View source for Teochew Min

{{Short description|Southern Min language of China}}
{{More footnotes needed|date=October 2012}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2023}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Teochew
| altname          = Chaozhou, Chaoshan, Teo-Swa
| nativename       = {{lang|zh-Hant|潮州話}} / {{lang|zh-Hant|潮汕話}} / {{lang|zh-Hant|潮語}}<ref>{{cite news|title=學潮語，埋下愛的種子|url=https://www.sinchew.com.my/pad/con/content_2101420.html|agency=Sin Chew|date=2021-01-09|archive-date=March 19, 2021|access-date=January 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319171854/https://www.sinchew.com.my/pad/con/content_2101420.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| states           = [[China]], [[Overseas Chinese|overseas communities]] (particularly in [[Southeast Asia]])
| region           = Eastern [[Guangdong]] ([[Chaoshan]])
| ethnicity        = [[Teochew people]]
| speakers         = About 14 million in [[Chaoshan]] (2004)<ref name="langatlas2">{{citation
  | title = Language atlas of China (2nd edition)
  | publisher = [[City University of Hong Kong]] | year = 2012
  | isbn = 978-7-10-007054-6
  | postscript = .
  }}</ref><br>more than 5 million overseas{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}}
| date             = 
| ref              = 
| familycolor      = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2             = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3             = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
| fam4             = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| fam5             = [[Min Chinese#Coastal Min|Coastal Min]]
| fam6             = [[Southern Min]]
| dia1             = [[Swatow dialect]]
| dia2             = [[Pontianak Teochew]]
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan language|Proto-Sino-Tibetan]]
| ancestor2        = [[Old Chinese]]{{efn|group=lower-roman|name=minClassification|Min is believed to have split from Old Chinese, rather than Middle Chinese like other varieties of Chinese.<ref>{{citation |last=Mei |first=Tsu-lin |author1-link=Mei Tsu-lin |title=Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=30 |year=1970 |pages=86–110 |doi=10.2307/2718766 |jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Pulleyblank |first=Edwin G. |author-link=Edwin G. Pulleyblank |title=Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology |year=1984 |page=3 |location=Vancouver |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8}}</ref><ref name="glottoMin">{{Cite journal |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/minn1248 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - Min |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013171747/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/minn1248 |archive-date=2023-10-13 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |author-link=Harald Hammarström |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |publication-place=[[Leipzig]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7398962 |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |author-link3=Martin Haspelmath |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian |doi-access=free}}</ref>}}
| ancestor3        = [[Proto-Min]]
| glotto           = chao1238
| glottorefname    = Chaozhou
| lingua           = 79-AAA-ji
| notice           = IPA
| iso3             = none
| map              = Map of Southern Min en.svg
| mapcaption       = {{legend|#677821|Teochew (Teo-Swa) within the [[Southern Min]] languages}}
| script           = [[Chinese characters]]<br>[[Teochew Romanization]]<br>[[Peng'im]]
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| t = 潮州話
| s = 潮州话
| j = Ciu4 zau1 waa2
| p = Cháozhōu huà
| wuu = zau tseu ghae ho
| teo = Diê⁵ ziu¹ uê⁷ / Dio⁵ ziu¹ uê⁷
| poj = Tiô-chiu-ōe / Tiô-chiu-ōa
| buc = Dièu-ciŭ-uâ
| h = Tshèu-chû-fa
}}
'''Teochew''',{{efn|group=lower-roman|{{lang-zh|t={{linktext|潮州話}}}}, Teochew: ''Tiô-tsiu-uē'' ([[Teochew Romanization|Pe̍h-ūe-jī]]) / ''{{tonesup|Dio5ziu1uê7}}'' ([[Peng'im]]), [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]: ''Cháozhōuhuà''}} also known as '''Swatow'''{{efn|group=lower-roman|{{lang-zh|t={{linktext|汕頭話}}}}, Teochew: ''Suaⁿ-thâu-uē'' ([[Teochew Romanization|Pe̍h-ūe-jī]]) / ''{{tonesup|Suan1tao5uê7}}'' ([[Peng'im]]), Mandarin: ''Shàntóuhuà''}} or '''Teo-Swa'''{{efn|group=lower-roman|{{lang-zh|t={{linktext|潮汕話}}}}, Teochew: ''Tiô-suaⁿ-uē'' ([[Teochew Romanization|Pe̍h-ūe-jī]]) / ''{{tonesup|Dio5suan1uê7}}'' ([[Peng'im]]), Mandarin: ''Cháoshànhuà''}} after its two best-known dialects, is a [[Southern Min]] language spoken by the [[Teochew people]] in the [[Chaoshan]] region of eastern [[Guangdong]] and by their diaspora around the world. It is sometimes referred to as ''Chiuchow'', its [[Cantonese]] rendering, due to English romanization by colonial officials and explorers. It is closely related to [[Hokkien]], as it shares some [[cognate]]s and phonology with Hokkien.

Teochew preserves many [[Old Chinese]] pronunciations and vocabulary that have been lost in some of the other modern [[varieties of Chinese]]. As such, Teochew is described as one of the most conservative Chinese languages.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-Fiq1Ct4OIC&q=chaozhou+most+conservative+chinese+dialect&pg=PA111|title=Nominalization in Asian Languages: Diachronic and typological perspectives|page=11|editor1-last=Yap|editor1-first=Foong Ha|editor2-last=Grunow-Hårsta|editor2-first=Karen|editor3-last=Wrona|editor3-first=Janick|publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]]|year=2011|isbn=978-9027206770}}</ref>

==History and geography==
Historically, the Teochew{{efn|group=lower-roman|Mandarin 'Chaozhou'}} prefecture included modern prefecture-level cities of [[Chaozhou]], [[Jieyang]] and [[Shantou]]. In China, this region is now known as [[Chaoshan|Teoswa]].{{efn|group=lower-roman|Mandarin 'Chaoshan'}} Parts of the [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka-speaking]] [[Meizhou]] city, such as [[Dabu County]] and [[Fengshun]], were also parts of the Teochew prefecture and contain pocket communities of Teochew speakers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tan |first=Gia Lim |url=https://doi.org/10.1142/10967 |title=An Introduction to the Culture and History of the Teochews in Singapore |date=2018-03-25 |publisher=WORLD SCIENTIFIC |doi=10.1142/10967 |isbn=978-981-323-935-7}}</ref>

As the Teochew region was one of the major sources of Chinese emigration to [[Southeast Asia]] during the 18th to 20th centuries, a considerable [[Overseas Chinese]] community in that region is Teochew-speaking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Cher Leng |last2=Phua |first2=Chiew Pheng |date=2021-09-22 |title=Singapore Teochew as a heritage language |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/s0332586521000147 |journal=Nordic Journal of Linguistics |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=155–181 |doi=10.1017/s0332586521000147 |issn=0332-5865|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In particular, the Teochew people settled in significant numbers in [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Laos]], where they form the largest Chinese sub-language group.<ref>Szklarz, Z. (2024). Chinese Economic Behavior in Southeast Asia: A Historical and Cultural Overview of the Migration Patterns, Culture, and Business Practices of the Chinese Diaspora in Southeast Asia.</ref>  Additionally, there are many Teochew-speakers among Chinese communities in [[Vietnam]], [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]] (especially in the states of [[Johor]], [[Malacca]], [[Penang]], [[Kedah]] and [[Selangor]] with significant minorities in [[Sarawak]]) and [[Indonesia]] (especially in [[West Kalimantan]]). Waves of migration from Teochew region to [[Hong Kong]], especially after the communist victory of the Chinese Civil War in 1949, has also resulted in the formation of a community there, although most descendants now primarily speak Cantonese and English as a result of colonialism and assimilation to the dominant Cantonese culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=陳 |first=秉安 |title=大逃港 |date=13 September 2016 |publisher=香港中和出版 |isbn=9789888369539 |location=Hong Kong |publication-date=13 September 2016 |language=Traditional Chinese |trans-title=Big Escape}}</ref>

Teochew speakers are also found among overseas Chinese communities in [[Japan]] and the Western world (notably in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[United Kingdom]], [[France]] and [[Italy]]), a result of both direct emigration from the Chaoshan region to these nations and also secondary emigration from Southeast Asia.

In Singapore, Teochew remains the ancestral language of many [[Chinese Singaporean]]s, with Chinese of Teochew descent making up the second largest Chinese group in Singapore, after the [[Hoklo (ethnic group)|Hoklo]]. Despite this, many Teochew people, particularly the younger generations, are [[language shift|shifting]] towards [[Singaporean English|English]] and [[Singaporean Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]] as their main spoken language. This is due to the Singapore government's stringent bilingual policy that promotes English as the official language of education, government and commerce and [[Speak Mandarin Campaign|promotes Mandarin]] at the expense of other Chinese languages. Some Teochew assimilated with the larger Hokkien community and speak [[Singaporean Hokkien|Hokkien]] rather than Teochew due to Hokkien's prominent role as a lingua franca previously among the Singaporean Chinese community.

==Classification==
Teochew is a [[Southern Min]] language. As with other [[Sinitic languages]], it is not [[mutually intelligible]] with Mandarin, Cantonese or Shanghainese. It has only limited intelligibility with Hokkien. Even within the Teochew dialects, there is substantial variation in [[phonology]] between different regions and between different Teochew communities overseas.

The dialects of Teochew Min include:<ref name="tonotypes">{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Jingfen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=liASEAAAQBAJ |title=Tono-types and Tone Evolution: The Case of Chaoshan |date=2021-01-04 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-334-870-7 |language=en}}</ref>
* Northern Teochew, or Chaozhou division ({{lang|zh-Hant|潮州片}}), including:
** Teochew dialect ({{lang|zh|潮州话 / 潮州話}}), spoken in urban Chaozhou ([[Xiangqiao, Chaozhou|Xiangqiao District]]); a similar dialect is spoken in [[Chenghai, Shantou|Chenghai]]
** Jieyang dialect ({{lang|zh|揭阳话 / 揭陽話}}), spoken in urban [[Jieyang]] ([[Rongcheng, Jieyang|Rongcheng District]]); related dialects are spoken in adjacent areas in [[Jiedong, Jieyang|Jiedong]], [[Jiexi County|Jiexi]], as well as in northern parts of [[Puning]] and [[Chaoyang, Shantou|Chaoyang]]
** [[Swatow dialect]] ({{lang|zh|汕头话 / 汕頭話}}), spoken in urban Shantou ([[Jinping, Shantou|Jinping]] and [[Longhu, Shantou|Longhu]])
** Raoping dialect ({{lang|zh|饶平话 / 饒平話}}), spoken in [[Raoping County]]
* Southern Teochew, or Chaoyang-Puning division ({{lang|zh-Hant|潮普片}}), including:
** Chaoyang dialect ({{lang|zh|潮阳话 / 潮陽話}}), spoken in the historical Teoyeo (Chaoyang) county, which includes modern [[Chaoyang, Shantou|Chaoyang]], [[Chaonan]], and [[Haojiang]]
** Puning dialect ({{lang|zh|普宁话 / 普寧話}}), spoken in urban [[Puning]]
** Huilai dialect ({{lang|zh|惠来话 / 惠來話}}), spoken in [[Huilai County]]

''Language Atlas of China'' consider the [[Haklau Min|Hai Lok Hong dialect]] a part of Chaoshan Min <ref name="langatlas2"/>(as the third branch(海陸片)),<ref name="Xu2010"/> while others{{Who|date=July 2025}} consider it a part of [[Hokkien]] or an independent [[Southern Min]] variety.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=潘家懿 |last2=鄭守治 |date=2010-03-01 |title=粵東閩南語的分布及方言片的劃分 |url=https://www.airitilibrary.com/Article/Detail/P20170425003-201003-201704270015-201704270015-145-165 |journal=臺灣語文研究 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=145–165 |doi=10.6710/JTLL.201003_5(1).0008}}</ref>

In the [[Nan'ao County|Nan'ao island]], there are two dialects, both distinct from the mainland Teochew, with Western Nan'ao dialect inclining towards the Northern Teochew, and Eastern Nan'ao dialect showing Hokkien influence, as this part of the island was included in [[Zhangzhou fu|Zhangzhou prefecture]] in 16—19 centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lin |first1=Lunlun |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/190795329 |title=Guangdong Nan'ao Dao fang yan yu yin ci hui yan jiu |last2=Lin |first2=Chunyu |date=2007 |publisher=Zhonghua shu ju |isbn=978-7-101-05600-6 |edition=Di 1 ban |series=Huaxia ying cai ji jin xue shu wen ku |location=Beijing |oclc=190795329}}</ref>

[[Chawan dialect]], spoken in [[Fujian]] along the Guangdong border, is quite different from other southern dialects of [[Hokkien]]. It has some lexical influence from Teochew and relatively higher mutual intelligibility with it, yet in other aspects it clusters more with Hokkien than Teochew.

The main criterion in the classification of Teochew dialects is the presence or absence of the vowel {{IPA|/ɯ/}}. It is found in Northern Teochew in words like ''hṳ̂'' 魚 '''{{tonesup|he5}}''' "fish" and ''sṳ̄'' 事 '''{{tonesup|se7}}''' "thing; matter". Southern Teochew has {{IPA|/u/}} instead (''hû'' 魚 '''{{tonesup|hu5}}''', ''sū'' 事 '''{{tonesup|su7}}'''). Hai Lok Hong and Eastern Namoa dialects have {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/u/}} instead, depending on the etymology of the word (''hî'' 魚 '''{{tonesup|hi5}}''', but ''sū'' 事 '''{{tonesup|su7}}'''), similarly to the [[Zhangzhou dialects|Chiangchew Hokkien]]. Southern Teochew may be further divided into Huilai—Puning dialects and Teoyeo dialects, based on their tone contours.<ref name="tonotypes"/>

<gallery mode=packed heights=250px>
潮州府位置图1820.svg|<div style="text-align: left;">Location of the historical Teochew prefecture ({{lang|zh|潮州府}}) in [[Guangdong province]] during the [[Qing dynasty]]. Teochew language is spoken throughout the region, which is now called "Teoswa", as the former Teochew prefecture was dissolved.</div>
Teochew map.svg|<div style="text-align: left;">Major dialect groups of Teochew{{legend|#a2bdf3|Northern Teochew}}{{legend|#ffcc80|Southern Teochew}}{{legend|#b9d56d|[[Haklau Min|Hai Lok Hong Min]] (sometimes included in Teochew)}}<br>{{legend|#c5f5a5|[[Hokkien]]-Teochew transitional dialects}}{{legend|#b3f3e6|[[Zhangzhou dialects|Chiangchew Hokkien]]}}</div>
</gallery>

The [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige dialects]] of Teochew all belong to the Northern branch. The Northern Teochew dialects are mutually intelligible between each other, but less so with the Southern branch.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Qibin |first=Zhang |date=2023-12-23 |title=Language Situation in the Chaoshan Community: A Pilot Study |url=https://sociolinguistics.ru/index.php/sociolinguistics/article/view/231 |journal=Sociolingvistika |volume=3 |issue=15 |pages=98–124 |doi=10.37892/2713-2951-3-15-98-124 |issn=2713-2951|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Various stereotypes and cultural traits are associated with different Teochew dialects. For instance, within the [[Shantou|Shantou city]], the urban [[Swatow dialect]] is perceived as "energetic", "gentle", but also "snobbish" or "pretentious" by speakers of other dialects; the Chenghai dialect (similar to urban Chaozhou dialect) is perceived as "soft", "cute", and "high-pitched"; the Teoyeo dialect is perceived as "harsh", "aggressive" and "countrified".<ref name=":1" />

== Writing system ==
Written Southern Min is known since at least the 16th century. The earliest known work is a 1566 edition of the ''[[Tale of the Lychee Mirror]]'', a folk drama written in a mixture of Teochew and [[Quanzhou dialects|Chinchew Hokkien]].

Teochew writing is neither standardized nor is widely used. In [[Imperial China]], most writing was conducted in [[Classical Chinese]], while vernacular writing was only used in novels, songbooks and opera scripts. After the [[Xinhai revolution]], only written Mandarin was supported by the government, while speakers of other Sinitic languages, including Teochew, remaining largely illiterate in their own tongues.

Teochew [[Rime dictionary|rime dictionaries]] appeared relatively late, the earliest of them being "Fifteen consonants of Teochew sound" ({{lang|zh|潮聲十五音}}, 1913) by Zhang Shizhen ({{lang|zh|張世珍}}), "Ji Mu Zhi Yin"({{lang|zh|擊木知音}}, 1915) by Jiangxia Maotingshi ({{lang|zh|江夏懋亭氏}}) and "Fifteen consonants of Teochew language" ({{lang|zh|潮語十五音}}, 1921) by Jiang Rulin ({{lang|zh|蔣儒林}}).<ref name="LinLL2012">{{cite book |author1=Lin Lunlun |title=潮汕方言：潮人的精神家园 |date=2012 |publisher=Jinan University Press |location=Guangzhou |isbn=9787566801395}}</ref>

=== Chinese characters ===
Most of the Teochew vocabulary can be traced back to Old Chinese, and thus can be written using Chinese characters. There are different ways to write words that do not have a clearly associated etymological character, including:
* using a character with the same meaning regardless of its reading
* borrowing a phonetically close character regardless of its meaning
* inventing a new character
* attempting to find an original character

Teochew shares characters with Hokkien for cognate words, but it is also influenced by the [[Written Cantonese|Cantonese written tradition]].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin-right:1.4em;"
|+
! rowspan="2" |Word
! colspan="4" |Possible spellings
|-
!Semantic
!Phonetic
!Invented<br>character
!Presumed<br>original character
|-
|''pak'' / '''{{tonesup|bag4}}''' "to know"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|識}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|捌}}, {{wikt-lang|zh|八}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|𧧸}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|別}}
|-
|''tiâng'' / '''{{tonesup|diang5}}''' "who"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|誰}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|珍}}, {{wikt-lang|zh|唺}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|𫢗}}
|[{{wikt-lang|zh|底儂}}]
|-
|''tsōi'' / '''{{tonesup|zoi7}}''' "many"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|多}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|諸}}, {{wikt-lang|zh|眾}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|侈}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|濟}}, {{wikt-lang|zh|㩼}}
|-
|''thâi'' / '''{{tonesup|tai5}}''' "to kill"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|殺}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|汰}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|刣}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|治}}
|-
|''m̆'' / '''{{tonesup|m6}}''' "not"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|不}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|唔}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|伓}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|毋}}
|-
|''tse̍k'' / '''{{tonesup|zêg8}}''' "one"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|一}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|澤}}
|
|{{wikt-lang|zh|蜀}}, {{wikt-lang|zh|隻}}
|-
|''kûiⁿ'' / '''{{tonesup|guin5}}''' "tall; high"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|高}}
|{{wikt-lang|zh|危}}
|
|{{wikt-lang|zh|懸}}
|-
|''tshâng'' / '''{{tonesup|cang5}}''' "field"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|田}}
|
|
|{{wikt-lang|zh|塍}}, {{wikt-lang|zh|層}}
|}

=== Romanization ===
{{main|Peng'im|Pe̍h-ūe-jī}}
There are two principal romanization systems for Teochew:
* ''[[Pe̍h-ūe-jī]]'', originally invented for Hokkien in the 19th century and adapted for Teochew (particularly the Swatow dialect)
* ''[[Peng'im]]'', invented in the 1960s and based on the ''[[Hanyu Pinyin]]'' romanization for Mandarin

While ''[[Peng'im]]'' has some presence in academic works published in PRC, many publications on Teochew use their custom IPA-based romanizations.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=30%}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Consonants
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
!''[[Pe̍h-ūe-jī]]''
!''[[Peng'im]]''
|-
| {{IPAslink|p}}
| ''p''
| '''b'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|pʰ}}
| ''ph''
| '''p'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|b}}
| ''b''
| '''bh'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|m}}
| ''m''
| '''m'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|t}}
| ''t''
| '''d'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|tʰ}}
| ''th''
| '''t'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|l}}
| ''l''
| '''l'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|n}}
| ''n''
| '''n'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|h}}
| ''h''
| '''h'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|k}}
| ''k''
| '''g'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|kʰ}}
| ''kh''
| '''k'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|g}}
| ''g''
| '''gh'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|ŋ}}
| ''ng''
| '''ng'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|ts}}
| ''ts''{{efn|name=tsch|Many missionary publications use ''ch'' , ''chh'' and ''j'' before ''i''. ''ts'' , ''tsh'' and ''z'' are used elsewhere, like some versions of [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī#Maturity|Hokkien ''Pe̍h-ōe-jī'']].}}
| '''z'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|tsʰ}}
| ''tsh''{{efn|name=tsch}}
| '''c'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|dz}}
| ''z''{{efn|name=tsch}}
| '''r'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|s}}
| ''s''
| '''s'''
|}
{{notelist}}
{{col-break|width=37%}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Vowels
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
!''[[Pe̍h-ūe-jī]]''
!''[[Peng'im]]''
|-
| {{IPAslink|a}}
| ''a''
| '''a'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ia/}}
| ''ia''
| '''ia'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ua/}}
| ''ua''
| '''ua'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ai/}}
| ''ai''
| '''ai'''
|-
| {{IPA|/au/}}
| ''au''
| '''ao'''
|-
| {{IPA|/uai/}}
| ''uai''
| '''uai'''
|-
| {{IPA|/iau/}}
| ''iau''
| '''iao'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|o}}
| ''o''
| '''o'''
|-
| {{IPA|/io/}}
| ''io''
| '''io'''
|-
| {{IPA|/oi/}}
| ''oi''
| '''oi'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ou/}}
| ''ou''
| '''ou'''
|-
| {{IPA|/iou/}}
| ''iou''
| '''iou'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|e}} or {{IPAslink|ɛ}}
| ''e''
| '''ê'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ie/}} or {{IPA|/iɛ/}}
| ''ie''
| '''iê'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ue/}} or {{IPA|/uɛ/}}
| ''ue''
| '''uê'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|ɯ}} or {{IPAslink|ə}}
| ''ṳ''
| '''e'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|i}}
| ''i''
| '''i'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|u}}
| ''u''
| '''u'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ui/}}
| ''ui''
| '''ui'''
|-
| {{IPA|/iu/}}
| ''iu''
| '''iu'''
|}
{{col-break|width=33%}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Codas
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
!''[[Pe̍h-ūe-jī]]''
!''[[Peng'im]]''
|-
| {{IPAslink|ŋ|-ŋ}}
| ''-ng''
| '''-ng'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|k|-k}}
| ''-k''
| '''-g'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|ʔ|-ʔ}}
| ''-h''
| '''-h'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|◌̃|-◌̃}}
| ''-ⁿ''
| '''-n'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|m|-m}}
| ''-m''
| '''-m'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|p|-p}}
| ''-p''
| '''-b'''
|-
| {{IPAslink|n|-n}}{{efn|name=nto|Obsolete in most Teochew dialects.}}
| ''-n''
| —
|-
| {{IPAslink|t|-t}}{{efn|name=nto}}
| ''-t''
| —
|}
{{notelist}}
{{col-end}}

==Phonetics and phonology==
===Consonants===
{{listen
| type         = speech
| header       = Prenasalization of voiced plosives and lateral in Teochew
| filename     = Zh-nan-czhu, bhoi2 gho5 lai7 ziah8.ogg
| title        = Voicelessly prenasalized voiced stops and lateral
| description  = {{fs interlinear|italics3=yes|glossing3=no|class3=bold|ipa4=yes|{{wikt-lang|zh|買}} {{wikt-lang|zh|鵝}} {{wikt-lang|zh|來}} {{wikt-lang|zh|食}}|bói gô lāi tsia̍h|bhoi2 gho5 lai7 ziah8|[ᵐ̥boi ᵑ̊ɡo ⁿ̥ɺai tsiaʔ]|"buy geese to eat"}}
}}
Teochew, like other Southern Min varieties, is one of the few modern Sinitic languages which have [[Phonation#Voicing|voiced]] [[obstruent]]s (stops, fricatives and affricates); however, unlike [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] and [[Xiang Chinese]], the Teochew voiced [[Stop consonant|stops]] and [[fricative consonant|fricatives]] did not evolve from [[Middle Chinese]] voiced obstruents, but from [[nasal consonant|nasals]].

The voiced stops {{IPA|[b]}} and {{IPA|[ɡ]}} and also {{IPA|[l]}} are voicelessly [[prenasalized consonant|prenasalized]] {{IPA|[ᵐ̥b]}}, {{IPA|[ᵑ̊ɡ]}}, {{IPA|[ⁿ̥ɺ]}}, respectively.

The voiced affricate {{IPA link|dz}}, initial in such words as ''jī'' {{wikt-lang|zh|字}} '''{{tonesup|ri7}}''' (/dzi˩/), ''jĭ'' {{wikt-lang|zh|二}} '''{{tonesup|ri6}}''' (/dzi˧˥/), ''jiâng'' {{wikt-lang|zh|然}} '''{{tonesup|riang5}}''' (/dziaŋ˥/), ''jia̍k'' {{wikt-lang|zh|若}} '''{{tonesup|riag8}}''' (/dziak˦/) loses its affricate property with some younger speakers abroad, and is relaxed to [z].

{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+Teochew consonants
! colspan="2"|
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]]<br><small>(no frictions)</small>
!<small>[[Nasal consonant|nasal]]</small>
| {{IPA link|m}} 毛
| {{IPA link|n}} 年
| {{IPA link|ŋ}} 雅
| 
|-
!<small>plosive or [[Lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}} 米
| {{IPA link|l}} 來/內
| {{IPA link|ɡ}} 鵝/牙
| 
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Voicelessness|Voiceless]] [[Stop consonant|stops]]
!<small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|{{IPA link|pʰ}} 皮
|{{IPA link|tʰ}} 台
|{{IPA link|kʰ}} 可
|
|-
! <small>plain</small>
| {{IPA link|p}} 比
|{{IPA link|t}} 都
| {{IPA link|k}} 歌
|{{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>[[Voicelessness|Voiceless]] [[Affricate consonant|affricates]]</small>
! <small>[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]</small>
|
| {{IPA link|tsʰ}} 菜/樹
|
|
|-
! <small>plain</small>
|
| {{IPA link|ts}} 書/指/食
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricatives]]
|
| {{IPA link|s}} 士/速
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA link|h}} 海/系<!--[[Nasalized glottal fricative|h̃]] 園/遠 [h̃ŋ]--><!--all Teochew consonant can be nasalized, no point to specifically emphasis this single one-->
|-
|
|{{IPA link|dz|(d)z}} 爾/貳
|}

Unlike in Hokkien, nasal initials in Teochew are not generally considered [[allophone]]s of the voiced plosives, as nasals are relatively more common in Teochew and have less usage restrictions. For example, Teochew allows for syllables like ''nge̍k'' 逆 '''{{tonesup|ngêg8}}''', which are impossible in Hokkien.

In Southern dialects of Teochew, labial initials (/p/, /pʰ/, /b/, /m/) have [[Labiodental consonant|labiodental]] allophones ([pf], [pfʰ], [bv], [mv~ɱ]) before /-u-/.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=潘家懿 |title=粤东闽语存在齿唇音声母 |journal=中国语文 |publication-date=2009 |issue=2009–1 |pages=81–83 |ref=Pan2009}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Character
![[Teochew Romanization|Pe̍h-ūe-jī]]
![[Peng'im]]
!Swatow dialect
!Teoyeo dialect
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|富}}
|''pù''
|'''{{tonesup|bu3}}'''
|{{IPA|[pu²¹²]}}
|{{IPA|[pfu⁵²]}}
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|搬}}
|''puaⁿ''
|'''{{tonesup|buan1}}'''
|{{IPA|[pũã³³]}}
|{{IPA|[pfũã³¹]}}
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|婆}}
|''phuâ''
|'''{{tonesup|pua5}}'''
|{{IPA|[pʰua⁵⁵]}}
|{{IPA|[pfʰua²³]}}
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|配}}
|''phuè''
|'''{{tonesup|puê3}}'''
|{{IPA|[pʰue²¹²]}}
|{{IPA|[pfʰue⁵²]}}
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|武}}
|''bú''
|'''{{tonesup|bhu2}}'''
|{{IPA|[bu⁵²]}}
|{{IPA|[bvu⁴⁵]}}
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|尾}}
|''bué''
|'''{{tonesup|bhuê2}}'''
|{{IPA|[bue⁵²]}}
|{{IPA|[bvue⁴⁵]}}
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|妹}}
|''muē''
|'''{{tonesup|muê7}}'''
|{{IPA|[mũẽ¹¹]}}
|{{IPA|[mvũẽ⁴³]}}
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|滿}}
|''muá''
|'''{{tonesup|muan2}}'''
|{{IPA|[mũã⁵²]}}
|{{IPA|[mvũã⁴⁵]}}
|}

=== Syllables ===

[[Syllable]]s in Teochew contain an onset consonant, a medial glide, a nucleus, usually in the form of a [[vowel]], but can also be occupied by a [[syllabic consonant]] like [ŋ], and a final [[consonant]]. All the elements of the syllable except for the nucleus are optional, which means a vowel or a syllabic consonant alone can stand as a fully-fledged syllable.

==== Onsets ====

All the consonants except for the glottal stop ʔ shown in the consonants chart above can act as the onset of a syllable; however, the onset position is not obligatorily occupied.

==== Finals ====
Teochew finals consist maximally of a medial, nucleus and coda. The medial can be /i-/ or /u-/, the nucleus can be a monophthong or diphthong, and the coda can be a nasal or a stop. A syllable must consist minimally of a vowel nucleus or syllabic nasal.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| Nucleus
! colspan="3"| -{{IPA link|ä|a}}-
! colspan="3" | -{{IPA link|ɛ̝}}-
! colspan="2"| -{{IPA link|o̞}}-
! -{{IPA link|ɯ}}-{{efn|name=nt|Only in Northern Teochew. Alternatively analyzed as /ə/.}}
! -{{IPA link|i}}-
! -{{IPA link|u}}-
! colspan="2"| -ai-
! colspan="2" | -au-
! -oi-
! colspan="2" | -ou-
! -ui-
! -iu-
! rowspan="2"| ∅-
|-
! colspan="2"| Medial
! ∅-!! i-!! u-
! ∅-
!i-!! u-
! ∅-!! i-
! ∅-
! ∅-
! ∅-
! ∅-!! u-
! ∅-
!i-
! ∅-
! ∅-
!i-
! ∅-
! ∅-
|-
! rowspan="7"| Coda
! -∅
| {{IPA|a}}|| {{IPA|ia}}|| {{IPA|ua}}
| {{IPA|e}}
|{{efn|name=tp|The rimes /io/, /ĩõ/, /ioʔ/, /iau/, /ĩãũ/ are pronounced as /ie/, /ĩẽ/, /ieʔ/, /iou~iəu/, /ĩõũ~ĩə̃ũ/ in Chaozhou and Chenghai.}}|| {{IPA|ue}}
| {{IPA|o}}|| {{IPA|io}}{{efn|name=tp}}
| {{IPA|ɯ}}
| {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|u}}
| {{IPA|ai}}|| {{IPA|uai}}
| {{IPA|au}}
| {{IPA|iau}}{{efn|name=tp}}
| {{IPA|oi}}
| {{IPA|ou}}
|{{efn|name=tp}}
| {{IPA|ui}}
| {{IPA|iu}}
| rowspan="3" style="background: #aaa;"|
|-
! -{{IPA link|◌̃}}
| {{IPA|ã}}|| {{IPA|ĩã}}|| {{IPA|ũã}}
| {{IPA|ẽ}}
|{{efn|name=tp}}|| {{IPA|ũẽ}}
| || {{IPA|ĩõ}}{{efn|name=tp}}
| {{IPA|ɯ̃}}
| {{IPA|ĩ}}
|
| {{IPA|ãĩ}}{{efn|name=oinn}}|| {{IPA|ũãĩ}}{{efn|name=uinn}}
| {{IPA|ãũ}}
| {{IPA|ĩãũ}}{{efn|name=tp}}
| {{IPA|õĩ}}{{efn|name=oinn|The rime /õĩ/, as in {{wikt-lang|zh|前}} /tsõĩ˥/, found in Teochew proper and Swatow dialects, is merged with /ãi/ in Kekyeo and Southern Teochew. Otherwise, the rime /ãi/ is uncommon in Teochew, and occurs mostly in {{wikt-lang|zh|愛}} /ãĩ˨˩˨/ "to want" and some other words with the same radical.}}
| {{IPA|õũ}}
| {{efn|name=tp}}
| {{IPA|ũĩ}}{{efn|name=uinn|The rime /uĩ/, as in {{wikt-lang|zh|縣}} /kũĩ˨˩/, found in Northern Teochew, corresponds to the Southern Teochew rime /uãi/. Otherwise, the rime /uãi/ is uncommon in Teochew, but occurs e.g. in {{wikt-lang|zh|檨}} /sũãĩ˨˩/ "mango".}}
| {{IPA|ĩũ}}
|-
! -{{IPA link|ʔ}}
| {{IPA|aʔ}}|| {{IPA|iaʔ}}|| {{IPA|uaʔ}}
| {{IPA|eʔ}}
|{{efn|name=tp}}|| {{IPA|ueʔ}}
| {{IPA|oʔ}}|| {{IPA|ioʔ}}{{efn|name=tp}}
| {{IPA|ɯʔ}}
| {{IPA|iʔ}}
| {{IPA|uʔ}}
| ||
| {{IPA|auʔ}}
|
| {{IPA|oiʔ}}
| 
|
|
| {{IPA|iuʔ}}
|-
! -{{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA|am}}|| {{IPA|iam}}|| {{IPA|uam}}
| 
| ||
| ||
|
| {{IPA|im}}
|
| colspan="9" rowspan="4" style="background: #aaa;" |
| {{IPA|m̩}}
|-
! -{{IPA link|ŋ}}
| {{IPA|aŋ}}|| {{IPA|iaŋ}}|| {{IPA|uaŋ}}
| {{IPA|eŋ}}
|{{IPA|ieng}}{{efn|name=ieng|The rimes /ieŋ/ and /iek/ are only found in Chaozhou dialect. Other dialects merge them with /iang/ and /iak/.}}||{{IPA|ueŋ}}
| {{IPA|oŋ}}|| {{IPA|ioŋ}}
| {{IPA|ɯŋ}}
| {{IPA|iŋ}}
| {{IPA|uŋ}}
| {{IPA|ŋ̩}}
|-
! -{{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA|ap}}|| {{IPA|iap}}|| {{IPA|uap}}
| 
| ||
| ||
|
| {{IPA|ip}}
|
| rowspan="2" style="background: #aaa;"|
|-
! -{{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA|ak}}|| {{IPA|iak}}|| {{IPA|uak}}
| {{IPA|ek}}
| {{IPA|iek}}{{efn|name=ieng}}||{{IPA|uek}}
| {{IPA|ok}}|| {{IPA|iok}}
| {{IPA|ɯk}}
| {{IPA|ik}}
| {{IPA|uk}}
|}
{{notelist}}

Apart from the aforementioned rhymes, there are a few limitedly used finals with both glottal stop and nasalization, usually found in ideophones and interjections, e.g. ''he̍hⁿ'' {{wikt-lang|zh|嚇}} /hẽʔ˥˦/ "agitated; confused", ''hauhⁿ'' {{wikt-lang|zh|殽}} /hãũʔ˧˨/ "to eat in large bites", ''khuàhⁿ-ua̍hⁿ'' {{wikt-lang|zh|快活}} /kʰũãʔ˨˩˨꜒꜔.ũãʔ˥˦/ "comfortable".

In most dialects of Teochew, historical codas {{IPA|-n}} and {{IPA|-t}} are merged with {{IPA|-ŋ}} and {{IPA|-k}}. They were still present in mainstream Teochew in the 19th century, but now they are found only in certain peripheral dialects of Teochew, as well as in Hai Lok Hong Min.<ref>{{Cite book |last=呉芳 |title=粤东闽语前后鼻音韵尾类型研究 |publisher=曁南大学出版社 |year=2013 |isbn=978-7-5668-0646-8 |series=潮学研究丛书 |location= |language=zh}}</ref>

The rime /ɯ/ is only found in Northern Teochew. In Southern Teochew (the Teoyeo dialect), this rime is merged with /u/. Chaozhou and Swatow rimes /ɯŋ/ (as in {{wikt-lang|zh|銀}} /ŋɯŋ˥/) and /ɯk/ (as in {{wikt-lang|zh|迄}} /ŋɯk˧˨/), derived from historical /ɯn/ and /ɯt/, are merged with /iŋ/ and /ik/ in Southern Teochew (as well as in Kekyeo dialect, where /eŋ/ and /ek/ are used for /ɯŋ, iŋ/ and /ɯk, ik/).

The rime /ŋ̩/, used in vernacular readings, is preserved in all dialects, yet in Northern Teochew it is usually analyzed as identical to /ɯŋ/ (e.g. in {{wikt-lang|zh|光}} /kɯŋ˧~kŋ̩˧/, {{wikt-lang|zh|堂}} /tɯŋ˥~kŋ̩˧/). In Teochew proper and Swatow dialects, this vernacular rime /ɯŋ~ŋ̩/ is merged with /uŋ/ after labial initials (e.g. general Teochew (including Kekyeo and Teoyeo) {{wikt-lang|zh|門}} /mɯŋ˥~mŋ̩˥/ and {{wikt-lang|zh|飯}} /pɯŋ˨˩~pŋ̩˨˩/ are pronounced /muŋ˥/ and /puŋ˨˩/ in Chaozhou and Shantou).

Chaozhou /ieng/ and /iek/ are used in syllables that historically had /ien/ and /iet/, e.g. {{wikt-lang|zh|顯}} is different from {{wikt-lang|zh|響}} in Chaozhou (as /hieŋ˥˧/ and /hiaŋ˥˧/) and Hokkien (as /hien˥˧/ and /hiaŋ˥˧/), but not Swatow (both are /hiaŋ˥˧/).

Similarly, Chaozhou /ueŋ/ (as in {{wikt-lang|zh|亂}} /lueŋ˧˥/) and /uek/ (as in {{wikt-lang|zh|發}} /huek˧˨/), historically derived from /uan/ and /uat/, are merged with /uaŋ/ and /uak/ in other dialects (including Swatow, Kekyeo, and Teoyeo). There are few cases with the rimes /ueŋ/ and /uek/ in Kekyeo and Teoyeo, not derived from /uan/ and /uat/ and corresponding to Teochew proper and Swatow /uaŋ/ and /uak/, e.g. {{wikt-lang|zh|傾}} and {{wikt-lang|zh|獲}} are pronounced /kʰuaŋ˧/ and /uak˥˦/ in Chaozhou and Shantou, but /kʰueŋ˧/ and /uek˥˦/ in Kekyeo and Southern Teochew.

=== Tones ===
Teochew, like other Chinese varieties, is a [[tonal language]]. Like other [[Southern Min]] varieties, Teochew has split the [[Four tones (Middle Chinese)|Middle Chinese four tone]] into two registers (four "dark tones" and four "light tones"). The tones are numbered from 1 through 8, either in the "dark—light" order (the checked tones are 7 and 8) or in the "level—rising—departing—entering" order (the checked tones are 4 and 8). This section follows the second order, as used in [[Peng'im]].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin-right:1.4em;"
|+
|-
| colspan="2" style="border-left:hidden;border-top:hidden;background-color:white;" |
!{{lang|zh|平}}
level
!{{lang|zh|上}}
rising
!{{lang|zh|去}}
departing
!{{lang|zh|入}}
entering
|-
! rowspan="3" |{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
!tone number<br>([[Peng'im]])
|{{lang|zh|①}}
|{{lang|zh|②}}
|{{lang|zh|③}}
|{{lang|zh|④}}
|-
!tone diacritic<br>([[Pe̍h-ūe-jī]])
|''none''
|́ 
|̀
|''none''<br><small>(ending on -p, -t, -k, -h)</small>
|-
!tone name
|{{lang|zh|陰平}}<br>''Im-phêⁿ''<br>"Dark-level"
|{{lang|zh|陰上}}<br>''Im-siăng''<br>"Dark-rising"
|{{lang|zh|陰去}}<br>''Im-khṳ̀''<br>"Dark-departing"
|{{lang|zh|陰入}}<br>''Im-ji̍p''<br>"Dark-entering"
|-
! rowspan="3" |{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
!tone number<br>([[Peng'im]])
|{{lang|zh|⑤}}
|{{lang|zh|⑥}}
|{{lang|zh|⑦}}
|{{lang|zh|⑧}}
|-
!tone diacritic<br>([[Pe̍h-ūe-jī]])
|̂ 
|̃
|̄
|̍<br><small>(ending on -p, -t, -k, -h)</small>
|-
!tone name
|{{lang|zh|陽平}}<br>''Iâng-phêⁿ''<br>"Light-level"
|{{lang|zh|陽上}}<br>''Iâng-siăng''<br>"Light-rising"
|{{lang|zh|陽去}}<br>''Iâng-khṳ̀''<br>"Light-departing"
|{{lang|zh|陽入}}<br>''Iâng-ji̍p''<br>"Light-entering"
|}

Depending on the position of a word in a phrase, the tones can change and adopt extensive [[tone sandhi]].

==== Northern Teochew ====
Northern Teochew dialects are not too different from each other in their tones. There are small differences in pronunciation of the tone ⑦, which can vary between low falling (21 ˨˩) and low level (22 ˨) among different dialects and individual speakers.<ref name="tonotypes" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Qing |title=The Diachrony of Tone Sandhi: Evidence from Southern Min Chinese |date=2019 |publisher=Springer Singapore : Imprint: Springer |isbn=978-981-13-1939-6 |edition=1st ed. 2019 |series=Frontiers in Chinese Linguistics |location=Singapore}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin-right:1.4em;"
|+
! rowspan="2" style="border-left:hidden;border-top:hidden;background-color:white;" |
! colspan="4" |citation tones
! rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
! colspan="4" |post-sandhi tones
|-
!{{lang|zh|平}}<br>level
!{{lang|zh|上}}<br>rising
!{{lang|zh|去}}<br>departing
!{{lang|zh|入}}<br>entering
!{{lang|zh|平}}<br>level
!{{lang|zh|上}}<br>rising
!{{lang|zh|去}}<br>departing
!{{lang|zh|入}}<br>entering
|-
! colspan="10" |Chaozhou, Chenghai
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|①<br>33 ˧
|②<br>53 ˥˧
|③<br>212 ˨˩˨
|④<br>32 ˧˨
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|34 ˧˦
|35 ˧˥
|53 ˥˧
|54 ˥˦
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|⑤<br>55 ˥
|⑥<br>35 ˧˥
|⑦<br>21 ˨˩ ~ 22 ˨
|⑧<br>54 ˥˦
|23 ˨˧
|21 ˨˩ ~ 22 ˨
|23 ˨˧
|32 ˧˨
|-
! colspan="10" |Jieyang
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|①<br>33 ˧
|②<br>53 ˥˧
|③<br>212 ˨˩˨
|④<br>32 ˧˨
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|33 ˧
|35 ˧˥
|53 ˥
|54 ˥˦
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|⑤<br>55 ˥
|⑥<br>35 ˧˥
|⑦<br>22 ˨ ~ 21 ˨˩
|⑧<br>54 ˥˦
|22 ˨ ~ 21 ˨˩
| colspan="2" |21 ˨˩ ~ 22 ˨
|32 ˧˨
|-
! colspan="10" |Shantou, Raoping
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|①<br>33 ˧
|②<br>53 ˥˧
|③<br>212 ˨˩˨
|④<br>32 ˧˨
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|33 ˧
|35 ˧˥
|55 ˥
|54 ˥˦
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|⑤<br>55 ˥
|⑥<br>35 ˧˥
|⑦<br>21 ˨˩ ~ 22 ˨
|⑧<br>54 ˥˦
|21 ˨˩ ~ 22 ˨
| colspan="2" |22 ˨ ~ 21 ˨˩
|32 ˧˨
|}
{{notelist}}

There are minor differences in tone sandhi among the Northern Teochew dialects:<ref name=":2" />
* The most important difference is that the dark departing tone (③) becomes high falling (53 ˥˧) in Chaozhou and Jieyang and high level (55 ˥) in Shantou and Raoping.
* In Chaozhou, the two level tones (① and ⑤) become slightly rising in sandhi (34 ˧˦ and 23 ˨˧ respectively), rather than level (33 ˧ and 22 ˨ ~ 21 ˨˩) as in other dialects.
* In Jieyang, Chenghai and Chaozhou, the sandhi of tones ②, ③, and ④ have two pronunciations, one being slightly higher (35 ˧˥, 53 ˥˧, 54 ˥˦), used before syllables with high-onset tones (⑤ 55 ˥, ② 53 ˥˧, and ⑧ 54 ˥˦), and another one slightly lower (24 ˨˦, 42 ˦˨, 43 ˦˧), used before all other tones. In Shantou and Raoping, these tones have the same post-sandhi value regardless of the next syllable's tone.
* In Jieyang, Chenghai and Chaozhou, the pronunciation of tone ② will become low level (21 ˨˩) after post-sandhi syllables of tone ②, ③, and ④, which is caused by the assimilation of falling tones.<ref name="LLL1996">{{cite book |last1=林伦伦, 陈小枫 |title=广东闽方言语音研究 |date=1996 |publisher=汕头大学出版社 |location=1996 |isbn=7810360914 |pages=95–96}}</ref>

The light departing tone (⑦) after sandhi is usually merged with the post-sandhi tone ⑤ or ⑥, depending on the dialect. For convenience, since the difference between them is still not large, all three light tones after sandhi may be described as identical and equal to pre-sandhi tone ⑦. The sandhi rules for Northern Teochew may be simplified as follows:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin-right:1.4em;"
|+
! rowspan="2" style="border-left:hidden;border-top:hidden;background-color:white;" |
! colspan="4" |citation tones
! rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
! colspan="4" |post-sandhi tones
|-
!{{lang|zh|平}}<br>level
!{{lang|zh|上}}<br>rising
!{{lang|zh|去}}<br>departing
!{{lang|zh|入}}<br>entering
!{{lang|zh|平}}<br>level
!{{lang|zh|上}}<br>rising
!{{lang|zh|去}}<br>departing
!{{lang|zh|入}}<br>entering
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|{{lang|zh|①}}
|{{lang|zh|②}}
|{{lang|zh|③}}
|{{lang|zh|④}}
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|{{lang|zh|①}}
|{{lang|zh|⑥}}
|{{lang|zh|②}}{{efn|Chaozhou, Chenghai, Jieyang}} ''or'' {{lang|zh|⑤}}{{efn|Shantou, Raoping}}
|{{lang|zh|⑧}}
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|{{lang|zh|⑤}}
|{{lang|zh|⑥}}
|{{lang|zh|⑦}}
|{{lang|zh|⑧}}
|colspan="3"|{{lang|zh|⑦}}
|{{lang|zh|④}}
|}
{{notelist}}

==== Southern Teochew ====
Southern Teochew tones are noticeably diverse. Based on their tones, the Southern Teochew dialects can be divided into two broad areas: Teoyeo and Hui-Pou.<ref name="tonotypes" /><ref name="Xu2010">{{Cite book |last=徐馥瓊 |title=粤东闽语语音研究 |date=2022 |publisher=Zhongguo she hui ke xue chu ban she |isbn=9787520398350}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin-right:1.4em;"
|+
! rowspan="2" style="border-left:hidden;border-top:hidden;background-color:white;" |
! colspan="4" |citation tones
! rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
! colspan="4" |post-sandhi tones
|-
!{{lang|zh|平}}<br>level
!{{lang|zh|上}}<br>rising
!{{lang|zh|去}}<br>departing
!{{lang|zh|入}}<br>entering
!{{lang|zh|平}}<br>level
!{{lang|zh|上}}<br>rising
!{{lang|zh|去}}<br>departing
!{{lang|zh|入}}<br>entering
|-
! colspan="10" |Teoyeo (old)
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|①<br>21 ˨˩
|②<br>551 ˥˥˩
|③<br>53 ˥˧
|④<br>43 ˦˧
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|33 ˧
|53 ˥˧
|33 ˧
|5 ˥
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|⑤<br>44 ˦
|⑥<br>=③
|⑦<br>42 ˦˨
|⑧<br>45 ˦˥
|44 ˦
| colspan="2" |21 ˨˩
|3 ˧
|-
! colspan="10" |Teoyeo (new)
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|①<br>31 ˧˩
|②<br>55 ˥˥ ~ 35 ˧˥
|③<br>52 ˥˨
|④<br>32 ˧˨
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|31 ˧˩
|52 ˥˨
|23 ˨˧
|5 ˥
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|⑤<br>33 ˧ ~ 23 ˨˧
|⑥<br>=③
|⑦<br>43 ˦˧ ~ 44 ˦
|⑧<br>45 ˦˥
|33 ˧ ~ 23 ˨˧
| colspan="2" |21 ˨˩
|3 ˧
|-
! colspan="10" |[[Haimen, Guangdong|Haimen]]
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|①<br>31 ˧˩
|②<br>551 ˥˥˩
|③<br>51 ˥˩
|④<br>43 ˦˧
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|33 ˧
|41 ˦˩
|44 ˦
|54 ˥˦
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|⑤<br>44 ˦
|⑥<br>=①
|⑦<br>441 ˦˦˩
|⑧<br>45 ˦˥
|44 ˦
| colspan="2" |33 ˧
|43 ˦˧
|-
! colspan="10" |[[Dahao]]
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|①<br>21 ˨˩
|②<br>24 ˨˦
|③<br>52 ˥˨
|④<br>3 ˧
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|21 ˨˩
|52 ˥˨
|33 ˧
|45 ˦˥
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|⑤<br>33 ˧
|⑥<br>=③
|⑦<br>31 ˧˩
|⑧<br>45 ˦˥
|33 ˧
| colspan="2" |21 ˨˩
|3 ˧
|-
! colspan="10" |[[Puning]] and [[Huilai]]
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|①<br>34 ˧˦
|②<br>53 ˥˧{{efn|Puning, Western Huilai, older speakers in Central Huilai}}<br>''or'' 55 ˥{{efn|Eastern Huilai, younger speakers in Central Huilai}}
|③<br>31 ˧˩
|④<br>32 ˧˨
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|33 ˧
|34 ˧˦
|55 ˥
|54 ˥˦
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|⑤<br>44 ˦
|⑥<br>23 ˨˧
|⑦<br>42 ˦˨{{efn|Puning, Eastern Huilai}}<br>''or'' =③{{efn|Central Huilai}}<br>''or'' =⑥{{efn|Western Huilai}}
|⑧<br>54 ˥˦
|31 ˧˩
| colspan="2" |33 ˧
|32 ˧˨
|}
{{notelist}}

Currently, a tone shift is ongoing in the Teoyeo dialect. There is a continuum between the "old accent" and "new accent". This shift is more advanced in urban dialects in Eastern Chaoyang (incl. [[Haojiang]], especially the Dahao dialect), among female speakers, and in the younger generations (born after the 1980s). The principal features of this shift are as follows:<ref name="tonotypes" />
* Dark level tone (①) shifts from 21 ˨˩ to 31 ˧˩.
* Light level tone (⑤) shifts from high level 44 ˦ to mid-level 33 ˧ or mid-rising 23 ˨˧.
* Dark rising tone (②) shifts from high falling 551 ˥˥˩ to high level 55 ˥, and in urban Eastern Teoyeo dialects it can even become high rising 45 ˦˥ or 35 ˧˥.
* Dark departing tone (③) and light departing tone (⑦) are falling in a "parallel" pattern (53 ˥˧ and 42 ˦˨ respectively) in the old accent, while in the new accent they are still falling, but the light departing tone (⑦) is more "flat" (52 ˥˨ and 43 ˦˧~44 ˦ respectively).

"Old" Teoyeo accent is notable for the fact that out of its five non-checked tones, four tones have falling contour.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jingfen |date=2020-07-16 |title=潮陽地區四降調系統的變異及演化 |url=https://benjamins.com/catalog/lali.00068.zha |journal=Language and Linguistics |language=zh |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=467–511 |doi=10.1075/lali.00068.zha |issn=1606-822X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Hui-Pou dialects are more homogeneous in their tones than Teoyeo dialects. Puning and Eastern Huilai dialects have 8 tones, while Central and Western Huilai have 7 tones (tone ⑦ is merged with other tones). Some of the Huilai dialects undergo tone shift similar to that in Teoyeo dialects, but to a lesser extent (particularly, tone ② becomes high level 55 rather than high falling 53).

==== Neutral tone ====
Like Hokkien, Teochew has the neutral tone. In pronunciation, the neutral tone is considered to be identical to the light departing tone (⑦) in the respective dialect, but when the original tone of the syllable was dark rising (②), the neutral tone is identical to the dark departing tone (③), and when the original tone was an entering tone (④ or ⑧), the neutral tone is identical to the dark entering tone (④).<ref name="LLL1996"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;margin-right:1.4em;"
|+
! rowspan="3" style="border-left:hidden;border-top:hidden;background-color:white;" |
! colspan="4" |citation tones
! rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
! colspan="4" |neutral tone
|-
!{{lang|zh|平}}<br>level
!{{lang|zh|上}}<br>rising
!{{lang|zh|去}}<br>departing
!{{lang|zh|入}}<br>entering
!{{lang|zh|平}}<br>level
!{{lang|zh|上}}<br>rising
!{{lang|zh|去}}<br>departing
!{{lang|zh|入}}<br>entering
|-
! colspan="9" |Shantou
|-
!{{lang|zh|陰}}<br>dark
|{{lang|zh|①}}
|{{lang|zh|②}}
|{{lang|zh|③}}
|{{lang|zh|④}}
| rowspan="2" style="background-color:Silver;" |
|{{lang|zh|⑦}}
|{{lang|zh|③}}
|{{lang|zh|⑦}}
|rowspan="2"|{{lang|zh|④}}
|-
!{{lang|zh|陽}}<br>light
|{{lang|zh|⑤}}
|{{lang|zh|⑥}}
|{{lang|zh|⑦}}
|{{lang|zh|⑧}}
|colspan="3"|{{lang|zh|⑦}}
|}

Some works refer to the neutral tone as "left-dominant tone sandhi". However, unlike the general ("right-dominant") Teochew tone sandhi, which is a regular phonetic change, the neutral tone is lexical and its occurrence cannot be predicted. Compare the following examples with the morpheme ''nî'' {{wikt-lang|zh|年}} '''{{tonesup|ni5}}''' "year", where some words have the neutral tone, while others preserve the original tone.<ref name="aspect">{{Cite journal |last1=Ling |first1=XU Hui |last2=许惠玲 |date=2007 |title=Aspect of Chaozhou Grammar A Synchronic Description of the Jieyang Variety / 潮州話揭陽方言語法研究 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23826160 |journal=Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series |issue=22 |pages=i–304 |jstor=23826160 |issn=2409-2878}}</ref>
:''tsâiⁿ--nî'' {{wikt-lang|zh|前年}} '''{{tonesup|zain5 ni5}}''' "year before last"
:''ău--nî'' {{wikt-lang|zh|後年}} '''{{tonesup|ao6 ni5}}''' "year after next"
:''tuā-tsâiⁿ--nî'' {{wikt-lang|zh|大前年}} '''{{tonesup|dua7 zain5 ni5}}''' "three years ago"
:''jĭ-káu--nî'' {{lang|zh|二九年}} '''{{tonesup|ri6 gao2 ni5}}''' "year 29" 
but:
:''kim-nî'' {{wikt-lang|zh|今年}} '''{{tonesup|gim1 ni5}}''' "this year"
:''kū-nî'' {{wikt-lang|zh|舊年}} '''{{tonesup|gu7 ni5}}''' "last year"
:''mê-nî'' {{wikt-lang|zh|明年}} '''{{tonesup|mên5 ni5}}''' "next year"
:''jĭ-tsa̍p-ngŏu-nî'' {{lang|zh|二十五年}} '''{{tonesup|ri6 zab8 ngou6 ni5}}''' "25 years"

==Grammar==
The [[grammar]] of Teochew is similar to other [[Min Chinese|Min languages]], as well as some southern [[varieties of Chinese]], especially with [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]], [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] and [[Wu Chinese|Wu]]. The sequence '[[subject–verb–object]]' is typical, like [[Standard Mandarin]], although the '[[subject–object–verb]]' form is also possible using particles.

=== Morphology ===

==== Pronouns ====

===== Personal pronouns =====

The personal pronouns in Teochew, like in other Chinese languages, do not show case marking, therefore ''uá'' {{lang|zh-Hant|我}} '''{{tonesup|ua2}}''' means both ''I'' and ''me'' and ''i-nâng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|伊人}} '''{{tonesup|i1 nang5}}''' means ''they'' and ''them''. The Southern Min languages, like some Mandarin dialects, have a distinction between an [[clusivity|inclusive]] and [[clusivity|exclusive]] we, meaning that when the addressee is being included, the inclusive pronoun ''náng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|咱}} '''{{tonesup|nang2}}''' would be used, otherwise ''uáng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|阮}} '''{{tonesup|uang2}}''' is employed. Outside Southern Min varieties like Teochew, no other southern Chinese variety has this distinction.<ref name="aspect"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Personal Pronouns in Teochew
|-
| style="border-left:hidden;border-top:hidden;background-color:white;" |
!colspan=2 | [[grammatical number|Singular]] || colspan=3 | [[Plural]]
|-
! rowspan=2 | [[Grammatical person|1st person]]
| rowspan=2 | ''uá'' {{lang|zh-Hant|我}} '''{{tonesup|ua2}}'''
| rowspan=2 | ''I / me''
! [[Clusivity|Inclusive]]
| ''náng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|咱}} '''{{tonesup|nang2}}'''
| ''we / us''
|-
! [[Clusivity|Exclusive]]
| ''uáng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|阮}} '''{{tonesup|uang2}}'''{{efn|Also pronounced ''úng'' / '''{{tonesup|ung2}}''' in Chaozhou, ''ńg'' / '''{{tonesup|ng2}}''' in Chenghai}}
| ''we / us''
|-
! 2nd person
| ''lṳ́'' {{lang|zh-Hant|汝}} '''{{tonesup|le2}}'''
| ''you''
| colspan=2 | ''nṳ́ng, níng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|恁}} '''{{tonesup|neng2, ning2}}'''
| ''you (plural)''
|-
! 3rd person
| ''i'' {{lang|zh-Hant|伊}} '''{{tonesup|i1}}'''
| ''he/she/it/him/her''
| colspan=2 | ''ing'' {{lang|zh-Hant|𪜶}} '''{{tonesup|ing1}}'''<br>''i-nâng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|伊儂}} '''{{tonesup|i1 nang5}}'''
| ''they/them''
|}
{{notelist}}

===== Possessive pronouns =====

Teochew does not distinguish the possessive pronouns from the possessive adjectives. As a general rule, the possessive pronouns or adjectives are formed by adding the [[genitive]] or possessive marker ''kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|個}} '''{{tonesup|gai5}}''' to their respective personal pronouns, as summarized below:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Possessive Pronouns in Teochew
|-
| style="border-left:hidden;border-top:hidden;background-color:white;" |
!colspan=2 | [[grammatical number|Singular]] || colspan=3 | [[Plural]]
|-
! rowspan=2 | [[Grammatical person|1st person]]
| rowspan=2 | ''uá-kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|我個}} '''{{tonesup|ua2 gai5}}'''
| rowspan=2 | ''my / mine''
! [[Clusivity|Inclusive]]
| ''náng-kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|咱個}} '''{{tonesup|nang2 gai5}}'''
| ''our / ours''
|-
! [[Clusivity|Exclusive]]
| ''uáng-kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|阮個}} '''{{tonesup|uang2 gai5}}'''
| ''ours / ours''
|-
! 2nd person
| ''lṳ́-kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|汝個}} '''{{tonesup|le2 gai5}}'''
| ''your / yours''
| colspan=2 | ''nṳ́ng-kâi, níng-kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|恁個}} '''{{tonesup|neng2 gai5, ning2 gai5}}'''
| ''your / yours (plural)''
|-
! 3rd person
| ''i-kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|伊個}} '''{{tonesup|i1 gai5}}'''
| ''his / his; her / hers; its / its''
| colspan=2 | ''i-nâng-kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|伊儂個}} '''{{tonesup|i1 nang5 gai5}}'''
| ''their / theirs''
|}

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |glossing3=no |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|本 書 是 '''我''' '''個'''。
|púng tsṳ sĭ uá kâi
|bung2 ze1 si6 ua2 gai5
|CL-books book be I POS
|"The book is mine."
}}

As ''kâi'' {{wikt-lang|zh|個}} '''{{tonesup|gai5}}''' is the generic [[Chinese classifier|measure word]], it may be replaced by other more appropriate classifiers:<ref name="aspect"/>

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |glossing3=no |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|我 '''條''' 裙
|uá tiâu kûng
|ua2 diao5 gung5
|I CL-clothes skirt
|"my skirt"
}}

===== Demonstrative pronouns =====
Teochew has the typical two-way distinction between the demonstratives, namely the proximals and the distals. The basic determiners are ''tsí'' {{lang|zh-Hant|只}} '''{{tonesup|zi2}}''' "this" and ''hṳ́'' {{lang|zh-Hant|許}} '''{{tonesup|he2}}''' "that", and they require at least a classifier (generic ''kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|個}} '''{{tonesup|gai5}}''', collective ''tshoh'' {{lang|zh-Hant|撮}} '''{{tonesup|coh4}}''', or another), which can be optionally preceded by a numeral.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ The Teochew Demonstratives
|-
| colspan=2 style="border-left:hidden;border-top:hidden;background-color:white;" |
! colspan=2 | Proximal !! colspan=2 | Distal
|-
! rowspan=3| General
! Singular
| ''tsí (kâi)'' {{lang|zh-Hant|只(個)}} '''{{tonesup|zi2 (gai5)}}'''
| ''this (one)''
| ''hṳ́ (kâi)'' {{lang|zh-Hant|許(個)}} '''{{tonesup|he2 (gai5)}}'''
| ''that (one)''
|-
! Collective
| ''tsí tshoh'' {{lang|zh-Hant|只撮}} '''{{tonesup|zi2 coh4}}'''
| ''these (few)''
| ''hṳ́ tshoh'' {{lang|zh-Hant|許撮}} '''{{tonesup|he2 coh4}}'''
| ''those (few)''
|-
! Plural (non-specific)
| ''tsió'' {{lang|zh-Hant|照}} '''{{tonesup|zio2}}'''
| ''these''
| ''hió'' {{lang|zh-Hant|向}} '''{{tonesup|hio2}}'''
| ''those''
|-
! colspan=2 |Type
| ''tsiá'' {{lang|zh-Hant|者}} '''{{tonesup|zia2}}'''
| ''this kind of''
| ''hiá'' {{lang|zh-Hant|遐}} '''{{tonesup|hia2}}'''
| ''that kind of''
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Spatial
| ''tsí kò'' {{lang|zh-Hant|只塊}} '''{{tonesup|zi2 go3}}'''
| ''here''
| ''hṳ́ kò'' {{lang|zh-Hant|許塊}} '''{{tonesup|he2 go3}}'''
| ''there''
|-
| ''tsí lăi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|只內}} '''{{tonesup|zi2 lai6}}'''
| ''here inside''
| ''hṳ́ lăi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|許內}} '''{{tonesup|he2 lai6}}'''
| ''there inside''
|-
| ''tsí kháu'' {{lang|zh-Hant|只口}} '''{{tonesup|zi2 kao2}}'''
| ''here outside''
| ''hṳ́ kháu'' {{lang|zh-Hant|許口}} '''{{tonesup|he2 kao2}}'''
| ''there outside''
|-
! colspan=2 | Temporal
| ''tsí tsûng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|只陣}} '''{{tonesup|zi2 zung5}}'''
| ''now; recently''
| ''hṳ́ tsûng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|許陣}} '''{{tonesup|he2 zung5}}'''
| ''then''
|-
! colspan=2 | Degree
| ''tsiòⁿ'' {{lang|zh-Hant|照}} '''{{tonesup|zion3}}'''
| ''this much''
| ''hiòⁿ'' {{lang|zh-Hant|向}} '''{{tonesup|hion3}}'''
| ''that much''
|-
! colspan=2 | Adverbial
| ''tsiòⁿ seⁿ (iōⁿ)'' {{lang|zh-Hant|照生(樣)}} '''{{tonesup|zion3 sên1 (ion7)}}'''
| ''like this''
| ''hiòⁿ seⁿ (iōⁿ)'' {{lang|zh-Hant|向生(樣)}} '''{{tonesup|hion3 sên1 (ion7)}}'''
| ''like that''
|}

===== Interrogative pronouns =====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+ The Teochew Interrogative Pronouns
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 | [[wikt:who|who]] / [[wikt:whom|whom]]
| ''tiâng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|𫢗}} '''{{tonesup|diang5}}'''
|-
| ''tī tiâng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|底𫢗}} '''{{tonesup|di7 diang5}}'''
|-
| ''tī nâng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|底儂}} '''{{tonesup|di7 nang5}}'''
|-
! colspan=2 | [[wikt:what|what]]
| ''mih kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|乜個}} '''{{tonesup|mih4 gai5}}'''
|-
! colspan=2 | [[wikt:what#Determiner|what (kind of) + noun]]
| ''mih'' {{lang|zh-Hant|乜}} '''{{tonesup|mih4}}'''  + [[noun|N]]
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | [[wikt:which|which]]
| ''tī'' {{lang|zh-Hant|底}} '''{{tonesup|di7}}''' + [[numeral system|NUM]] + [[Classifier (linguistics)|CL]] + N
|-
| ''tī kâi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|底個}} '''{{tonesup|di7 gai5}}'''
|-
! colspan=2 | [[wikt:where|where]]
| ''tī kò'' {{lang|zh-Hant|底塊}} '''{{tonesup|di7 go3}}'''
|-
! colspan=2 | [[wikt:when|when]]
| ''tiang sî'' {{lang|zh-Hant|𫢗時}} '''{{tonesup|diang1 si5}}'''
|-
! rowspan=4 | [[wikt:how|how]], [[wikt:why|why]] || manner
| ''tsò nî'' {{lang|zh-Hant|做呢}} '''{{tonesup|zo3 ni5}}'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | state
| ''mih seⁿ iōⁿ'' {{lang|zh-Hant|乜生樣}} '''{{tonesup|mih4 sên1 ion7}}'''
|-
| ''tsò nî iōⁿ'' {{lang|zh-Hant|做呢樣}} '''{{tonesup|zo3 ni5 ion7}}'''
|-
| ''tsăi seⁿ (iōⁿ)'' {{lang|zh-Hant|在生(樣)}} '''{{tonesup|zai6 sên1 (ion7)}}'''
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | [[wikt:how many|how many]]; [[wikt:how much|how much]]
| ''kúi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|幾}} '''{{tonesup|gui2}}''' + CL + N
|-
| ''jio̍h tsōi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|若濟}} '''{{tonesup|rioh8 zoi7}}''' + CL + N
|}

==== Numerals ====
Some numerals in Teochew have two variants: the literary one and the vernacular one.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"
|+
!Value
!Literary
!Vernacular
!Notes
|-
!0
|{{wikt-lang|zh|零}} ''lêng'' / '''{{tonesup|lêng5}}''' 
|{{wikt-lang|zh|空}} ''khàng'' / '''{{tonesup|kang3}}''' 
|{{wikt-lang|zh|零}} may also be written as {{wikt-lang|zh|〇}}.
|-
!1
|{{wikt-lang|zh|一}} ''ik'' / '''{{tonesup|ig4}}'''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|一}} ''tse̍k'' / '''{{tonesup|zêg8}}'''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|蜀}} is often considered the original character for ''tse̍k'' / '''{{tonesup|zêg8}}'''.<br>When spelling numbers digit by digit, ''iau'' {{wikt-lang|zh|幺}} '''{{tonesup|iao1}}''' is also used for "one".
|-
!2
|{{wikt-lang|zh|二}} ''jĭ'' / '''{{tonesup|ri6}}'''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|兩}} ''nŏ'' / '''{{tonesup|no6}}'''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|兩}} ''nŏ'' / '''{{tonesup|no6}}''' may also be written as {{wikt-lang|zh|二}}<br>The character {{wikt-lang|zh|兩}} has a literary reading ''liáng'' / '''{{tonesup|liang2}}'''.
|-
!3
|{{wikt-lang|zh|三}} ''sam'' / '''{{tonesup|sam1}}'''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|三}} ''saⁿ'' / '''{{tonesup|san1}}'''
|Literary reading is used in some set compounds.
|-
!4
|{{wikt-lang|zh|四}} ''sṳ̀'' / '''{{tonesup|se3}}'''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|四}} ''sì'' / '''{{tonesup|si3}}'''
|Literary reading is extremely rare.
|-
!5
|{{wikt-lang|zh|五}} ''ngóu'' / '''{{tonesup|ngou2}}'''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|五}} ''ngŏu'' / '''{{tonesup|ngou6}}'''
|Literary reading is used in some set compounds.<br>Also pronounced as ''ngŏm'' / '''{{tonesup|ngom6}}''' in Southern Teochew.
|-
!6
| colspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|六}} ''la̍k'' / '''{{tonesup|lag8}}'''
|Only vernacular reading.
|-
!7
| colspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|七}} ''tshik'' / '''{{tonesup|cig4}}'''
|Only literary reading.
|-
!8
| colspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|八}} ''poih'' / '''{{tonesup|boih4}}'''
|Only vernacular reading.
|-
!9
|{{wikt-lang|zh|九}} ''kiú'' / '''{{tonesup|giu2}}'''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|九}} ''káu'' / '''{{tonesup|gao2}}'''
|Literary reading is used in some set compounds.
|-
!10
| colspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|十}} ''tsa̍p'' / '''{{tonesup|zab8}}'''
|Only vernacular reading.
|-
!100
| colspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|百}} ''peh'' / '''{{tonesup|bêh4}}'''
|Only vernacular reading.
|-
!1000
| colspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|千}} ''tshoiⁿ'' / '''{{tonesup|coin1}}'''
|Only vernacular reading.<br>Also ''tshaiⁿ'' / '''{{tonesup|cain1}}''' (in Kekyeo and Southern Teochew).
|-
!10000
| colspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|萬}} ''buāng'' / '''{{tonesup|bhuang7}}'''
|Only literary reading<br>Also ''buēng'' / '''{{tonesup|bhuêng7}}''' (in Chaozhou).<br>Also ''bāng'' / '''{{tonesup|bang7}}''' (variant in Southern Teochew).
|}

Generally, vernacular variants are used, and literary readings are limited to certain set compounds and idioms, e.g.: ''Sam-kok'' {{wikt-lang|zh|三國}}, ''ngóu-kim'' {{wikt-lang|zh|五金}}, ''kiú-siau'' {{wikt-lang|zh|九霄}}, ''ngóu-tsháiⁿ-phiang-hung'' {{wikt-lang|zh|五彩繽紛}}, ''sam-sṳ-jṳ̂-kiâⁿ'' {{wikt-lang|zh|三思而行}}, ''kiú-liû-sam-kàu'' {{wikt-lang|zh|九流三教}}, etc.

However, literary forms of {{lang|zh|一}} and {{lang|zh|二}} are more commonly used, particularly in the following cases:
* for the last digit in compound numbers:
::''tsa̍p ik'' {{lang|zh|十一}} '''{{tonesup|zab8 ig4}}''' "eleven"
::''saⁿ tsa̍p jĭ'' {{lang|zh|三十二}} '''{{tonesup|san1 zab8 ri6}}''' "thirty two"
* for counting tens (but not hundreds or thousands) in compound numbers
::''jĭ tsa̍p ik''  {{lang|zh|二十一}} '''{{tonesup|ri6 zab8 ig4}}''' "twenty one"
::but:
::''tse̍k peh'' {{lang|zh|一百}} '''{{tonesup|zêg8 bêh4}}''' "one hundred"
::''nŏ tshoiⁿ'' {{lang|zh|兩千}} '''{{tonesup|no6 coin1}}''' "two thousands"
* in ordinal numbers, names for days, and dates
::''tŏiⁿ jĭ'' {{lang|zh|第二}} '''{{tonesup|doin6 ri6}}''' "second"
::''tsheⁿ khî ik'' {{lang|zh|星期一}} '''{{tonesup|cên1 ki5 ig4}}''' "Monday"
::''tsiaⁿ gue̍h tshiu ik'' {{lang|zh|正月初一}} '''{{tonesup|zian1 ghuêh8 ciu1 ig4}}''' "first day of the [[Lunar New Year]]"
::''jĭ-khàng-iau-poih-nî jĭ-gue̍h jĭ-hō'' {{lang|zh|2018年二月二號}} '''{{tonesup|ri6 kang3 iao1 boih4 ni5 ri6 ghuêh8 ri6 ho7}}''' "February 2, 2018"

=== Passive construction ===
In Teochew passive construction, the [[agent (grammar)|agent]] [[phrase]] ''by somebody'' always has to be present, and is introduced by the preposition ''khṳh'' {{lang|zh-Hant|乞}} '''{{tonesup|keh4}}''' or ''pung'' {{lang|zh-Hant|分}} '''{{tonesup|bung1}}''', both literally meaning "to give". If the agent is not explicitly named, its position is taken by ''nâng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|儂}} '''{{tonesup|nang5}}''' ({{lit|a person|somebody}}).

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |glossing3=no |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|伊 {{color|purple|分}} {{color|purple|儂}} 刣 掉。
|i {{color|purple|pung}} {{color|purple|nâng}} thâi tiāu
|i1 {{color|purple|bung1}} {{color|purple|nang5}} tai5 diao7
|s/he {{color|purple|give}} {{color|purple|person}} kill {be lost}
|"S/he was killed (by someone)."
}}

While in Mandarin one can have the agent introducer {{lang-zh|t=被|p=bèi|labels=no}} or {{lang-zh|t=給|p=gěi|labels=no}} alone without the agent itself, in Teochew it is not grammatical to omit this dummy agent ''nâng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|儂}} '''{{tonesup|nang5}}'''.

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |glossing3=no |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|個 杯 {{color|purple|分}} {{color|purple|儂}} 敲 掉。
|kâi pue {{color|purple|pung}} {{color|purple|nâng}} khà tiāu
|gai5 buê1 {{color|purple|bung1}} {{color|purple|nang5}} ka3 diao7
|CL cup {{color|purple|give}} {{color|purple|person}} break {be lost}
|"The cup was broken."
}}
:: (cf. Mandarin {{lang-zh|t=杯子給打破了|p=bēizi gěi dǎ pòle|labels=no}})

The agent phrase ''pung nâng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|分儂}} '''{{tonesup|bung1 nang5}}''' always comes immediately after the subject, not at the end of the sentence or between the [[auxiliary verb|auxiliary]] and the past [[participle]] like in some European languages (e.g. [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]]).

=== Comparison ===

====Comparative construction with two or more nouns ====

Teochew, like Cantonese but unlike Hokkien, uses the construction "X ADJ ''kuè'' {{lang|zh-Hant|過}} '''{{tonesup|guê3}}''' Y", to express the comparison:

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |glossing3=no |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|伊 雅 {{color|purple|過}} 汝。
|i ngiá {{color|purple|kuè}} lṳ́
|i1 ngia2 {{color|purple|guê3}} le2
|s/he beautiful {{color|purple|exceed}} you
|"She is more beautiful than you."
}}
:: (cf. Cantonese {{lang-zh|t=佢靚過你|j=keoi5 leng3 gwo3 nei5|labels=no}})

However, due to modern influences from Mandarin, the Mandarin structure "X {{lang|zh-Hant|比}} Y ADJ" has also gained popularity over the years. Therefore, the same sentence can be re-structured and becomes:

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |glossing3=no |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|伊 {{color|purple|比}} 汝 雅。
|i {{color|purple|pí}} lṳ́ ngiá
|i1 {{color|purple|bi2}} le2 ngia2
|s/he {{color|purple|compare}} you beautiful
|"She is more beautiful than you."
}}
:: (cf. Mandarin {{lang-zh|t=她比你漂亮|p=tā bǐ nǐ piàoliang|labels=no}})

====Comparative construction with only one noun ====

The {{lang|zh-Hant|過}}- or {{lang|zh-Hant|比}}-construction must involve two or more nouns to be compared; an ill-formed sentence will be yielded when only one is being mentioned:

: ''*'' {{lang|zh-Hant|伊雅過}} (?)

Teochew is different from English, where the second noun being compared can be left out ("Tatyana is more beautiful ''(than Lisa)''". In cases like this, the {{lang|zh-Hant|夭}}-construction must be used instead:

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |glossing3=no |italics3=yes |glossing4=yes
|伊 夭 雅。
|i iău ngiá
|i1 iau6 ngia2
|s/he comparatively beautiful
|"She is more beautiful."
}}

The same holds true for Mandarin and Cantonese in that another structure needs to be used when only one of the nouns being compared is mentioned. Teochew and Mandarin both use a pre-modifier (before the adjective) while Cantonese uses a post-modifier (after the adjective).
* Mandarin
{{fs interlinear|lang=zh|indent=3
|她 {'''比較'''} 漂亮
|tā bǐjiào piàoliang|}}
* Cantonese
{{fs interlinear|lang=yue|indent=3
|佢 靚 '''啲'''
|keoi5 leng3 di1|}}

There are two words which are intrinsically comparative in meaning, i.e. ''iâⁿ'' {{lang|zh-Hant|贏}} '''{{tonesup|ian5}}''' "to win" and ''su'' {{lang|zh-Hant|輸}} '''{{tonesup|su1}}''' "to lose". They can be used alone or in conjunction with the {{lang|zh-Hant|過}}-structure:

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing3=no
|只 領 裙 輸 (過) 許 領。
|tsí niá kûng su (kuè) hṳ́ niá
|zi2 nian2 gung5 su1 (guê3) he2 nian2
|"This skirt is not as good as that one."
}}
{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing3=no
|我 內 個 電腦 贏 伊 個 好 濟。
|uá lăi kâi tiĕng-náu iâⁿ i kâi hoh tsōi
|ua2 lai6 gai5 {diêng6 nao2} ian5 i1 gai5 hoh4 zoi7
|"My computer (at home) is far better than his."
}}

Note the use of the adverbial ''hoh tsōi'' {{lang|zh-Hant|好濟}} '''{{tonesup|hoh4 zoi7}}''' at the end of the sentence to express a higher degree.

====Equal construction ====

In Teochew, the idea of equality is expressed with the word ''pêⁿ'' {{lang|zh-Hant|平}} '''{{tonesup|bên5}}''' or ''pêⁿ-iōⁿ'' {{lang|zh-Hant|平樣}} '''{{tonesup|bên5 ion7}}''':

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing3=no
|只 本 書 佮 許 本 平 重。
|tsí púng tsṳ kah hṳ́ púng pêⁿ tăng
|zi2 bung2 ze1 gah4 he2 bung2 bên5 dang6
|"This book is as heavy as that one."
}}
{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing3=no
|伊 兩 儂 平 平樣。
|i nŏ nâng pêⁿ pêⁿ-iōⁿ
|i1 no6 nang5 bên5 {bên5 ion7}
|"They are the same."
}}
::<small>("They look the same/They're as good as each other/They're as bad as each other"; {{Lit}} "The two people are the same same way")</small>

====Superlative construction ====

To express the superlative, Teochew uses the adverb ''siăng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|上}} '''{{tonesup|siang6}}''' or ''siăng-téng'' {{lang|zh-Hant|上頂}} '''{{tonesup|siang6 dêng2}}'''. The latter variant is usually used with a complimentary connotation.

{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing3=no
|只 間 物 上頂 好食。
|tsí koiⁿ mue̍h siăng-téng hó-tsia̍h
|zi2 goin1 muêh8 {siang6 dêng2} {ho2 ziah8}
|"This (restaurant) is (absolutely) the most delicious."
}}
{{fs interlinear |indent=2 |italics3=yes |glossing3=no
|伊儂 對 我 上 好。
|i-nâng tùi uá siăng hó
|{i1 nang5} dui3 ua2 siang6 ho2
|"They treat me best." {{Lit}} "The people treat me very well."
}}

==Vocabulary==
Teochew vocabulary consists of several layers, including:
* Pan-Sinitic words, found in most other languages of the [[Sinosphere]] (such as Hokkien, Japanese, Mandarin, Cantonese, Korean, etc), often derived from [[Literary Chinese]] or orthographically borrowed from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] or [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
::''ì-kièng'' {{linktext|意見}} '''{{tonesup|i3 giêng3}}''' "opinion",
::''kok-ke'' {{linktext|國家}} '''{{tonesup|gog4 gê1}}''' "state; country",
::''kak-hung'' {{linktext|結婚}} '''{{tonesup|gag4 hung1}}''' "to marry",
::''khùng-nâng'' {{linktext|困難}} '''{{tonesup|kung3 nang5}}''' "hard; difficult",
::''tāu-hū'' {{linktext|豆腐}} '''{{tonesup|dao7 hu7}}''' "[[tofu]]"
::''tiĕng-uē'' {{linktext|電話}} '''{{tonesup|diêng6-uê7}}''' "telephone",
::''tshuk-kháu'' {{linktext|出口}} '''{{tonesup|cug4 kao2}}''' "exit",
::''huang-uàⁿ'' {{linktext|方案}} '''{{tonesup|huang1 uan3}}''' "plan; scheme",
::''bûng-huè'' {{linktext|文化}} '''{{tonesup|bhung5 huê3}}''' "culture",
::''kāng-huâ-kok'' {{linktext|共和國}} '''{{tonesup|gang7 hua5 gog4}}''' "republic",
::''tiĕng-náu'' {{linktext|電腦}} '''{{tonesup|diêng6 nao2}}''' "computer"
* Basic words derived from [[Old Chinese]], usually via [[Proto-Min]]; generally, they are not found in other languages of the Sinosphere, except as morphemes in compound words
::''lṳ́'' {{linktext|汝}} '''{{tonesup|le2}}''' "you",
::''ma̍k'' {{linktext|目}} '''{{tonesup|mag8}}''' "eye",
::''tṳ̄'' {{linktext|箸}} '''{{tonesup|de7}}''' "chopsticks",
::''nâng'' {{linktext|儂}} '''{{tonesup|nang5}}''' "man; person",
::''saⁿ'' {{linktext|衫}} '''{{tonesup|san1}}''' "shirt"
* Min-specific words, usually shared with other [[Min languages]] (or at least [[Southern Min]] languages like [[Hokkien]])
::''ta'' {{linktext|灱}} '''{{tonesup|da1}}''' "dry",
::''khṳ̀ng'' {{linktext|囥}} '''{{tonesup|keng3}}''' "to hide",
::''khṳh'' {{linktext|乞}} '''{{tonesup|keh4}}''' "to give",
::''lim'' {{linktext|啉}} '''{{tonesup|lim1}}''' "to drink"
* Teochew-specific words
::''tàⁿ'' {{linktext|呾}} '''{{tonesup|dan3}}''' "to say; to talk",
::''ĭⁿ'' {{linktext|夗}} '''{{tonesup|in6}}''' "to sleep",
::''ngà'' {{linktext|㦙}} '''{{tonesup|nga3}}''' "stupid; foolish",
::''jṳ̂'' {{linktext|㧫}} '''{{tonesup|re5}}''' "to wipe; to mop",
::''tsò-nî'' {{linktext|做呢}} '''{{tonesup|zo3-ni5}}''' "why; how"

Most of the Teochew vocabulary (around 70-80%) consists of the pan-Sinitic words. However, their proportion is much lower among the most basic words used in daily speech, as they tend to belong to the last three categories. This pattern is also seen in other languages of the Sinosphere, e.g. in Japanese, where the [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Sino-Japanese words]] constitute around 60-70% of total vocabulary, but only around 20% of words used in common speech.

=== Literary and vernacular readings ===
{{main|Literary and colloquial readings}}

In Teochew, like in other Min languages, it is common for a character to have at least two readings, called "literary" and "vernacular". The number of such doublets in Teochew is somewhat smaller than in Hokkien, due to Teochew being prone to use only vernacular readings and lose their literary counterparts.

==Relationship with Hokkien==
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2025}}
Teochew and [[Hokkien]] are both [[Southern Min]] languages. Hokkien, which is spoken in southern Fujian, shares many phonetic similarities with Teochew, but they have low lexical similarity. Although Teochew and Hokkien share some cognates, there are pronounced differences in most vowels with some consonant and tone shifts.
 
Teochew has only 51% intelligibility with the [[Tong'an District|Tong'an]] [[Xiamen dialect]] of Hokkien,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chin-Chuan |first1=Cheng |title=Measuring Relationship among Dialects: DOC and Related Resources |journal=International Journal of Computational Linguistics & Chinese Language Processing |date=February 1997 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=41–72 |url=https://aclanthology.org/O97-3002/ |access-date=16 August 2025}}</ref> approximately the same as the percentage of intelligibility as between [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] languages, while it has even lower mutual intelligibility language with other dialects of the Hokkien language.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

Most Teochew people do not speak Hokkien and the majority of Hokkien and Teochew people both see themselves as a distinct ethnic groups / nation. There are a minority of Teochew people who speak Hokkien as their mother tongue, most of whom have close contact or relatives in the neighbouring three originally-Teochew counties of what is now [[South Fujian]], which were ceded to Fujian during the early [[Tang dynasty]] and subsequently assimilated into the [[Hoklo people|Hokkien population]]. These Hokkien-speaking Teochews are more likely to treat Teochew simply as accented dialect of Hokkien. These people usually have a strong sense of [[Hokkien culture|Hokkien identity]].{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

=== Pronunciation ===
In Hokkien, denasalization of initial consonants is extensive, and sounds [m], [n], [ŋ] are usually viewed as allophones of /b/, /l~d/, /g/ used with nasalized rhymes. In Teochew and Hai Lok Hong, denasalization is less common.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Character
!Teochew
!Hokkien
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|逆}} 'to go against'
|nge̍k
| rowspan="2" |ge̍k
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|玉}} 'jade'
|ge̍k
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|宜}} 'suitable'
|ngî
| rowspan="2" |gî
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|疑}} 'doubt'
|gî
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|紐}} 'handle; knob'
|niú
| rowspan="2" |liú
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|柳}} 'willow'
|liú
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|儂}} 'man'
|nâng
| rowspan="2" |lâng
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|籠}} 'cage'
|lâng
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|慢}} 'slow'
|măng
| rowspan="2" |bān
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|萬}} 'ten thousand'
|buāng
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|目}} 'eye'
|ma̍k
| rowspan="2" |ba̍k
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|墨}} 'ink'
|ba̍k
|}

Hokkien and Hai Lok Hong have three pairs of codas: -ng/-k, -m/-p and -n/-t. Most dialects of Teochew have merged -n/-t with -ng/-k. On the other hand, many Teochew dialects, except urban Swatow and Chenghai, do not dissimilate the Middle Chinese rhyme {{wikt-lang|zh|凡}} ''-jom'', e.g. they have ''huàm'' {{wikt-lang|zh|泛}}, ''huăm'' {{wikt-lang|zh|範}}, ''huap'' {{wikt-lang|zh|法}}, while Hokkien has ''huàn'' {{wikt-lang|zh|泛}}, ''huǎn'' {{wikt-lang|zh|範}}, ''huat'' {{wikt-lang|zh|法}}.

Teochew (except some Southern Teochew dialects) and Hai Lok Hong have 8 citation tones, while most dialects of Hokkien have 7 tones.

In individual rhymes, the differences between Hokkien and Teochew are comparable to differences between the dialects of each language. For example, both Northern Hokkien and Northern Teochew have the /ɯ/ sound, which is not found in Southern Teochew and Southern Hokkien. Northern Hokkien and Teochew both have ''-ng'' (in Hokkien and Southern Teochew) or ''-ung'' (in Northern Teochew) rhyme in words like {{wikt-lang|zh|飯}} ''pn̄g/pūng'', {{wikt-lang|zh|門}} ''mn̂g/mûng'', while Southern Hokkien and Hai Lok Hong have ''-uiⁿ'' instead ({{wikt-lang|zh|飯}} ''pūiⁿ'', {{wikt-lang|zh|門}} ''mûi'').

=== Grammar ===
Teochew grammar shows some Cantonese or Hakka influence. For example,
* Teochew uses comparative structure with ''-kuè'' {{wikt-lang|zh|過}} "to exceed, to surpass", as in Cantonese, while Hokkien uses native Min comparative construction with an adverb ''khah'' {{wikt-lang|zh|較}} "more".
* Teochew, like Cantonese, uses bare classifiers to mean "this", but this usage is not typical for Hokkien.
* Teochew uses relevant classifiers to indicate possession; e.g., the phrase "my book" may be expressed with both ''uá púng tsṳ'' {{lang|zh|我本書}} (with classifier for books) and ''uá kâi tsṳ'' {{lang|zh|我個書}} (with possessive particle) in Teochew, but in Hokkien, only ''góa ê tsṳ'' {{lang|zh|我兮書}} is used.

Teochew differs from Hokkien in function words:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Teochew
!Hai Lok Hong
!Hokkien
!explanation
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|個}} ''kâi''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|個}} ''kâi''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|兮}} ''ê''
|''possessive particle''
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|在}} ''tŏ''<br>{{wikt-lang|zh|囉}} ''lŏ'' ''(dialectal)''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|𫩷}} ''ló''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|咧}} ''leh''<br>{{wikt-lang|zh|佇咧}} ''tǐ-leh''
|''progressive aspect marker''
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|在塊}} ''-tŏ-kò''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|恁}} ''-nín''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|咧}} ''--leh''
|''durative aspect marker''
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|分}} ''pung''<br>{{wikt-lang|zh|乞}} ''khṳh''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|分}} ''pun''<br>{{wikt-lang|zh|科}} ''kho''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|予}} ''hō͘''
|''passive or causative agent preposition''
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|愛}} ''àiⁿ''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|愛}} ''àiⁿ''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|卜}} ''beh''
|"to want" ''(modal verb)''
|-
|{{wikt-lang|zh|好}} ''hoh''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|好}} ''hoh''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|真}} ''chin''
|"very" ''(dummy adverb in adjectival sentences)''
|}

=== Vocabulary ===
Teochew has many differences with Hokkien in its basic vocabulary. Some of the differences are due to influence from Cantonese, while others are alternative yet still native Min words.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!gloss
!Teochew
!Cantonese
!Hokkien
|-
!"to see"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|睇}} ''thóiⁿ''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|睇}} ''tái''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|看}} ''khòaⁿ''
|-
!"to read"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|讀書}} ''tha̍k-tsṳ''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|讀書}} ''duhksyū''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|讀冊}} ''tha̍k-chheh''
|-
!"to sleep"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|夗}} ''n̍gh, ĭⁿ''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|瞓}} ''fan''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|睏}} ''khùn''
|-
!"beautiful"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|雅}} ''ngiá''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|靚}} ''leng ''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|媠}} ''súi''
|-
!"to speak"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|呾}} ''tàⁿ''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|講}} ''góng''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|講}} ''kóng''<br>{{wikt-lang|zh|說}} ''seh''
|-
!"what"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|乜個}} ''mih-kâi''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|乜嘢}} ''mātyéh''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|啥乜}} ''siáⁿ-mi̍h''
|-
!"child"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|孥囝}} ''nou-kiáⁿ''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|細路}} ''sailouh''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|囡仔}} ''gín-á''
|-
!"black"
|{{wikt-lang|zh|烏}} ''ou''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|黑}} ''hāk''
|{{wikt-lang|zh|烏}} ''o͘''
|}

Teochew tends to use more vernacular readings where Hokkien prefers the literary readings. For instance, Hokkien uses {{wikt-lang|zh|多謝}} ''to-siā'' for "Thank you", with literary reading for the first character, while Teochew reads it with the vernacular reading as ''tsōi-siā''. The character {{wikt-lang|zh|安}} has both literary reading (Teochew ''ang'', Hokkien ''an'') and vernacular reading (both ''uaⁿ''), the latter more commonly used in Teochew ({{wikt-lang|zh|安全}} ''uaⁿ-tshuâng'', {{wikt-lang|zh|安心}} ''uaⁿ-sim'', {{wikt-lang|zh|安穩}} ''uaⁿ-úng'', {{wikt-lang|zh|治安}} ''tī-uaⁿ'', etc), while being rare in Hokkien (used in a few place names: {{wikt-lang|zh|同安}} ''Tâng-uaⁿ'', {{wikt-lang|zh|南安}} ''Lâm-uaⁿ'', {{wikt-lang|zh|惠安}} ''Hūi-uaⁿ'').

For some characters, literary readings only exist in Hokkien (even if used exclusively for declamation of Classical Chinese texts), while many vernacular readings are used only in Teochew.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Character
!Type of reading
!Teochew
!Hokkien
! rowspan="15" |
![[Middle Chinese]]<br><small>([[Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese|Baxter]])</small><br>or Proto-Southern-Min<br><small>(Kwok Bit-Chee)</small><ref>{{cite book|title=Southern Min: comparative phonology and subgrouping|first=Bit-Chee|last=Kwok|series=Routledge studies in East Asian linguistics|volume=2|place=New York|publisher=Routledge|date=2018|isbn=978-1-138-94365-0}}</ref>
![[Old Chinese]]<br><small>(Baxter-Sagart)</small>
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|肉}} 'meat'
|literary
| style="background: #aaa;"|
|''jio̍k''
|MC ''nyuwk''
| rowspan="2" |''*k.nuk''
|-
|vernacular
|''ne̍k''
|''he̍k''
|PSM ''*nhɯk3''
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|白}} 'white'
|literary
| style="background: #aaa;"|
|''pe̍k''
|MC ''baek''
| rowspan="2" |''*bˤrak''
|-
|vernacular
|''pe̍h''
|''pe̍h''
|PSM ''*peʔ8''
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|前}} 'before'
|literary
| style="background: #aaa;"|
|''chiân''
|MC ''dzen''
| rowspan="2" |''*dzˤen''
|-
|vernacular
|''tsôiⁿ''
|''chêng'' /<br>''châiⁿ'' /<br>''chûiⁿ''
|PSM ''*tsõi2''
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|蟻}} 'ant'
|literary
| style="background: #aaa;"|
|''gí''
|MC ''ngjeX''
| rowspan="2" |''*m-qʰrajʔ''
|-
|vernacular
|''hiă''
|''hiă''
|PSM ''*hia4''
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|枝}} 'branch'
|literary
| style="background: #aaa;"|
|''chi''
|MC ''tsye''
| rowspan="2" |''*ke''
|-
|vernacular
|''ki''
|''ki''
|PSM ''*ki1''
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|富}} 'abundant'
|literary
| style="background: #aaa;"|
|''hù''
|MC ''pjuwH''
| rowspan="2" |''*pək-s''
|-
|vernacular
|''pù''
|''pù''
|PSM ''*pu5''
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{wikt-lang|zh|美}} 'beautiful'
|literary
|''múi''
|''bí''
|MC ''mijX''
| rowspan="2" |''*mrəjʔ''
|-
|vernacular
|''bué''
| style="background: #aaa;"|
|—
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|China|Languages}}
* [[Southern Min]]
* [[Hokkien]]
** [[Amoy dialect|Amoy Hokkien]]
** [[Taiwanese Hokkien]]
** [[Singaporean Hokkien]]
** [[Penang Hokkien]]
* [[Languages of China]]
* [[List of varieties of Chinese]]
* [[Thai Chinese|Chinese Thais]]
* [[Chinese Singaporeans]]
* [[Malaysian Chinese]]
* [[Indonesian Chinese]]

==Notes==
{{notelist|group=lower-roman}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* Beijing da xue Zhongguo yu yan wen xue xi yu yan xue jiao yan shi. (2003). ''Han yu fang yin zi hui''. (Chinese dialectal vocabulary) Beijing: Yu wen chu ban she (北京大學中國語言文學系語言學教研室, 2003. 漢語方音字彙. 北京: 語文出版社) {{ISBN|7-80184-034-8}}
* Cai Junming. (1991). ''Putonghua dui zhao Chaozhou fang yan ci hui''. (Chaozhou dialectal vocabulary, contrasted with Mandarin) Hong Kong: T. T. Ng Chinese Language Research Centre (蔡俊明, 1991. 普通話對照潮州方言詞彙. 香港: 香港中文大學吳多泰中國語文研究中心) {{ISBN|962-7330-02-7}}
* Chappell, Hilary (ed.) (2001). ''Sinitic Grammar: Synchronic and Diachronic Perspectives''. Oxford; New York: OUP {{ISBN|0-19-829977-X}}
* Chen, Matthew Y. (2000). ''Tone Sandhi: patterns across Chinese dialects''. Cambridge, England: CUP {{ISBN|0-521-65272-3}}
* DeFrancis, John. (1984). ''The Chinese language: fact and fantasy''. Honolulu: [[University of Hawaii Press]] {{ISBN|0-8248-1068-6}}
* Li, Xin Kui. (1994). ''Guangdong di fang yan''. (Dialects of Guangdong) Guangzhou, China: Guangdong ren min chu ban she (李新魁, 1994. 廣東的方言. 廣州: 廣東 人民出版社) {{ISBN|7-218-00960-3}}
* Li, Yongming. (1959). ''Chaozhou fang yan''. (Chaozhou dialect) Beijing: Zhonghua. (李永明, 1959. 潮州方言. 北京: 中華)
* Lin, Lun Lun. (1997). ''Xin bian Chaozhou yin zi dian''. (New Chaozhou pronunciation dictionary) Shantou, China: Shantou da xue chu ban she. (林倫倫, 1997. 新編潮州音字典. 汕頭: 汕頭大學出版社) {{ISBN|7-81036-189-9}}
* [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Norman, Jerry]]. [1988] (2002). ''Chinese''. Cambridge, England: CUP {{ISBN|0-521-29653-6}}
* Ramsey, S. Robert (1986). ''Languages of China''. Princeton, N.J.: [[Princeton University Press]] {{ISBN|0-691-06694-9}}
* Xu, Huiling (2007). ''Aspects of Chaoshan grammar: A synchronic description of the Jieyang dialect''. Monograph Series Journal of Chinese Linguistics 22
* Yap, FoongHa; Grunow-Hårsta, Karen; Wrona, Janick  (ed.) (2011). "Nominalization in Asian Languages: Diachronic and typological perspectives". Hong Kong Polytechnic University /Oxford University : [[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] {{ISBN|978-9027206770}}

==Further reading==

* {{cite book
|url=https://archive.org/details/achineseandengl00goddgoog
|title=A Chinese and English vocabulary: in the Tie-chiu dialect
|year=1883
|author=Josiah Goddard
|publisher=American Presbyterian Mission Press
|edition=2
|location=Shanghai
|pages=[https://archive.org/details/achineseandengl00goddgoog/page/n252 237]
|access-date=10 February 2012 }} (the New York Public Library) (digitized April 2, 2008)

* {{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oBITAAAAYAAJ
|title=Kū-ieh sàn-bú-zṳ́ ē-kńg tshûan-tsṳ e̍k-tsò tiê-chiu pe̍h-ūe
|year=1898
|publisher=printed for the British and Foreign Bible Society at the English Presbyterian Mission Press
|location=Swatow
|access-date=10 February 2012 }} (11 Samuel. (Tie-chiu dialect.)) (Harvard University) (digitized December 17, 2007)

==External links==
{{wikivoyage|Teochew phrasebook}}
{{Commons category|Teochew language}}
*[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_pronouncing_and_defining_dictionary_of_the_Swatow_dialect,_arranged_according_to_syllables_and_tones.djvu 1883 American Presbyterian mission press – "A pronouncing and defining dictionary of the Swatow dialect, arranged according to syllables and tones" – by Fielde, Adele Marion] (in English)Link to download(3,022 × 4,010 pixels, file size: 42.21 MB, MIME type: image/vnd.djvu, 648 pages)
* [http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020813184944/http://homepage2.nifty.com/gat_tin/fangyin.htm Database of Pronunciations of Chinese Dialects] (in English, Chinese and Japanese)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061104093803/http://www.czpp.com/czfy.htm Teochew People - Teochew dialect] (in Chinese)
* [http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/index.php Glossika - Chinese Languages and Dialects]
* [http://www.mogher.com Mogher] (in Chinese, English and French)
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/teochew.htm Omniglot]
* [https://www.instagram.com/learnteochewpenanghokkien/ The revival of teochew puj / teochew church romanisation on social media in 21th century]
* [https://www.instagram.com/p/C6TfP3bPz1U/?igsh=eXppMXRkM2R3ZnNx Movie quotes in teochew language that written in teochew puj / teochew church romanisation]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060613121534/http://cstc.lib.stu.edu.cn/fangyan/index.htm Shantou University Chaozhou Studies Resources] (in Chinese)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060219151801/http://teochewdialect.net/?code=tc Teochew Web] (in Chinese and English)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070617053725/http://profile.nus.edu.sg/fass/ellbaozm/ChaozhouLI.pdf Tonal harmony and register contour in Chaozhou]
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Min Chinese}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Teochew dialect| ]]
[[Category:Chaoshan]]
[[Category:Teochew culture]]
[[Category:Languages of China]]
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