Service|location=Washington, DC|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R45183.pdf|access-date=5 May 2018}}</ref>

===Education===
The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach.<ref name=dutchmodel>{{cite journal|author=Valk, Guus|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001201/120152e.pdf|title= The Dutch Model|journal=The UNESCO Courier|volume=53|issue=7|page=19|date=July 2000|access-date= 3 July 2011}}</ref>

In the United States in 2016, 39 states and the District of Columbia out of the 50 states required some form of sex education and/or HIV education.<ref name="Sex and HIV Education">{{Cite web|date=14 March 2016|title=Sex and HIV Education|url=https://www.guttmacher.org/state-policy/explore/sex-and-hiv-education|access-date=21 October 2020|website=Guttmacher Institute|language=en}}</ref> Out of these 39 states and the District of Columbia, 17 states require that the sexual education provided be medically accurate, and 3 states prohibit a program from promoting sexual education in a religious way. These three states include California, Colorado, and Louisiana. 19 of those 39 states stress the importance of only having sex when in a committed marriage.<ref name="Sex and HIV Education"/>

From this data, 11 states currently have no requirement for sexual education for any years of schooling, meaning these 11 states may have no sexual education at all. This could mean these states are allowed to teach sexual education in any way they would like, including in medically inaccurate ways. This point is also valid for those 22 states that do not require sexual education to be medically accurate. Comprehensive sexual education has been proven to work to reduce the risk of teen pregnancies.<ref name="Sexuality Education">{{Cite web|title=Sexuality Education|url=https://advocatesforyouth.org/resources/fact-sheets/sexuality-education-2/|access-date=21 October 2020|website=Advocates for Youth|language=en|archive-date=24 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024235031/https://advocatesforyouth.org/resources/fact-sheets/sexuality-education-2/}}</ref>

Without a nationwide mandate for medically accurate programs, teenagers in the United States are at risk for missing out on valuable information that can protect them. It is unfair to expect teenagers to make educated decisions about sex that can lead to teen pregnancy when they have never been properly educated about the issue. A program developed by experts in public health and sexual education titled ''National Sexuality Education Standards,'' is a valuable resource that describes what the minimum requirements of sexual education should be across the nation.<ref name="Sexuality Education"/> Giving teenagers the tools that are outlined in that roadmap would have positive effects, as it gives teenagers the resources to make educated decisions. Currently, there is not a national implementation of this program in the United States.

Teen pregnancy can be reduced by sex education, as a 2022 study in 55 US [[County (United States)|counties]] showed. The study used federal funded sex education programs as a proxy for sex education, but provided no details about funding levels, the number of students reached, or the amount of time spent on sex education. The reduction of teenage births, not pregnancy, was significant, with a 3% reduction, indicating that an increase in funding, education, or reach could decrease teenage pregnancy even further.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mark|first1=Nicholas D. E.|last2=Wu|first2=Lawrence L.|date=22 February 2022|title=More comprehensive sex education reduced teen births: Quasi-experimental evidence|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=119|issue=8|article-number=e2113144119|doi=10.1073/pnas.2113144119|doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424|pmid=35165192|pmc=8872707|bibcode=2022PNAS..11913144M }}</ref> Although 3% sounds like a small number, given a teenage girl population of 10 million females aged 15–19 in 2020,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=U.S. population by age and gender 2019|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/241488/population-of-the-us-by-sex-and-age/|access-date=22 February 2022|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref> and ~190,000 teenage births per year, a 3% reduction would translate to about 6,000 prevented teenage births per year when extrapolated to the whole nation.

===Abstinence only education===
[[File:No Sex Signage in Ghana.jpg|thumb|A notice in [[Ghana]], promoting abstinence for the prevention of unplanned pregnancy and [[HIV/AIDS]], 2005]]

Some schools provide [[abstinence-only sex education]]. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of abstinence-only sex education.<ref name=Obs07>{{cite journal |last1=Ott |first1=Mary A |last2=Santelli |first2=John S |title=Abstinence and abstinence-only education |journal=Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology |date=October 2007 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=446–452 |doi=10.1097/GCO.0b013e3282efdc0b |pmid=17885460 |pmc=5913747 }}</ref> It has been found to be ineffective in decreasing [[HIV]] risk in the developed world,<ref name="Underhill2007">{{cite journal|last=Underhill|first=K|author2=Operario, D |author3=Montgomery, P |title=Abstinence-only programs for HIV infection prevention in high-income countries|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=17 October 2007|volume=2010|issue=4|article-number=CD005421|pmid=17943855|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005421.pub2|pmc=12131297|editor1-last=Operario|editor1-first=Don}}</ref> and does not decrease rates of [[unplanned pregnancy]] when compared to comprehensive sex education.<ref name="Obs07"/> It does not decrease the sexual activity rates of students, when compared to students who undertake comprehensive sexual education classes.<ref name=Kohler08>{{cite journal|last=Kohler|first=Pamela|author3=Manhart, Lisa|author2=Lafferty, William |title=Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education and the Initiation of Sexual Activity and Teen Pregnancy|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|date=April 2008|volume=42|issue=4|pages=344–351|doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.026|pmid=18346659|s2cid=16986622 }}</ref>

===Assistance===
[[Nurse-Family Partnership]] (NFP) is a non-profit organization operating in the United States and the UK designed to serve the needs of young mothers who may have special needs in their first pregnancy.
Each mother served is partnered with a registered nurse early in her pregnancy and receives ongoing nurse home visits that continue through her child's second birthday. NFP intervention has been associated with improvements in maternal health, child health, and economic security.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nurse-Family Partnership |url=https://evidencebasedprograms.org/programs/nurse-family-partnership/ |website=Social Programs that Work |access-date=4 December 2022}}</ref>

===Public policy===
====Canada====
In 2018, [[Quebec|Québec]]'s Institut national de santé publique (INSPQ) began implementing adjustments to the Protocole de contraception du Québec (Québec Contraception Protocol). The new protocol allows [[registered nurse]]s to prescribe hormonal birth control, an IUD or emergency birth control to women, as long as they comply with prescribed standards in the Prescription infirmière: Guide explicatif conjoint, and are properly trained in providing contraceptives. In 2020, Québec will offer online training to registered nurses, provided by the Ordre des infirmières et infirmiers du Québec (OIIQ). Nurses that do not have training in the areas of sexually transmitted and blood borne infections may have to take additional online courses provided by the INSPQ.<ref>Institut national de santé publique du Québec. 2018. [https://www.inspq.qc.ca/sites/default/files/publications/2409_protocole-contraception_quebec_fnl.pdf Protocole de contraception du Québec Mise à jour 2018].</ref>

==== United States ====
[[File:CDC Teenager Sex Stats 2015.png|thumb|upright=1.5|US statistics in April 2015]]
In the US, one policy initiative that has been used to increase rates of contraceptive use is [[Title X]]. Title X of the [[Family Planning Services and Population Research Act of 1970]] ({{USPL|91|572}}) provides family planning services for those who do not qualify for [[Medicaid]] by distributing "funding to a network of public, private, and nonprofit entities [to provide] services on a sliding scale based on income."<ref>{{cite web|last=The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy|title=Policy Brief: Title X Plays a Critical Role in Preventing Unplanned Pregnancy|url=http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/resources/pdf/Briefly_PolicyBrief_TitleX.pdf|access-date=15 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807191610/http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/resources/pdf/Briefly_PolicyBrief_TitleX.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2011}}</ref> Studies indicate that, internationally, success in reducing teen pregnancy rates is directly correlated with the kind of access that Title X provides: "What appears crucial to success is that adolescents know where they can go to obtain information and services, can get there easily and are assured of receiving confidential, nonjudgmental care, and that these services and contraceptive supplies are free or cost very little."<ref name="DJE" /> In addressing high rates of unplanned teen pregnancies, scholars agree that the problem must be confronted from both the biological and cultural contexts.

In September 2010, the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|US Department of Health and Human Services]] approved $155 million in new funding for comprehensive sex education programs designed to prevent teenage pregnancy. The money is being awarded "to states, non-profit organizations, school districts, universities and others. These grants will support the replication of teen pregnancy prevention programs that have been shown to be effective through rigorous research as well as the testing of new, innovative approaches to combating teen pregnancy."<ref>{{cite web|last=U.S. Department of Health & Human Services|title=HHS Awards Evidence-based Teen Pregnancy Prevention Grants|url=https://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2010pres/09/20100930a.html|access-date=15 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110070257/http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2010pres/09/20100930a.html|archive-date=10 January 2011}}</ref> Of the total of $150 million, $55 million is funded by [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act|Affordable Care Act]] through the Personal Responsibility Education Program, which requires states receiving funding to incorporate lessons about both abstinence and contraception.

==== Developing countries ====
In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as [[Sri Lanka]] have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools.<ref name="escap" /> Non-governmental agencies such as the [[International Planned Parenthood Federation]] and [[Marie Stopes International]] provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against [[child marriage]] have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female [[literacy]] and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as [[Iran]], [[Indonesia]], and the Indian state of [[Kerala]].

===Other===
A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant.<ref name=joe>{{cite book |author1=Fe Moncloa |author2=Marilyn Johns |author3=Elizabeth J. Gong |author4=Stephen Russell |author5=Faye Lee |author6=Estella West |year=2003 |url=http://www.joe.org/joe/2003april/tt1.php |chapter=Best Practices in Teen Pregnancy Prevention Practitioner Handbook |title=Journal of Extension |volume=41 |issue=2 |access-date=3 December 2011 |archive-date=8 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808044201/https://www.joe.org/joe/2003april/tt1.php }}</ref>

==Prevalence==
{{main|Prevalence of teenage pregnancy}}
[[File:Adolescent birth rate in women aged 10-19 years, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|The adolescent birth rate in girls and young women aged 10–19 years, 2016<ref>{{cite web |title=Adolescent birth rate in women aged 10–19 years |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/adolescent-fertility-ihme |website=Our World in Data |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>]]

In reporting teenage pregnancy rates, the number of pregnancies per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19, when the pregnancy ends, is generally used.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130525042927/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/kits-trousses/preg-gross/edu04_0134e-eng.htm Teenage pregnancy – Definitions]. Statcan.gc.ca (5 June 2007). Retrieved 2011-12-03.</ref>

In 2003, worldwide teenage pregnancy rates ranged from 143 per 1,000 in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1,000 in South Korea.<ref name=oecd>UNICEF. (2001).{{cite web |url= http://www.unicef-icdc.org/publications/pdf/repcard3e.pdf |title= A League Table of Teenage Births in Rich Nations |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060629123124/http://www.unicef-icdc.org/publications/pdf/repcard3e.pdf |archive-date= 29 June 2006 }}&nbsp;{{small|(888&nbsp;KB)}}. Retrieved 7 July 2006.</ref><ref name="ncbi">{{cite journal | author = Treffers PE | title = Teenage pregnancy, a worldwide problem | journal = Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde | volume = 147 | issue = 47 | pages = 2320–2325 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14669537 }}</ref> In the US in 2013, 82% of pregnancies in those between 15 and 19 were unplanned.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Marnach ML, Long ME, Casey PM | title = Current Issues in Contraception | journal = Mayo Clinic Proceedings | volume = 88 | issue = 3 | pages = 295–299 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23489454 | doi = 10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.01.007 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Among [[OECD]] [[developed countries]] in 2001, the US, the UK and [[New Zealand]] had the highest level of teenage pregnancy, while [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]] had the lowest.<ref>[http://www.unicef-irc.org/cgi-bin/unicef/Lunga.sql?ProductID=328 A League Table of Teenage Births in Rich Nations]. unicef-irc.org {{ISBN|88-85401-75-9}}</ref>

According to the [[UNFPA]], "In every region of the world – including high-income countries – girls who are poor, poorly educated or living in rural areas are at greater risk of becoming pregnant than those who are wealthier, well-educated or urban. This is true on a global level, as well: 95 percent of the world's births to adolescents (aged 15–19) take place in developing countries. Every year, some 3 million girls in this age bracket resort to [[unsafe abortion]]s, risking their lives and health."<ref name="Adolescent Pregnancy"/>

In a 2001 [[UNICEF]] survey, in 10 out of 12 developed nations with available data, more than two thirds of young people have had sexual intercourse while still in their teens. In Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Norway, the UK and the US, the proportion is over 80%. In Australia, the UK and the US, approximately 25% of 15-year-olds and 50% of 17-year-olds have had sex.<ref name="oecd" /> In 2004, approximately 15 million girls under the age of 20 in the world had a child each year. Estimates were that 20–60% of these pregnancies in developing countries are mistimed or unwanted.<ref name="Teen Pregnancy">[http://www.credoreference.com/entry/sprwh/teen_pregnancy "Teen Pregnancy"] (2004) in ''Encyclopedia of Women's Health''.</ref>

In 2022, UNICEF reported that from 2000 to 2022, "the global adolescent birth rate for the age group 10–14 has declined by over 50 percent, from 3.3 to 1.6 per 1,000 adolescent girls aged 10–14", and "for the age group 15–19 has declined by over 30 percent, from 65 to 43 births per 1,000 adolescent girls aged 15–19".<ref name="UNICEF2022"/> UNICEF noted that these declines were "tied to improvements in almost all regional rates".<ref name="UNICEF2022"/>

In 2004, [[Save the Children]] found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women aged under 20 worldwide, with more than 90% in developing countries. [[Complications of pregnancy]] and [[childbirth]] are the leading cause of [[death|mortality]] among women aged 15–19 in such areas.<ref name=savethechildren/>

===Sub-Saharan Africa===
The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world is in [[sub-Saharan Africa]], where women tend to marry at an early age.<ref name=ncbi/> In 2023, in Western and Central Africa, and Eastern and Southern Africa, over 25% of adolescent girls and young women gave birth before age 18. In these regions, this amounts to an estimated 11 million young women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Early childbearing and teenage pregnancy rates by country |url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/adolescent-health/ |access-date=2023-11-07 |website=UNICEF DATA |language=en-US}}</ref>

In [[Niger]] in 1999, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18.<ref name=subsahara>{{cite journal |last1=Locoh |first1=Thérèse |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ae/article/view/22558 |title=Early Marriage and Motherhood in Sub-Saharan Africa |journal=African Environment |date=1999 |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=31–42 |s2cid=70677057 }}</ref> A 2018 study found that socio-cultural factors, economic factors, environmental factors, individual factors, and health service-related factors were responsible for the high rates of teenage pregnancy in Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yakubu |first1=Ibrahim |last2=Salisu |first2=Waliu Jawula |title=Determinants of adolescent pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review |journal=Reproductive Health |date=December 2018 |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=15 |doi=10.1186/s12978-018-0460-4 |pmid=29374479 |pmc=5787272 |s2cid=28017533 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===India===
In the [[Indian subcontinent]], early [[marriage]] sometimes results in adolescent pregnancy, particularly in [[rural]] regions where the rate is much higher than it is in [[urbanization|urbanized]] areas. In 2008, teen pregnancy in [[India]] was high, with 62 pregnant teens out of every 1,000 women.<ref name="Teen pregnancies higher in India than even UK, US">{{cite news|last=Dawan|first=Himanshi|title=Teen pregnancies higher in India than even UK, US|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com//articleshow/3711379.cms?intenttarget=no|access-date=2 May 2013|newspaper=The Economic times|date=28 November 2008}}</ref> India is fast approaching to be the most populous country in the world by 2050 and increasing teenage pregnancy, an important factor for the population rise, is likely to aggravate the problems.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kumar A, Singh T, Basu S, Pandey S, Bhargava V | title = Outcome of teenage pregnancy | journal = Indian Journal of Pediatrics | volume = 74 | issue = 10 | pages = 927–931 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17978452 | doi = 10.1007/s12098-007-0171-2 | s2cid = 37537112 }}</ref>

===Asia===
The rates of early marriage and pregnancy in some Asian countries are high. In the 2000s, the rates decreased sharply in [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]],<ref>{{cite report |last=Jones |first=Gavin |date=2010 |title=Changing Marriage Patterns in Asia |ssrn=1716533 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1716533 |s2cid=53398466 |doi-access=free }}</ref> although it remains relatively high in Indonesia. In the industrialized Asian nations [[Teenage pregnancy in South Korea|such as South Korea]] and [[Singapore]], teenage birth rates remain among the lowest in the world.<ref name=escap>{{cite web |last1=Mehta |first1=Suman |last2=Groenen |first2=Riet |last3=Roque |first3=Francisco |publisher=United Nations Social and Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific |year=1998 |url=http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/icpd/sec7.asp |title=Adolescents in Changing Times: Issues and Perspectives for Adolescent Reproductive Health in The ESCAP Region |access-date=7 July 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211123000/http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/icpd/sec7.asp |archive-date=11 February 2012}}</ref>

===Australia===
{{main|Teenage pregnancy in Australia}}
In 2015, the [[birth rate]] among teenage women in [[Australia]] was 11.9 births per 1,000 women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats%5Cabs@.nsf/0/8668A9A0D4B0156CCA25792F0016186A?Opendocument|title=Media Release – September most common month for babies born in Australia (Media Release)|first=c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of|last=Statistics|date=13 December 2017}}</ref> The rate has fallen from 55.5 births per 1,000 women in 1971, probably due to ease of access to effective [[birth control]], rather than any decrease in [[sexual activity]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title = Teenage pregnancy – Better Health Channel|url = http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/teenage_pregnancy|access-date = 31 August 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923184909/http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/teenage_pregnancy|archive-date = 23 September 2015}}</ref>

===Europe===
The overall trend in [[Europe]] since 1970 has been a decreasing [[total fertility rate]], an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-26338540 | work=BBC News | title=Teen pregnancy rate 'lower still' | date=25 February 2014}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=September 2024|reason=This source only lists the UK instead of all of Europe}} Most continental [[Western European]] countries have very low teenage birth rates. This is varyingly attributed to good [[sex education]] and high levels of [[contraceptive]] use (in the case of the [[Netherlands]] and [[Scandinavia]]), [[traditional values]] and [[social stigma]]tization (in the case of [[Spain]] and [[Italy]]) or both (in the case of [[Switzerland]]).<ref name="bbc.co.uk"/>

On the other hand, the teen birth rate is very high in [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]]. In 2015, Bulgaria had a birth rate of 37 per 1,000 women aged 15–19. Romania had a birth rate of 34 per 1,000 women aged 15–19.<ref name="data.worldbank.org">{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.ADO.TFRT|title=Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15–19) – Data|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> The teen birth rate of these two countries is even higher than that of underdeveloped countries like [[Burundi]] and [[Rwanda]].<ref name="data.worldbank.org"/>
Many of the teen births occur in [[Romani people|Roma]] populations, who have an occurrence of teenage pregnancies well above the local average.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tol.org/client/article/21599-silence-makes-babies.html|title=Silence Makes Babies – Transitions Online|website=www.tol.org|date=6 July 2010}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
{{main|Teenage pregnancy and sexual health in the United Kingdom}}
The teen pregnancy rate in England and Wales was 23.3 per 1,000 women aged 15 to 17.{{when|date=August 2024}} There were 5,740 pregnancies in girls aged under 18 in the three months to June 2014, data from the [[Office for National Statistics]] shows. This compares with 6,279 in the same period in 2013 and 7,083 for the June quarter the year before that. Historically, the UK has had one of the highest teenage pregnancy and abortion rates in Western Europe.

There are no comparable rates for conceptions across Europe, but the under-18 birth rate suggests England is closing the gap. The under-18 birth rate in 2012 in [[England and Wales]] was 9.2, compared with an [[EU]] average of 6.9. However, the UK birth rate has fallen by almost a third (32.3%) since 2004 compared with a fall of 15.6% in the EU. In 2004, the UK rate was 13.6 births per 1,000 women aged 15–17 compared with an EU average rate of 7.7.

===United States===
{{main|Teenage pregnancy in the United States}}
[[File:US Teen Pregnancy Rate.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=|The US teen pregnancy rate 15 to 19 year olds, per 1,000, 1973 to 2011, including Black, Hispanic, and White populations<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kost |first1=Kathryn |last2=Maddow-Zimet |first2=Isaac |title=U.S. Teenage Pregnancies, Births and Abortions, 2011: National Trends by Age, Race and Ethnicity |url=https://www.guttmacher.org/report/us-teen-pregnancy-trends-2011 |publisher=Guttmacher Institute |date=April 2016}}</ref>]]
In 2001, the teenage birth rate in the US was the highest in the developed world, and the teenage abortion rate is also high.<ref name=oecd/>{{update inline|date=June 2018}} In 2005, 57% of teen pregnancies resulted in a live birth, 27% ended in an induced abortion, and 16% in a fetal loss.<ref>{{cite web|title=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011) Health Disparities and Inequality Report – United States, MMWR, Jan 14, 2011 volume 60|url=http://www.naddssw.org/pages/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/MMWR-health-disparities-Report-2011.pdf#page=107|access-date=October 12, 2013|archive-date=November 13, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113072115/http://www.naddssw.org/pages/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/MMWR-health-disparities-Report-2011.pdf#page=107}}</ref> The US teenage pregnancy rate was at a high in the 1950s and has decreased since then, although there has been an increase in births out of wedlock.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/tgr/05/1/gr050107.html |title=The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy |date=February 2002 |volume=5 |issue=1 |author=Boonstra, Heather |access-date=15 January 2008 |archive-date=25 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325042405/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/tgr/05/1/gr050107.html }}</ref>

The teenage pregnancy rate decreased significantly in the 1990s. This decline was across all racial groups. Teenagers of [[African-American]] and [[Hispanic]] descent retain a higher rate of teen pregnancy, in comparison to that of [[European-American]]s and [[Asian-American]]s. In 2006, the [[Guttmacher Institute]] attributed about 25% of the decline to [[Sexual abstinence|abstinence]] and 75% to the effective use of [[contraception|contraceptives]].<ref>[http://www.guttmacher.org/media/nr/2004/02/19/index.html U.S. Teenage Pregnancy Rate Drops For 10th Straight Year]." Retrieved 7 July 2006.</ref>

In 2006, the US teen birth rate rose for the first time in fourteen years.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr57/nvsr57_07.pdf |journal=National Vital Statistics Reports|issue= 7|date= 7 January 2009|title=Births: Final Data for 2006|volume=57|author1=Martin, Joyce A. |author2=Hamilton, Brady E. |author3=Sutton, Paul D. |author4=Ventura, Stephanie J. |author5=Menacker, Fay |author6=Kirmeyer, Sharon |author7=Mathews, T.J. }}</ref> In 2010, it reached a historic low: 34.3 births per 1,000 women aged 15–19.<ref name="Historic"/> In 2017, the birth rate for girls ages 15–19 was 18.8 per 1,000.<ref>{{Cite web|date=28 October 2020|title=About Teen Pregnancy {{!}} CDC|url=https://www.cdc.gov/teenpregnancy/about/index.htm|access-date=13 May 2021|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us}}</ref> Given a teenage girl population of 10 million females, aged 15–19, in 2020,<ref name=":2" /> this would translate to ~190,000 births per year.

In 2009, the Latina teenage pregnancy rate was 75% higher than the national average.<ref name="Sterling 2009 19–28"/>

In 2012, the states with the highest teenage birthrates were [[Mississippi]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Arkansas]]. In 2012, the states with the lowest teenage birthrate were [[New Hampshire]], [[Massachusetts]] and [[Vermont]].<ref>[https://www.cbsnews.com/news/us-teen-birth-rates-fall-to-historic-lows/ U.S. teen birth rates fall to historic lows]. CBS News (10 April 2012). Retrieved 2013-09-26.</ref>

===Canada===
Between 1992 and 2002, the [[Canadians|Canadian]] teenage birth rate steadily declined for both younger (15–17) and older (18–19) teens.<ref name=teenpregna>Dryburgh, H. (2002). Teenage pregnancy. Health Reports, 12 (1), 9–18; Statistics Canada . (2005). Health Indicators, 2005, 2. Retrieved from [http://www.sexualityandu.ca/resource-library/statistics/teen-pregnancy-rates Facts and Statistics: Sexual Health and Canadian Youth – Teen Pregnancy Rates] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930135322/http://www.sexualityandu.ca/resource-library/statistics/teen-pregnancy-rates |date=30 September 2011 }}</ref> It dropped from 20.1 per 1,000 women in 2000, to 8.4 in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cichprofile.ca/module/1/section/5/page/adolescent-fertility-rates-2000-to-2020/|title=Adolescent fertility rates, 2000 to 2020 – the Health of Canada's Children and Youth|access-date=2021-08-22|archive-date=2022-01-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104024331/https://cichprofile.ca/module/1/section/5/page/adolescent-fertility-rates-2000-to-2020/}}</ref> In Canada, the stability of familial structure significantly influences the risk of teenage pregnancy. In a 2018 study, experiencing one or more episodes of poverty before the age of 13 made young Canadian girls 75% to 90% more vulnerable to teenage pregnancy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Chelsea |last2=Strohschein |first2=Lisa |last3=Crosnoe |first3=Robert |date=October 2018 |title=Family Histories and Teen Pregnancy in the United States and Canada |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |language=en |volume=80 |issue=5 |pages=1244–1258 |doi=10.1111/jomf.12512 |issn=0022-2445 |pmc=6289283 |pmid=30555182}}</ref>

==Teenage fatherhood==
In some cases, the father of the child is the partner of the teenage girl. The conception may occur within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage, the so-called [[shotgun wedding]]. In countries such as [[India]], the majority of teenage births occur within marriage.<ref name=escap/><ref name=oecd/>

In the US and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the father of their children.<ref name=oecd/><ref>National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080224114427/http://www.teenpregnancy.org/resources/teens/facts/fact14.asp Do most teens who choose to raise the child get married when they find out they're pregnant?]</ref> In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple, and 10% are married.<ref>"[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/ssdataset.asp?vlnk=7522&More=Y Census 2001 People aged 16–29]" ''Office For National Statistics''</ref> Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. US surveys tend to under-report the prevalence of teen fatherhood.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Joyner, K |author2=Peters, H.E. |author3=Hynes, K |title= The Quality of Male Fertility Data in Major U.S. Surveys|journal=Demography |year=2012 |volume=49 |issue=1|doi= 10.1007/s13524-011-0073-9|pmid=22203451 |display-authors=etal |pages=101–124|pmc=3500148}}</ref>

In many cases, "teenage father" may be a misnomer. Studies in the 1990s found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the US are fathered by adult men aged over 20.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=De Vita |author2=Carol J. |url=http://prb.org/Publications/PopulationBulletins/1996/TheUnitedStatesatMidDecade.aspx |title=The United States at Mid-Decade |journal=Population Bulletin |volume=50 |issue=4 |date=March 1996 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724171519/http://prb.org/Publications/PopulationBulletins/1996/TheUnitedStatesatMidDecade.aspx |archive-date=24 July 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/mvsr/supp/mv42_03s.pdf|title=Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1991|journal=Monthly Vital Statistics Report|volume= 42|issue=3, Supplement 9|date=September 1993|author=National Center for Health Statistic}}</ref> In 1995, the Guttmacher Institute reported that over 40% of mothers aged 15–17 had sexual partners three to five years older, and almost one in five had partners six or more years older.<ref>Family Planning Perspectives, July/August 1995.</ref> A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner.<ref>California Resident Live Births, 1990, by Age of Father, by Age of Mother, California Vital Statistics Section, Department of Health Services, 1992.</ref> In the UK in 2005, in 72% of jointly registered births to women aged under 20, the father is over 20, with almost 1 in 4 being over 25.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080227213726/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_population/FM1_34/FM1_no34_2005.pdf FM1 Birth statistics no.34 (2005)] ''Office For National Statistics'' pp. 14–15. ''Note: 24% of births to women under 20 were solo registrations where the age of the father cannot be determined.''</ref>

== Intersection of society and culture ==
Teenage pregnancy remains a significant social and cultural issue in many countries around the world. While the rate of teenage pregnancies has declined in recent decades, it continues to be a cause for concern, both from a health perspective and in terms of its impact on the lives of young people.<ref name="who.int">{{Cite web |title=Adolescent pregnancy |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref>

The causes of teenage pregnancy are complex and multi-faceted, reflecting the interplay between individual behavior, societal norms and cultural attitudes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Akella |first1=Devi |last2=Jordan |first2=Melissa |date=1 April 2015 |title=Impact of Social and Cultural Factors on Teenage Pregnancy |url=https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/jhdrp/vol8/iss1/3 |journal=Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice |volume=8 |issue=1 |issn=2166-5222}}</ref> In many cultures, there is a lack of comprehensive sexual education, which contributes to a lack of understanding about contraception and sexually transmitted infections.<ref name="About Teen Pregnancy {{!}} CDC">{{Cite web |date=15 November 2021 |title=About Teen Pregnancy {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/teenpregnancy/about/index.htm |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> There is also a cultural stigma attached to discussing sexual health and relationships, which makes it difficult for young people to access the information and support they need.<ref>{{Citation |last=Shepard |first=Bonnie |title=Chapter 8. Advocacy Strategies for Young People's Sexual and Reproductive Health: Using UN Processes |date=31 December 2009 |work=Reproductive Health and Human Rights |pages=110–123 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |doi=10.9783/9780812206104.110 |isbn=978-0-8122-4152-5 }}</ref>

Poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and limited opportunities for education and employment can also contribute to the high rate of teenage pregnancy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adolescent pregnancy |url=https://www.unfpa.org/adolescent-pregnancy |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=United Nations Population Fund |language=en}}</ref> These factors can make it difficult for young people to make informed choices about their sexual health and can limit their ability to access contraception and other forms of protection.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FSRH Clinical Guideline: Contraceptive Choices for Young People (March 2010, amended May 2019) – Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare |url=https://www.fsrh.org/standards-and-guidance/documents/cec-ceu-guidance-young-people-mar-2010/ |access-date=4 February 2023 |website=www.fsrh.org}}</ref>

The effects of some of the teenage they get pregnancy can be far-reaching and long-lasting. Pregnant teenagers are at increased risk of health problems, including complications during pregnancy and childbirth, and are more likely to experience poverty and limited opportunities later in life.<ref name="who.int"/> Their children are also more likely to experience health and developmental problems, and to grow up in poverty.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Attree |first=Pamela |date=2006 |title=The social costs of child poverty: a systematic review of the qualitative evidence |journal=Children & Society |volume=20 |pages=54–66 |doi=10.1002/chi.854 |issn=0951-0605}}</ref>

Despite these challenges, there are many programs and initiatives aimed at reducing the rate of teenage pregnancy and supporting young people who become pregnant. These efforts include comprehensive sex education programs, access to contraception and family planning services, and support for young mothers.<ref name="About Teen Pregnancy {{!}} CDC"/>

Teenage pregnancy is a complex issue that reflects the interplay between individual behavior, societal norms and cultural attitudes. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive approach that includes education, access to healthcare, and support for young people.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brindis |first1=Claire D |last2=Decker |first2=Martha J |last3=Gutmann-Gonzalez |first3=Abigail |last4=Berglas |first4=Nancy F |date=December 2022 |title=Perspectives on Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Strategies in the United States: Looking Back, Looking Forward [Corrigendum] |journal=Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics |volume= 13 |pages=107–108 |doi=10.2147/ahmt.s402218 |pmid=36597418 |pmc=9805729 |issn=1179-318X |doi-access=free }}</ref> By working together, we can help to reduce the rate of teenage pregnancy and improve the lives of young people and their families.<ref>{{Citation |last=Daguerre |first=Anne |title=Teenage pregnancy and parenthood in England |work=When children become parents |pages=67–88 |publisher=Bristol University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctt9qgncm.9 }}</ref>

===Politics===
Some politicians condemn pregnancy in unmarried teenagers as a drain on taxpayers, if the mothers and children receive welfare payments and social housing from the government.<ref>Dorothy. Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty. New York: Pantheon Books, 1997. Chapter 3</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=James |first1=E. A. |last2=Rashid |first2=M |year=2013 |title="Welfare queens" and "teen moms": How the social construction of fertile women impacts unintended pregnancy prevention policy in the United States |journal=[[Policy, Politics, & Nursing Practice]] |volume=14 |issue=3–4 |pages=125–32 |doi=10.1177/1527154413510408 |pmid=24376151 |s2cid=27940515}}</ref>

===Media===
In 1989, singer [[Terry Tate (singer)|Terry Tate]], a former teacher and graduate from Seton Hall University used his knowledge of issues concerning young students at his school which included teenage pregnancy to compose the song, ''"[[Babies Having Babies]]"''.<ref>''The R&B Report'', 14–27 August 1989 Vol. 3 No. 11 – [https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/R&B-Report/1989/R&B-Report-1989-08-14.pdf p. 21 ''Spotlights'', Background:]</ref> Radio stations became involved in trying to get the message across.<ref>''The R&B Report'', 14–27 August 1989 Vol. 3 No. 11 – [https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/R&B-Report/1989/R&B-Report-1989-08-14.pdf p. 11 ''Major Market Movers'']</ref> It ended up being a national hit on the ''Billboard''<ref>''Music VF''.com – [https://www.musicvf.com/album.php?artist=Terry+Tate&album=Terry+Tate Terry Tate by Terry Tate, Babies Having Babies]</ref><ref>rareandobscuremusic, 12 December 1989 - [https://rareandobscuremusic.wordpress.com/2009/12/12/terry-tate/ Terry Tate]</ref> and ''Cash Box'' charts in 1989.<ref>''Cash Box'', 7 October 1989 - [https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/Cash-Box/80s/1989/CB-1989-10-07.pdf p. 13 Cash Box Charts, Top R&B Singles 14 Babies Having Babies <small>(Trumpet 166)</small> Terry Tate 16 12]</ref><ref>''Cash Box'', 14 October 1989 - [https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/Cash-Box/80s/1989/CB-1989-10-14.pdf p. 29 Cash Box Charts, Top R&B Singles, 14 Babies Having Babies <small>(Trumpet 166)</small> Terry Tate 14 13]</ref>

==Notable people==
<!-- Only people established with notability on Wikipedia (with blue links included) per WP:LISTPEOPLE and WP:NLIST -->
* [[Jamie Lynn Spears]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cardoza |first=Riley |date=2019-03-21 |title=Jamie Lynn Spears on Being the 'Youngest Mom in the Room' at 17 |url=https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-moms/news/jamie-lynn-spears-on-being-the-youngest-mom-in-the-room-at-17/ |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=Us Weekly |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Fantasia Barrino]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oprah Talks to Fantasia Barrino |url=https://www.oprah.com/omagazine/oprah-talks-to-fantasia-barrino/all |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=Oprah.com}}</ref>
* [[Keisha Castle-Hughes]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-10-06 |title=16-year-old Keisha Castle-Hughes pregnant |url=https://www.today.com/popculture/16-year-old-keisha-castle-hughes-pregnant-1c9430989 |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=TODAY.com}}</ref>
* [[Toya Johnson]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carvajal |first=Edduin |date=2020-06-28 |title=Toya Wright Was 15 When She Had Lil Wayne's Daughter — Meet the Rapper's Gorgeous Ex-wife |url=https://news.amomama.com/214793-toya-wright-was-15-when-she-gave-birth-l.html |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=AmoMama}}</ref>
* [[Alex Martin (actress)|Alex Martin]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Terrania |first=Camille |date=2024-05-04 |title=Whoopi Goldberg Believes Daughter Got Pregnant At 15 To Take 'Revenge' On Her |url=https://www.enstarz.com/articles/233411/20240504/whoopi-goldberg-daughter-pregnant-15-revenge.htm |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=Enstarz |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Aretha Franklin]]<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ritz |first1=David |title=Respect: the life of Aretha Franklin |last2=Franklin |first2=Aretha |date=2014 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |isbn=978-0-316-19683-3 |location=New York |pages=58–59}}</ref>
* [[Hildegard (queen)|Hildegard of Vinzgouw]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nelson |first=Janet Laughland |title=King and Emperor: A New Life of Charlemagne |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-31420-7 |location=Oakland, California |page=133}}</ref>
* [[Mary, mother of Jesus]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Old Was Mary When She Gave Birth to Jesus? |url=https://www.christianity.com/wiki/holidays/do-we-know-how-old-mary-was-when-she-had-jesus.html |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=Christianity.com |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Édith Piaf]]<ref name=Burke>{{Cite book |last=Burke |first=Carolyn |title=No Regrets: The Life of Edith Piaf |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-307-26801-3}}</ref>
*[[Shirley Temple]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Edwards, Anne |year=1988 |title=Shirley Temple: American Princess |publisher=William Morrow and Company, Inc. |page = 355 |isbn=978-0-688-06051-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Black, Shirley Temple |year=1988 |title=Child Star: an Autobiography |pages=419–421 |location=New York |publisher=Warner Books, Inc. |isbn=0-446-35792-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/childstarautobio00temp }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Windeler, Robert |year=1992 |orig-date=1978 |title=The Films of Shirley Temple |page=68 |publisher=Carol Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8065-0725-5}}</ref>
* [[Maya Angelou]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Angelou, Maya |year=1969 |title=I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings |page=279 |location=New York |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-375-50789-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title = 35 Who Made a Difference: Maya Angelou|date = November 1, 2005|url = http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/10013086.html|last = Long|first = Richard|work = Smithsonian Magazine|access-date = December 17, 2013|archive-date = November 5, 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131105212115/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/10013086.html}}</ref>

===Born to teenage mothers===
* [[Jeff Bezos]], [[billionaire]] and founder of [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], was born to a 17-year-old mother as the result of a teenage pregnancy.<ref>Robinson (2010), pp. 14–15</ref>
* [[Barack Obama]] was born to a 18-year-old mother.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=15 Celebs Who Were Born To Teen Parents |url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2018-09-10-celebs-who-were-born-to-teen-parents/ |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=iHeart |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Eric Clapton]], world renowned guitarist, born to a 16-year-old mother.<ref name=":3" />
* [[Dr. Dre]]<ref name=":3" />
* [[Eminem]]<ref name=":3" />
* [[Selena Gomez]]<ref name=":3" />
* [[Justin Bieber]]<ref name=":3" />
* [[Lil Wayne]]<ref name=":3" />
* [[Oprah Winfrey]]<ref name=":3" />
* [[Jack Nicholson]]<ref name=":3" />
* [[50 Cent]]<ref name=":3" />
* [[Ethan Hawke]]<ref name=":3" />
* [[LeBron James]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=McMillen |first=Matt |title=LeBron James Talks About His Mother |url=https://www.webmd.com/parenting/features/lebron-james-pays-homage-to-the-mothers-in-his-life |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=WebMD |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Dana Plato]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Frasier |first=David K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=97WJCgAAQBAJ&dq=plato+strain+%2217+year+old%22&pg=PA249 |title=Suicide in the Entertainment Industry |date=March 22, 2005 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |page=249|isbn=978-0-7864-2333-0 }}</ref>
* [[Henry&nbsp;VII of England]]<ref>{{Citation |title=HENRY VII |date=2014-12-11 |work=Little Arthur's History of England |pages=256–265 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9781107775510.036 |isbn=978-1-108-07686-9 }}</ref>
* [[Marie Adélaïde of Savoy]], mother to [[Louis XV]] who nearly costed her sixteen-year-old mother, [[Anne Marie d'Orléans]] her life
* [[Princess Isabella of Parma|Isabella, Archduchess of Austria]] wife of [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]], whose mother, [[Louise Élisabeth of France|Élisabeth, Duchess of Parma]], was fourteen when she was born.

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Precocious puberty]]
* [[Pregnancy school]]
* [[Reproductive coercion]]
* [[Sexual abstinence]]
* [[Single parent]]

{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last = Armstrong | first = Bruce | editor = Alex Gitterman | title = Handbook of Social Work Practice with Vulnerable and Resilient Populations | edition = 2nd | year = 2001 | publisher = Columbia University Press | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-231-11396-0 | chapter = Adolescent Pregnancy }}
* {{cite book | last = Baker | first = Philip | title = Teenage Pregnancy and Reproductive Health | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wN-nXmH4FooC | year = 2007 | publisher = RCOG | isbn = 978-1-904752-38-7 }}
* {{cite book | last = Checkland | first = David and James Wong | title = Teen Pregnancy and Parenting: Social and Ethical Issues | year = 1999 | publisher = University of Toronto Press | location = Toronto, Canada; Buffalo, NY | isbn = 978-0-8020-4215-6 }}
* {{cite book | last = Dash | first = Leon | title = When Children want Children: The Urban Crisis of Teenage Childbearing | edition = 1st Illinois paperback | year = 1989 | publisher = University of Illinois Press | location = Urbana, IL | isbn = 978-0-252-07123-2 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Brindis |first1=Claire D. |last2=Gutmann-Gonzalez |first2=Abigail |last3=Decker |first3=Martha J. |chapter=Teenage pregnancy: Trends, predictors, prevention efforts, and future directions |title=Encyclopedia of Child and Adolescent Health |edition=First |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |date=2023 |volume=1 |pages=973–987 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-818872-9.00019-4 |isbn=978-0-12-818873-6 |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128188729000194|chapter-url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book | last = Erickson | first = Pamela I. | title = Latina Adolescent Childbearing in East Los Angeles | year = 1998 | publisher = University of Texas Press | location = Austin, TX | isbn = 978-0-292-72093-0 }}
* {{cite book | last = Kaplan | first = Elaine Bell | title = Not Our Kind of Girl: Unraveling the Myths of Black Teenage Motherhood | year = 1997 | publisher = University of California Press | location = Berkeley, CA | isbn = 978-0-520-08736-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/notourkindofgirl00kapl }}
* {{cite book | last = Harris | first = Irving B. | title = Children in Jeopardy: Can We Break the Cycle of Poverty? | year = 1996 | publisher = Yale Child Study Center: Distributed by Yale University Press | location = New Haven, CT | isbn = 978-0-300-06892-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/childreninjeopar00harr }}
* {{cite book | last = Luker | first = Kristin | title = Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of Teenage Pregnancy | year = 1996 | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, MA | isbn = 978-0-674-21702-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/dubiousconceptio00luke }}
* {{cite book |last1=Macleod |first1=Catriona Ida |title=The International Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality |chapter=Teenage pregnancy |date=2015 |pages=1355–1404 |doi=10.1002/9781118896877.wbiehs506|isbn=978-1-4051-9006-0 }}
* {{cite book | last = Rhode | first = Deborah L. | editor = Nancy Ehrenreich | title = The Reproductive Rights Reader | year = 2007 | publisher = New York University Press | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-8147-2230-5 | chapter = Politics and Pregnancy: Adolescent Mothers and Public Policy }}
* {{cite book | last = Seitz | first = Victoria | editor = Edward Zigler | editor2 = Sharon Lynn Kagan | editor3 = Nancy Wilson Hall | title = Children, Families, and Government: Preparing for the Twenty-First Century | year = 1996 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-521-24219-6 | chapter = Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenting | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/childrenfamilies00zigl }}
* {{cite book | last = Silverstein | first = Helena | title = Girls on the Stand: How Courts Fail Pregnant Minors | year = 2007 | publisher = New York University Press | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-8147-4031-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/girlsonstandhowc00silv }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Medical resources
|  DiseasesDB      =
| ICD11          = {{ICD11|QA43.5}}
|  ICD10           = {{ICD10|Z33}}, {{ICD10|Z35.6}}
|  ICD9            = {{ICD9|650}}
|  ICDO            =
|  OMIM            =
|  MedlinePlus     =
|  MeSH            =
|  GeneReviewsNBK  =
|  GeneReviewsName =
}}
{{Library resources box |by=no |onlinebooks=no |others=yes lcheading=Teenage pregnancy}}
* [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy WHO fact sheet on adolescent pregnancy]
* [http://hub.hku.hk/handle/10722/53566 Teenage pregnancies and obstetric outcome]
* [http://digitalcommons.library.tmc.edu/childrenatrisk/vol2/iss2/ Teen Pregnancy], a special issue from the Journal of Applied Research on Children (2011)

{{Women's health|state=collapsed}}
{{Reproductive health}}
{{Sexual ethics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Teenage Pregnancy}}
[[Category:Teenage pregnancy| ]]
[[Category:Adolescent sexuality]]
[[Category:Youth]]
[[Category:Pediatric gynecology]]
[[Category:Puberty]]