View source for The Fens

{{Short description|Area of low lying land in eastern England}}
{{About|the region in England|the park in Boston, Massachusetts|Back Bay Fens|other uses|Fen (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Fenlands|the film|Fenlands (film)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = The Fens
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| settlement_type    = [[Natural region]]
| image_skyline      = Wicken-Fen-Hide.jpg
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| image_caption      = [[Wicken Fen]]
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| image_map          = File:The Fens England map.svg
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| map_caption        = Map of the Fens within eastern England along with the major settlements, rivers and drains within it.<ref>After {{cite book | first = Keith | last = Lindley | title = Fenland riots and the English revolution | publisher = Heinemann Educational Books | year = 1982 | isbn = 978-0-435-32535-0 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/fenlandriotseng00lind }}</ref>
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| subdivision_type   = Country
| subdivision_name   = [[United Kingdom]]
| subdivision_type4  = [[Counties of England|Counties]]
| subdivision_name4  = [[Lincolnshire]], [[Cambridgeshire]], [[Norfolk]]<br />[[Suffolk]]
| subdivision_type2  = [[Countries of the United Kingdom|Constituent country]]
| subdivision_name2  = [[England]]
| subdivision_type3  = [[Regions of England|Region]]
| subdivision_name3  = [[East of England]]<br />[[East Midlands]]
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| website            = {{URL|visitcambridgeshirefens.org}}
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[[File:London, Great Britain Population Density and Low Elevation Coastal Zones (5457306673).jpg|thumb|England population density and low elevation coastal zones. The Fens are particularly vulnerable to [[sea level rise]].]]

'''The Fens''' or '''Fenlands''' in eastern England are a naturally [[marsh]]y region supporting a rich ecology and numerous species. Most of the fens were drained centuries ago, resulting in a flat, dry, low-lying agricultural region supported by a system of [[drainage]] channels, man-made rivers ([[Ditch|dykes]] and drains), and automated [[pumping stations]]. There have been unintended consequences to this reclamation, as the land level has continued to sink and the dykes have been built higher to protect it from flooding.

''[[Fen]]'' is the local term for an individual area of [[marsh]]land or former marshland. It also designates the type of marsh typical of the area, which has [[pH|neutral]] or [[alkali]]ne water and relatively large quantities of dissolved [[mineral]]s, but few other [[plant nutrition|plant nutrient]]s.

The Fens are a [[National Character Area]],<ref>{{cite web |title=NCA Profile: 46. The Fens (NE424) |url=http://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/6229624?category=587130 |publisher=Natural England |access-date=7 December 2021}}</ref> based on their landscape, biodiversity, geodiversity and economic activity.

The Fens lie inland of [[the Wash]], and are an area of nearly {{convert|1500|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} in the south east of [[Lincolnshire]], most of [[Cambridgeshire]] (which also includes parts of the old historic county of [[Huntingdonshire]]), and western-most parts of [[Norfolk]] and [[Suffolk]].<ref>It is debated whether this area includes the fen areas of north Lincolnshire, such as the [[Isle of Axholme]]. Some scholars, such as Keith Lindley, include the Isle of Axholme as part of the Fenland, as it has the same kind of environment and a similar environmental and social history. But it is not contiguous with the rest of the East Anglian Fenland, nor was its drainage ever jointly organised with that of any of the main Fenland drainage areas. It is generally designated as a separate area.</ref>

Most of the Fens lie within a few metres of [[sea level]]. As with similar areas in the [[Netherlands]], much of the Fenland originally consisted of fresh- or salt-water wetlands. These have been artificially drained and continue to be protected from floods by drainage banks and pumps. With the support of this drainage system, the Fenland has become a major [[arable land|arable]] agricultural region for grains and vegetables. The Fens are particularly fertile, containing around half of the [[Agricultural Land Classification|grade 1 agricultural land]] in England.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fensforthefuture.org.uk/the-fens/fenland-agriculture|title=Agriculture|last=Studio|first=Root|website=Fens for the Future|access-date=2019-09-20}}</ref>

The Fens have been referred to as the "Holy Land of the English" because of the former monasteries, now churches and [[cathedral]]s, of [[Crowland]], [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]], [[Peterborough]], [[Ramsey, Cambridgeshire|Ramsey]] and [[Thorney, Cambridgeshire|Thorney]]. Other significant settlements in the Fens include [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]], [[Downham Market]], [[King’s Lynn]], [[Mildenhall, Suffolk|Mildenhall]], [[March, Cambridgeshire|March]], [[Spalding, Lincolnshire|Spalding]], and [[Wisbech]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wise|first1=John|last2=Noble|first2= W. Mackreth|title=Ramsey Abbey: Its Rise and Fall|publisher=Ellis & Cooper|location=Huntingdon|year=1882|isbn=0-904701-10-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Christian|first=Anne Hait|title=The Search for Holmes, Robson, Hind, Steele and Graham Families of Cumberland and Northumberland, England|publisher=Search|location=La Jolla, CA|year=1984|page=7|isbn=0-9613723-0-3}}</ref>

==Background: historical flooding and drainage==
[[File:Wicken Fen Windpump.jpg|thumb|right|A [[windpump]] at [[Wicken Fen]]]]

The Fens are very low-lying compared with the [[chalk]] and [[limestone]] uplands that surround them&nbsp;– in most places no more than {{convert|10|m}} above sea level. As a result of drainage and the subsequent shrinkage of the [[peat]] fens, many parts of the Fens now lie below [[mean sea level]]. Although one writer in the 17th century described the Fenland as entirely above sea level (in contrast to the Netherlands),<ref>H. C. ''A discourse concerning the drayning of fennes and surrounded grounds in the sixe counteys of Norfolk, Suffolke, Cambridge, with the Isle of Ely, Huntington, Northampton and Lincolne''. London: 1629. Reprinted in 1647 under title: ''The Drayner Confirmed, and the Obstinate Fenman Confuted''.</ref> the area now includes the lowest land in the United Kingdom. [[Holme Fen]] in Cambridgeshire, is around {{convert|2.75|metre}} below sea level.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2529365.stm|title=UK's lowest spot is getting lower|publisher=[[BBC]] | date=29 November 2002 | access-date=26 March 2010}}</ref> Within the Fens are a few hills, which have historically been called "islands", as they remained dry when the low-lying fens around them were flooded. The largest of the fen-islands was the 23-square-mile (60&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) Kimmeridge Clay island, on which the cathedral city of [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] was built: its highest point is {{convert|39|m|ft}} above mean sea level.<ref>[http://www.wheresthepath.com/county_tops/ct_isle_of_ely.htm Isle of Ely] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307054142/http://www.wheresthepath.com/county_tops/ct_isle_of_ely.htm |date=7 March 2012 }}, Wheres The Path website</ref>

Without artificial drainage and flood protection, the Fens would be liable to periodic flooding, particularly in winter due to the heavy load of water flowing down from the uplands and overflowing the rivers. Some areas of the Fens were once permanently flooded, creating lakes or ''[[Mere (lake)|meres]]'', while others were flooded only during periods of high water. In the pre-modern period, [[agronomy|arable farming]] was limited to the higher areas of the surrounding uplands, the fen islands, and the so-called "Townlands", an arch of [[silt]] ground around [[the Wash]], where the towns had their arable fields. Though these lands were lower than the peat fens before the peat shrinkage began, the more stable [[silt]] soils were reclaimed by medieval farmers and [[embankment dam|embanked]] against any floods coming down from the peat areas or from the sea. The rest of the Fenland was dedicated to [[pastoral farming]], fishing, [[fowling]], and the harvesting of reeds or sedge for thatch. In this way, the medieval and early modern Fens stood in contrast to the rest of England, which was primarily an arable agricultural region.

Since the advent of modern drainage in the 19th and 20th centuries, the Fens have been radically transformed. Today, arable farming has almost entirely replaced pastoral. The economy of the Fens is heavily invested in the production of crops such as grains, vegetables, and some cash crops such as [[rapeseed]] (canola).

==Areas of the Fens==
Drainage in the Fenland consists of both [[Drainage basin|river drainage]] and internal drainage of the land between the rivers. The internal drainage was organised by ''levels'' or districts, each of which includes the fen parts of one or several [[civil parishes in England|parishes]]. The details of the organisation vary with the history of their development, but the areas generally include:

===Great Level===
The Great Level of the Fens is the largest region of fen in eastern England: including the lower drainage basins of the [[River Nene]] and the [[Great Ouse]], it covers about {{convert|500|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}. It is also known as the Bedford Level, after [[Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford]], who headed the so-called [[Adventurers (land drainage)|adventurers]] (investors) in the 17th-century drainage in this area; [[William Russell, 1st Duke of Bedford|his son]] became the first governor of the [[Bedford Level Corporation]]. In the 17th century, the Great Level was divided into the North, Middle and South Levels for the purposes of administration and maintenance. In the 20th century, these levels were given new boundaries; they included some fens that were never part of the jurisdiction of the Bedford Level Corporation.
*The South Level lies to the southeast of the [[Ouse Washes]] and surrounds Ely, as it did in the 17th century.
*The Middle Level lies between the Ouse Washes and the Nene, but historically was defined as between the Ouse Washes and [[Morton's Leam]], a 15th-century canal that runs north of the town of [[Whittlesey]].
*The North Level now includes all of the fens in Cambridgeshire and [[Lincolnshire]] between the Nene and the [[River Welland]]. It originally included only a small part of these lands, including the ancient parishes of [[Thorney, Cambridgeshire|Thorney]] and [[Crowland]], but excluding most of [[Hundreds of Cambridgeshire|Wisbech Hundred]] and Lincolnshire, which were under their own local jurisdictions.<ref>"An Act for settling the Draining of the Great Level of the Fens called Bedford Level", 1663, reproduced in Samuel Wells, ''The History of the Drainage of the Great Level of the Fens called Bedford Level,'' (London, 1830), Vol.2, pp.383ff.</ref>[[File:Bylaws for the drainage of Deeping Fen (geograph 3691189).jpg|right|thumb|The former by-laws of Deeping Fen at [[Pode Hole]] near [[Spalding, Lincolnshire|Spalding]]]]

===Bourne and Deeping Fens===
Bourne Fen and [[Deeping Fen]] lie in the southern most parts of Lincolnshire, between the Rivers Welland and the [[Bourne Eau]] with the [[River Glen, Lincolnshire|River Glen]] running between the two Fens and the area covers both the town of [[Bourne, Lincolnshire|Bourne]] as well as [[The Deepings]] including the villages of [[Langtoft, Lincolnshire|Langtoft]] and [[Baston]].

=== Black Sluice Level===
The Black Sluice Level, also known as the Black Sluice District, was first drained in 1639 and extends from the Glen and Bourne Eau to [[Swineshead, Lincolnshire|Swineshead]] and then across to [[Kirton, Lincolnshire|Kirton]]. Its waters is carried mostly though the [[South Forty-Foot Drain]] through to [[The Haven, Boston|the Haven]] at [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]] though the [[Black Sluice]]. Also this area includes the market town of [[Spalding, Lincolnshire|Spalding]] and the ancient village of [[Sempringham]].
The above were all redrained at one time or another after the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] (1642–1649).

===Holland, Wildmore, West and East Fens===
These areas cover the northern most part of the Fens from [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]] right up as far north west as [[Washingborough]] near [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]] along the course of the [[River Witham]] and to the north east it extends up as far as the edge of the [[Lincolnshire Wolds]] to the seaside town of [[Skegness]].

* The Witham Commission Fens:
**[[Witham First District IDB|First District]]: from [[Washingborough]] to [[Billinghay]] Dales
**Second District: Blacksluice – [[Holland Fen]]
**[[Witham First District IDB|Third District]]: north of the [[River Witham]] above [[Bardney]]
**[[Witham Navigable Drains|Fourth District]]: East, West and Wildmore Fens and the Townland from Boston to [[Wainfleet, Lincolnshire|Wainfleet]]
**Fifth District: Kyme Eau to [[Billinghay]] Skirth
**Sixth District: Blacksluice – Helpringham Eau to Kyme Eau

These were drained in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>Bedford Levels information from Ordnance Survey 1:50 000 First Series Sheets 142 (1974) and 143 (1974). Lincolnshire information from Wheeler, W. H. ''A History of the Fens of South Lincolnshire'' 2nd ed. (1896) facsimile ed. Paul Watkins (1990) {{ISBN|1-871615-19-4}}</ref>

==Formation and geography==
At the end of the most recent [[Last Glacial Period|glacial period]], known in Britain as the [[Devensian]], ten thousand years ago, Britain and [[continental Europe]] were joined by the ridge between [[Friesland]] and [[Norfolk]]. The topography of the bed of the [[North Sea]] indicates that the rivers of the southern part of eastern England flowed into the [[Rhine]], thence through the [[English Channel]]. From the Fens northward along the modern coast, the drainage flowed into the [[northern North Sea basin]]. As the ice melted, the rising sea level drowned the lower lands, leading ultimately to the present coastline.<ref name="John Coles 1994">{{citation | first1 = David | last1 = Hall | first2 = John | last2 = Coles | title = Fenland Survey. An essay in landscape and persistence | series = Archeological Reports | volume = 1 | publisher = Liverpool University Press, Historic England | date = 1994 | isbn = 978-1-85074-477-1}}</ref>

These rising sea levels flooded the previously inland woodland of the Fenland basin; over the next few thousand years both saltwater and freshwater wetlands developed as a result. Silt and [[clay]] soils were deposited by marine floods in the saltwater areas and along the beds of tidal rivers, while organic soils, or peats, developed in the [[freshwater]] marshes. Fenland water levels peaked in the Iron Age; earlier Bronze and Neolithic settlements were covered by peat deposits, and have only recently been found after periods of extensive droughts revealed them.<ref name="John Coles 1994"/> During the Roman period, water levels fell once again. Settlements developed on the new silt soils deposited near the coast. Though water levels rose once again in the early medieval period, by this time artificial banks protected the coastal settlements and the interior from further deposits of marine silts. Peats continued to develop in the freshwater wetlands of the interior fens.<ref name="John Coles 1994"/>

The wetlands of the fens have historically included:
*[[Arroyo (watercourse)|Wash]]es: these are places such as tidal [[mud flat]]s and [[braided river]]s, which are sometimes exposed and at other times covered with water.
*[[Salt marsh]]: this is the higher part of a tidal wash, on which salt-adapted plants grew.
*[[Fen]]: this is a broad expanse of nutrient-rich shallow water in which dead plants do not fully decay, resulting in a flora of emergent plants growing in saturated peat.
*[[moorland|Moor]]: this developed where the peat grew above the reach of the land water which carried the nutrients to the fen. Its development was enabled where the fen was watered directly by rainfall. The slightly acidic rain neutralized the [[hydroxide ion]]s of the peat, making it more suitable for acid-loving plants, notably ''[[Sphagnum]]'' species. This is the same as [[bog]], but the word ''moor'' was applied to this acid peatland occurring on hills. These moors disappeared in the 19th century. Researchers did not think that the Fenland had this kind of peat, until the discovery of archaeological and documentary evidence showing that it did until the early 19th century.
*Waters: these have included:
**[[Creek (tidal)|tidal creeks]], which reached from the sea into the marsh, the Townlands and in some places, the fen. They were named only if big enough to be regarded as havens
**[[Mere (lake)|meres]], or shallow lakes, which were more or less static but aerated by wind action
** many rivers, both natural and (from Roman times on) artificial

Major areas for settlement were:
*''Townlands'', a broad bank of silt (the remains of the huge creek [[levee]]s that developed naturally during the Bronze and Iron Ages), on which the settlers built homes and grew vegetables for households
*''fen islands'': areas of higher land, which were never covered by the growing peat
*''fen edges'': uplands surrounding the fens

In general, of the three principal soil types found in the Fenland today, the mineral-based silt resulted from the energetic marine environment of the creeks, the clay was deposited in tidal mud-flats and salt-marsh, while the peat grew in the fen and bog. The peat produces black soils, which are directly comparable to the American [[Muck (soil)|muck soils]]. A [[roddon]], the dried raised bed of a watercourse, is more suitable for building than the less stable peat.

Since the 19th century, all of the acid peat in the Fens has disappeared. Drying and wastage of peats has greatly reduced the depth of the alkaline peat soils and reduced the overall elevation of large areas of the peat fens. It is also recorded that peat was dug out of the East and West Lincolnshire fens in the 14th century and used to fire the salterns of Wrangle and Friskney. In later centuries it was used locally for winter fuel and its digging controlled by the [[Duchy of Lancaster]].<ref>Aspects of Yellow Belly History, J. Dear & T. Taylor. 1988</ref>

Written records of earthquakes in the Fen area appear as early as 1048. According to ''Historia Ingulfi,'' p.&nbsp;64, (1684)<ref>{{citation |chapter=Ingulfi Croylandendis Historia|title=Rerum Anglicarum Scriptorum Veterum|publisher=Sheldonian Theatre |year=1684–1691|volume=1|editor-last1=Fulman|editor-first1=William|location=Oxford|language = la|pages=|editor-last2=Gale|editor-first2=Thomas}}</ref> this took place in Lincolnshire. In 1117 one affected Holland, Lincs, "endangering and injuring [[Crowland Abbey]]".<ref>''Ibid.'' p.129.</ref>  In 1185 Lincoln was damaged.<ref>Roger of Hoveden (1201) ''Chronica'', p. 359, as cited in ''Fenland Notes and Queries,'' vol.1, p.28.</ref> In 1448 a shock was recorded in south Lincolnshire (''Ingulfi,'' p.&nbsp;526). In 1750 John Moore records a severe shock attended by a rumbling noise in Bourn after midday. This was felt in Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Northamptonshire. Houses tottered, slates, tiles and some chimneys fell. As it was a Sunday, some people ran out of the churches "in great consternation".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Moore|first=John|title=Collections for a Topographical, Historical, and Descriptive Account of the Hundred of Aveland|publisher=John Moore|year=1809|location=Lincoln|pages=27}}</ref> In 1792 another shock was also felt in Bourne and neighbouring towns.<ref>''Ibid'', p.27.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=S. H.|orig-date=1889|editor-last=Saunders|editor-first=W. H. Bernard|title=21. Earthquakes in the Fenland.|journal=Fenland Notes and Queries|publisher=Geo. C. Caster|publication-place=Peterborough|volume=1|pages=28}}</ref>

==History==

===Pre-Roman settlement===
There is evidence of human settlement near the Fens from the [[Mesolithic]] on.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fensforthefuture.org.uk/the-fens/heritage|title=Archaeology of the Fens|last=Studio|first=Root|website=Fens for the Future|access-date=2019-09-20}}</ref> The evidence suggests that Mesolithic settlement in Cambridgeshire was particularly along the fen edges and on the low islands within the fens, to take advantage of the hunting and fishing opportunities of the wetlands.<ref>Christopher Taylor. ''The Cambridgeshire Landscape''. Hodder and Stroughton, London, 1973. p30.</ref> Internationally important sites include [[Flag Fen]] and [[Must Farm]] quarry Bronze Age settlement and [[Stonea Camp]].

===Roman farming and engineering===
The Romans constructed the [[Fen Causeway]], a road across the Fens to link what later became [[East Anglia]] with what later became central England; it runs between [[Denver, Norfolk|Denver]] and [[Peterborough]]. They also linked [[Cambridge]] and [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]]. Generally, their road system avoided the Fens, except for minor roads designed for exporting the products of the region, especially salt, beef and leather. Sheep were probably raised on the higher ground of the Townlands and fen islands, then as in the early 19th century. There may have been some drainage efforts during the Roman period, including the [[Car Dyke]] along the western edge of the Fenland between Peterborough and Lincolnshire, but most canals were constructed for transportation.<ref name="John Coles 1994"/>

How far seaward the Roman settlement extended is unclear owing to the deposits laid down above them during later floods.
[[File:Williamson p16 3.svg|thumb|The [[Kingdom of East Anglia]] during the early [[Anglo-Saxon period]], showing the approximate coastline and the Fens at the time]]

===Early post-Roman settlements===
The early post-Roman settlements were made on the [[Townlands]]. It is clear that there was some prosperity there, particularly where rivers permitted access to the upland beyond the fen. Such places were [[Wisbech]], [[Spalding, Lincolnshire|Spalding]], Swineshead and Boston. All the Townlands parishes were laid out as elongated strips, to provide access to the products of fen, marsh and sea. On the fen edge, parishes are similarly elongated to provide access to both upland and fen. The townships are therefore often nearer to each other than they are to the distant farms in their own parishes.

===Early Middle Ages and Middle Ages===
After the end of Roman Britain, there is a break in written records. It is thought that some [[Iceni]] may have moved west into the Fens to avoid the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], who were migrating across the North Sea from [[Angeln]] (modern [[Schleswig]]) and settling what would become [[East Anglia]]. Surrounded by water and marshes, the Fens provided a safe area that was easily defended and not particularly desirable to invading [[Anglo-Saxons]].

It has been proposed that the names of [[West Walton]], [[Walsoken]] and [[Walpole, Norfolk|Walpole]] suggest the native British population, with the ''Wal-'' coming from the Old English ''walh'', meaning "foreigner".<ref>Simon Young, ''AD500'' p.245 (Notes & Sources) references ''Life of [[Saint Guthlac]]'' (Cambridge University Press 1956), pp. 108–11.</ref> However, the villages are in close proximity to the old Roman sea wall, so the ''wal-'' element is more probably from ''wal'' or ''weal'', meaning "wall". ''Walton'' is generally believed to mean "wall-town",<ref name="ReferenceA">''A Popular Guide to Norfolk Place-names'', by James Rye: Dereham, Norfolk: Larks Press, 2000; {{ISBN|0-948400-15-3}}</ref> ''Walsoken'' to mean "the district under particular jurisdiction by the wall",<ref name="ReferenceA"/> and ''Walpole'' to mean simply "wall-pole" (Old English ''wal'' and ''pal'').<ref>{{Cite book|last=Blackie|first=Christina|url=http://archive.org/details/geographicaletym00blacuoft|title=Geographical etymology. A dictionary of place-names giving their derivations|date=1887|place=London |publisher= J. Murray}}</ref>

When written records resume in Anglo-Saxon England, the names of a number of peoples of the Fens are recorded in the [[Tribal Hidage]] and Christian histories. They include North [[Gyrwas|Gyrwe]] (Peterborough and Crowland), South Gyrwe (Ely), the Spalda (Spalding), and Bilmingas (part of south Lincolnshire).

In the early Christian period of Anglo-Saxon England, a number of Christians sought the isolation that could be found in the wilderness of the Fens. Later classified as saints, often with close royal links, they include [[Guthlac]], [[Etheldreda]], [[Pega]], and [[Wendreda]]. Hermitages on the islands became centres of communities which later developed as monasteries with massive estates. In the ''[[Life of Saint Guthlac]]'', a biography of the East Anglian [[hermit]] who lived in the Fens during the early 8th century, Saint Guthlac was described as attacked on several occasions by people he believed were [[Britons]], who were then living in the Fens. However, Bertram Colgrave, in the introduction to one edition, doubts this account, because of the lack of evidence of British survival in the region. British place names in the area are "very few".<ref>{{Cite book|editor= Bertram Colgrave|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Gs4AAAAIAAJ&q=Britons%2520in%2520the%2520Fens&pg=PA1|title=Felix's Life of Saint Guthlac: Texts, Translation and Notes|date=1985|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-31386-5|page=1}}</ref>

Monastic life was disrupted by Danish raids and centuries of settlement from the 8th century but was revived in the mid-10th-century monastic revival. In the 11th century, the whole area was incorporated into a united [[Anglo-Saxon England]]. The Fens remained a place of refuge and intrigue. It was here that [[Alfred Aetheling]] was brought to be murdered and here where [[Hereward the Wake]] based his insurgency against [[Norman England]].

Fenland monastic houses include the so-called ''Fen Five'' ([[Ely Cathedral|Ely Cathedral Priory]], [[Thorney Abbey]], [[Croyland Abbey]], [[Ramsey Abbey]] and [[Peterborough Cathedral|Peterborough Abbey]])<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.le.ac.uk/ulas/projects/thorney.html | title = ULAS – Thorney | access-date = 17 March 2011 | date = 26 February 2007 | publisher = University of Leicester Archaeological Services | archive-date = 18 December 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141218151813/http://www.le.ac.uk/ulas/projects/thorney.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> as well as [[Spalding Priory]]. As major landowners, the monasteries played a significant part in the early efforts at drainage of the Fens.

====Royal Forest====
During most of the 12th century and the early 13th century, the south Lincolnshire fens were [[Royal Forest|afforested]]. The area was enclosed by a line from Spalding, along the River Welland to [[Market Deeping]], then along the Car Dyke to [[Dowsby]] and across the fens to the Welland. It was deforested in the early 13th century. There is little agreement as to the exact dates of the establishment and demise of the forest, but it seems likely that the deforestation was connected with the [[Magna Carta]] or one of its early 13th-century restatements, though it may have been as late as 1240. The forest would have affected the economies of the townships around it and it appears that the present [[Bourne Eau]] was constructed at the time of the [[deforestation]], as [[Bourne, Lincolnshire|the town]] seems to have joined in the general prosperity by about 1280.

Though the forest was about half in [[Holland, Lincolnshire|Holland (Lincolnshire)]] and half in [[Kesteven]], it is known as Kesteven Forest.<ref>{{cite AV media|url=http://info.sjc.ox.ac.uk/forests/ForestsMapTileSheet123.html|title=Forest Map near Kesteven | type= image |website=info.sjc.ox.ac.uk|access-date=19 March 2018}}</ref>

==Draining the Fens==
[[File:"A Map of the Great Levell, representing it as it lay drowned." (1662).jpg|thumb|"A Map of the Great Levell, representing it as it lay drowned." from "The history of imbanking and drayning" by [[William Dugdale]] (1662)]]
[[File:"The Map of the Great Levell drained" (1662).jpg|thumb|"The Map of the Great Levell drained" from "The history of imbanking and drayning" by [[William Dugdale]] (1662)]]
[[File:Fens area of Lincolnshire (Janssonius).jpg|thumb|300px|Southern Lincolnshire from a mid-17th-century atlas by [[Jan Janssonius]], showing unsettled areas within undrained fens]]
<!-- Hide deleted image [[image:Stretham old engine 19.3.05.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The old steam drainage engine near Stretham]]-->

===Early modern attempts to drain the Fens===
{{See also|Bedford Level Corporation}}
Though some signs of Roman hydraulics survive, and there were also some medieval drainage works, land drainage was begun in earnest during the 1630s by the various investors who had contracts with [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.greatfen.org.uk/heritage/drained-fens|title=The drained fens|website=Greatfen.org.uk|language=en|access-date=2019-09-20}}</ref> The leader of one of these syndicates was the Earl of Bedford, who employed [[Cornelius Vermuyden]] as engineer. Contrary to popular belief, Vermuyden was not involved with the draining of the Great Fen in Cambridgeshire and Norfolk in the 1630s, but only became involved with the second phase of construction in the 1650s.<ref>Margaret Albright Knittl, "The design for the initial drainage of the Great Level of the Fens: an historical whodunit in three parts", ''Agricultural History Review'', 55:1 (2007), pp. 23–50. [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18823993 Abstract] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721002301/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18823993 |date=21 July 2011 }}</ref> The scheme was imposed despite huge opposition from locals who were losing their livelihoods based on fishing and wildfowling. Fenmen known as the Fen Tigers tried to sabotage the drainage efforts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Water |first1=Esther |title=Reading the River in Shakespeare’s Britain |date=31 August 2024 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-3995-3450-5 |pages=231–249 |chapter-url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781399534505-014 |access-date=9 July 2025 |language=en |chapter=11. Powtes, Protest and (Eco)politics in the English Fens |url=https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781399534505/html| editor-first1=Bill|editor-last1=Angus|editor-first2=Lisa|editor-last2=Hopkins}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glausiusz |first1=Josie |title=The Burning Earth: how conquest and carnage have decimated landscapes worldwide |journal=Nature |date=16 September 2024 |volume=633 |issue=8030 |pages=518–519 |doi=10.1038/d41586-024-02996-0 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-02996-0 |access-date=9 July 2025 |language=en|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Two cuts were made in the Cambridgeshire Fens to join the [[River Great Ouse]] to the sea at King's Lynn – the [[Old Bedford River]] and the [[New Bedford River]], the latter being known also as the ''Hundred Foot Drain''. Both cuts were named after the [[Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford|Fourth Earl of Bedford]] who, along with some ''gentlemen adventurers'' ([[venture capitalist]]s), funded the construction and were rewarded with large grants of the resulting farmland. The work was directed by engineers from the [[Low Countries]]. Following this initial drainage, the Fens were still extremely susceptible to flooding, so [[windpump]]s were used to pump water away from affected areas. The Company of Adventurers were more formally incorporated in 1663 as the [[Bedford Level Corporation]].

However, their success was short-lived. Once drained of water, the peat shrank, and the fields lowered further. The more effectively they were drained, the worse the problem became, and soon the fields were lower than the surrounding rivers. By the end of the 17th century, the land was under water once again.

Though the three Bedford Levels together formed the biggest scheme, they were not the only ones. [[Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey|Lord Lindsey]] and his partner [[William Killigrew (1606–1695)|Sir William Killigrew]] had the Lindsey Level inhabited by farmers by 1638, but the onset of the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] permitted the destruction of the works until the [[act of Parliament]] that led to the formation of the Black Sluice Commissioners, the [[Black Sluice Drainage Act 1765]] ([[5 Geo. 3]]. c. ''86'').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blacksluiceidb.gov.uk/the-drainage-board/history.html |title=Historyof the Black Sluice Internal Drainage Board |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428032212/http://www.blacksluiceidb.gov.uk/the-drainage-board/history.html |archive-date=28 April 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

[[File:Stretham Old Engine.JPG|thumb|right|[[Stretham Old Engine]],<br />alongside the River Great Ouse]]
Many original records of the Bedford Level Corporation, including maps of the Levels, are now held by [[Cambridgeshire Archives and Local Studies]] Service at the County Record Office in Cambridge.

===Modern drainage===
The major part of the draining of the Fens was effected in the late 18th and early 19th century, again involving fierce local rioting and sabotage of the works. The final success came in the 1820s when windpumps were replaced with powerful coal-powered [[steam engine]]s, such as [[Stretham Old Engine]], which were themselves replaced with diesel-powered pumps, such as those at [[Prickwillow Museum]] and, following [[World War II]], the small electric stations that are still used today.

[[File:Prickwillow Drainage Engine Museum.jpg|thumb|right|[[Prickwillow Museum]] shows the changing face of the Fens and the story of their drainage. It is housed in an old pumping station.]]
The dead vegetation of the peat remained undecayed because it was deprived of air (the peat being anaerobic). When it was drained, the oxygen of the air reached it, since then the peat has been slowly oxidizing.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.greatfen.org.uk/about/faqs|title=Frequently Asked Questions|website=Greatfen.org.uk|language=en|access-date=2019-09-20}}</ref> This, together with the shrinkage on its initial drying and the removal of soil by the wind, has meant that much of the Fens lies below [[Tide|high tide level]]. As the highest parts of the drained fen are now only a few metres above mean sea level, only sizeable [[dike (construction)|embankment]]s of the rivers, and general flood defences, stop the land from being inundated. Nonetheless, these works are now much more effective than they were.

The Fens today are protected by {{convert|60|mi|km}} of embankments defending against the sea and {{convert|96|mi|km}} of river embankments. Eleven [[internal drainage board]] (IDB) groups maintain 286 pumping stations and {{convert|3800|mi|km}} of watercourses, with the combined capacity to pump 16,500 [[Olympic-size swimming pool]]s in a 24-hour period or to empty [[Rutland Water]] in 3 days.<ref name=NFU>{{cite web | url = http://www.nfuonline.com/Regions/East-Anglia/News/Why-farming-matters-in-the-Fens(2)/ | title = Why Farming Matters in the Fens (2) | access-date = 17 March 2011 | format = PDF | publisher = NFU East Anglia | year = 2008 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110427133115/http://www.nfuonline.com/Regions/East-Anglia/News/Why-farming-matters-in-the-Fens(2)/ | archive-date = 27 April 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

==Modern farming and food manufacturing in the Fens==
As of 2008, there are estimated to be 4,000 farms in the Fens involved in agriculture and horticulture, including arable, livestock, poultry, dairy, orchards, vegetables and ornamental plants and flowers. They employ about 27,000 people in full-time and seasonal jobs. In turn, they support around 250 businesses involved in food and drink manufacturing and distribution, employing around 17,500 people.<ref name=NFU/>

Over 70% of the Fens is involved in environmental stewardship schemes, under which {{convert|270|mi|km}} of hedgerow and {{convert|1780|mi|km}} of ditches are managed, providing large wildlife corridors and habitat for endangered animals such as the [[European water vole|water vole]].<ref name=NFU/>

==Restoration==
In 2003, the [[Great Fen]] Project was initiated to return parts of the Fens to their original pre-agricultural state. The periodic flooding by the North Sea, which renewed the character of the Fenlands, was characterised conventionally by the 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' as "ravaged by serious inundations of the sea". The modern approach is to allow a little farmland to be flooded again and turned into [[nature reserve]]s. By introducing fresh water, the organisers of the project hope to encourage species such as the [[common snipe|snipe]], [[northern lapwing|lapwing]] and [[Eurasian bittern|bittern]]. Endangered species such as the [[fen violet]] will be seeded.

The [[Fens Waterways Link]] is a scheme to restore navigation to some of the drainage works. It is planned to bring the [[South Forty-Foot Drain]] and parts of the Car Dyke into use as part of a route between Boston and Cambridge.

==Sports==
The Fens is the origin of English [[bandy]] and [[Fen skating]]. It is the base of [[Great Britain Bandy Association]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbandy.com/members.html|title=Members - Federation of International Bandy|website=Worldbandy.com|access-date=19 March 2018|archive-date=14 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214015548/http://www.worldbandy.com/members.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and in [[Littleport, Cambridgeshire|Littleport]] there is a project in place aiming at building an indoor stadium for ice sports. If successful, it will have the largest sheet of ice in the country with both a [[bandy field|bandy pitch]] and a [[speed skating rink|speed skating oval]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.littleporticestadiumproject.com/ |title=Littleporticestadiumprojectltd |access-date=21 January 2017 |archive-date=27 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180427120916/http://www.littleporticestadiumproject.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Settlements==
Many historic cities, towns and villages have grown up in the fens, sited chiefly on the few areas of raised ground. These include:
* [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]], port and administrative centre of the [[Boston (borough)|Borough of Boston]]
* [[Chatteris, Cambridgeshire|Chatteris]], a market town
* City of [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]] (meaning "Isle of Eels"), whose [[Ely Cathedral|cathedral]]&nbsp;– one of the Fen Five monasteries&nbsp;– is known as the "Ship of the Fens"; administrative centre of the [[East Cambridgeshire|East Cambridgeshire District Council]]
* [[Cottenham]], one of the five [[Silicon Fen]]-Edge Villages strung out along the Fens' southernmost border, just north of [[Cambridge]] in [[Cambridgeshire]] – from west to east: [[Willingham, Cambridgeshire|Willingham]], [[Rampton, Cambridgeshire|Rampton]], [[Cottenham]], [[Landbeach]] and [[Waterbeach]];
* [[Crowland]], one of the Fen Five monasteries; also a medieval [[Trinity Bridge, Crowland|triangular bridge]];
* [[Donington, Lincolnshire|Donington]], birthplace of the explorer [[Matthew Flinders]]
* [[Guyhirn]], bridging point over the Nene and home to a 17th-century Puritan chapel 
* [[Holbeach, Lincolnshire|Holbeach]], a market town
* [[Littleport, Cambridgeshire|Littleport]], a large village approximately {{convert|6|mi|km}} north of Ely
* [[Little Thetford]], settled on a [[boulder clay]] island within the fens since the [[Bronze Age]], {{convert|3|mi|km}} south of Ely
* [[Long Sutton, Lincolnshire|Long Sutton]], a market town and home to UK's largest food cannery
* [[March, Cambridgeshire|March]], a market town and administrative centre of the [[Fenland District]]
* [[Market Deeping, Lincolnshire|Market Deeping]], a market town
* [[Parson Drove]], the village was the last location of a mobile [[Woad]] mill.
* City of [[Peterborough]], the largest of the many settlements along the fen edge and sometimes called the "Gateway to the Fens"; its [[Peterborough Cathedral|cathedral]] is one of the Fen Five monasteries; administrative centre of the Peterborough [[Unitary Authority]]
* [[Ramsey, Cambridgeshire|Ramsey]], a market town; one of the Fen Five monasteries
* [[Ring's End]] named after an early drainage project.
* [[Soham]], a market town.
* [[Spalding, Lincolnshire|Spalding]], a market town, administrative centre of [[South Holland, Lincolnshire|South Holland]], and famed for its annual Flower Parade held from 1959 to 2013 which was revived in 2023.
* [[Thorney, Cambridgeshire|Thorney]], one of the Fen Five monasteries; later model village and agricultural estates of the [[Dukes of Bedford]]
* [[Tydd St Giles]] a low lying village formerly in the hundred of Wisbech.
* [[Tydd St Mary]] a parish in [[South Holland, Lincolnshire|South Holland]], five miles north of Wisbech.
* [[Walsoken]], formerly in Norfolk, but part of which was merged with Wisbech in the 20th century.
* [[Whittlesey]], a market town; annual Straw Bear Festival
* [[Wisbech]] ("Capital of the Fens"<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wisbech-town.co.uk/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430200311/http://www.wisbech-town.co.uk/|url-status=dead|title=Welcome to Wisbech|archive-date=30 April 2008|website=Wisbech-town.co.uk|access-date=31 May 2022}}</ref>), a market town and [[Port of Wisbech|port]].
Ancient sites include:
* [[Flag Fen]], a Bronze Age settlement
* [[Must Farm]], a Bronze Age settlement
* [[Stonea Camp]], an Iron Age hill fort
* [[Wisbech Castle]], the site of a Norman castle.
* March Sconce, a [[English Civil War|Civil War]] fieldwork.

==In popular culture and media==
{{cleanup reorganize|date=March 2022}}
[[File:Flag of the Fens.svg|thumb|The so-called "Flag of the Fens", designed by resident vexillographer James Bowman in 2016. Although it has yet to be registered with the [[Flag Institute]], the design has gained widespread popularity as the de facto flag of the region. The tiger is a homage to the term "Fen Tiger", which was originally coined in the 17th century to describe locals who exhibited fierce resistance to the drainage schemes in the Fens. The yellow symbolises the agricultural prosperity of the Fens, while the blue represents both the natural and man-made waterways of the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thelocalview.co.uk/cambridgeshire-and-fenland-flags/ |title=Flying the Local Flags for Cambridgeshire and Fenland |author= |date= |work=The Local View - Cambridge |access-date=28 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author= |date=10 November 2018 |title=Fens flag campaign to capture "fighting qualities" |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-46141850 |access-date=28 August 2024 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.peterboroughtoday.co.uk/news/people/mp-calls-for-flag-of-the-fens-to-be-added-to-the-official-flag-register-4754997 |title=MP calls for "Flag of the Fens" to be added to the official flag register |author=Gemma Gadd |date=23 August 2024 |work=Peterborough Telegraph |access-date=28 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://britishcountyflags.com/2016/11/21/fenland/ |title=The Fens |author= |date=21 November 2016 |work=British County Flags |access-date=28 August 2024}}</ref>]]

Some authors have featured the Fens repeatedly in their work. For example:
*[[John Gordon (author)|John Gordon]], writer of adolescent fiction and author of ''[[The Giant Under The Snow]]'', drew inspiration for many of his supernatural fantasies from the Fens. His books with Fenland themes include: ''Ride The Wind'', ''Fen Runners'' and ''The House On The Brink'', which was based on [[Peckover House]] in [[Wisbech]].
*[[Joy Ellis]] set her multiple detective series in the Fens: ''DI Nikki Galena series'', ''Detective Matt Ballard series'' and ''DI Rowan Jackman & DS Marie Evans series'', soon to be turned into a television adaptation (see below). Her stand-alone psychological fiction ''Guide Star'' is also set in the Fens.
*[[Peter F. Hamilton]] sets a number of his science-fiction novels in the Fens, including ''[[Mindstar Rising]]'' and ''[[A Quantum Murder]]''.
*[[M. R. James]] set several of his ghost stories in the Fens.
*[[Jim Kelly (author)|Jim Kelly]] set ''The Water Clock'', ''The Moon Tunnel'' and ''The Funeral Owl'' in the Fens.
*[[Philippa Pearce]], a children's author, set many of her books in the Fens, for example ''[[Tom's Midnight Garden]]''.
*[[Gladys Mitchell]], prolific writer of detective fiction, took her eccentric sleuth, the psychiatrist Mrs Lestrange Bradley, to the Fens in several books, notably ''The Worsted Viper'', ''Wraiths and Changelings'' and ''The Mudflats of the Dead''.
*[[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s [[The Black Arrow: A Tale of the Two Roses|''The Black Arrow'']] has several chapters set in the Fens.
*[[Nick Warburton]] wrote a series of radio plays entitled ''On Mardle Fen'', one of the longest-running series of plays on [[BBC Radio 4]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.radiolistings.co.uk/programmes/o/on/on_mardle_fen.html|title=On Mardle Fen|website=Radiolistings.co.uk|access-date=31 May 2022|archive-date=2 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190302083405/http://www.radiolistings.co.uk/programmes/o/on/on_mardle_fen.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[Susanna Gregory]]'s ''Matthew Bartholomew chronicles''{{'}} title character is a fictional physician living in 14th-century Cambridge.
* [[G. A. Henty]]'s book ''Beric the Briton'' mentions some sections in the Fens.
* [[Norah Lofts]] features a character called Ethelreda Benedict, who comes from a small island in the Fens in the 17th century, in the second book of her ‘House’ trilogy, ''The House at Old Vine''.
* [[Louis L'Amour]]'s ''To The Far Blue Mountains'', the central character Barnabas Sackett from [[Sackett#Sackett's Land (novel)|''Sackett's Land'']] returns to his home in the Fens one last time in the opening chapter.

The following fictions, or substantial portions of them, are set in the Fens:
*[[Joy Ellis]]: ''D.I. Nikki Galena'' series, ''Jackman and Evans'' series, ''Detective Matt Ballard series'', ''Guide Star''
* [[Sabine Baring-Gould]]: ''Cheap Jack Zita''
*[[Hal Foster]]: ''[[Prince Valiant]]''
*[[Martha Grimes]]: ''The Case Has Altered'', set in and around [[Algarkirk]], Lincolnshire
*[[Georgette Heyer]]: ''[[A Civil Contract]]''
*[[Charles Kingsley]]: ''[[Hereward the Wake (novel)|Hereward the Wake]]''
*[[Louis L'Amour]]: [[Sackett#Sackett's Land (novel)|''Sackett's Land'']]
*[[Dorothy L. Sayers]]: ''[[The Nine Tailors]]''
*[[Gregory Maguire]]: ''[[Confessions of an Ugly Stepsister]]''
*[[Graham Swift]]: ''[[Waterland (novel)|Waterland]]'' (made into a film, listed below)
*[[Robert Westall]]: ''Futuretrack 5''
*[[Eric Flint]] and [[Andrew Dennis]]: ''1635: A Parcel of Rogues''
*[[Philip Pullman]]: ''[[Northern Lights (Pullman novel)|Northern Lights]]''
*[[Lesley Glaister]]: ''Honour Thy Father''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lesleyglaister.weebly.com/honour-thy-father.html|title=Honour thy father|website=Lesley Glaister|access-date=19 March 2018|archive-date=19 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319151412/http://lesleyglaister.weebly.com/honour-thy-father.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[P. D. James]]: ''[[Death of an Expert Witness]]''
*[[Constance Heaven]]: ''Lord of Ravensley''
*[[Paul Kingsnorth]]: ''[[The Wake (novel)|The Wake]]''<ref name=thorpe>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/apr/02/the-wake-paul-kingsnorth-review-literary-triumph|title=The Wake by Paul Kingsnorth review 'A literary triumph'|last=Thorpe|first=Adam|date=2 April 2014|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=15 September 2015}}</ref>
*Jordy Rosenberg: ''[[Confessions of the Fox]]''
*[[Stella Tillyard]]: ''The Great Level''
*[[H. G. Wells]]: ''[[The Croquet Player]]''
* [[Jill Dawson]]: ''The Tell-Tale Heart''
*[[Caryl Churchill]]: [[Fen (play)|''Fen'']] 

Some films have large portions set in the Fenlands:
*''[[Dad Savage]]'' (1998), starring [[Patrick Stewart]], was set and filmed in the [[King's Lynn]] area.
*''[[Waterland (film)|Waterland]]'' (1992), directed by [[Stephen Gyllenhaal]].

And television:

*[[Fenlands (film)|''Fenlands'']] 1945 documentary film
*The 1974 [[Look and Read]] series ''Cloud Burst'' was set and filmed in the Fens.
*The episode ''Three Miles Up'' of the 1995 BBC series [[Ghosts (1995 series)|''Ghosts'']] was set in the Fens.
*[[Thomas & Friends]] has a bridge on the Brendam Branch called the Fenland Track that crosses over a marsh.
*The 2019 TV series [[Wild Bill (TV series)|''Wild Bill'']] was set around Boston, Lincolnshire.

Music:
* Ralph Vaughan Williams: ''[[In the Fen Country]]''

Video games also have been set in the Fens:

*The Bedford Level appears in the video game ''[[Tom Clancy's EndWar]]'' as a possible battlefield.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://endwargame.us.ubi.com/locations.php |title=Locations |author=Ubisoft |author-link=Ubisoft |publisher=[[Ubisoft]] |date=2008|access-date=1 April 2011}}</ref>
*''[[The Lost Crown: A Ghost-Hunting Adventure]]'' is set in a fictional town called Saxton, located in the Fens.
*In the game ''[[Sir, You Are Being Hunted]]'' the Fens is an area that the game can randomly generate.

==See also==
*[[Prickwillow Museum]], the changing face of the Fens, including restored drainage engines
*[[Whittlesey Museum]], a social history museum located on the ground floor of a 19th-century Town Hall.
*[[Wisbech & Fenland Museum]], one of the oldest purpose-built museums in the UK.
*[[Fen skating]], a sport for which the Fens were famous
*[[Gilbert Heathcote's tunnel]], a drainage project in the 1630s
*[[Hereward the Wake]], who led the English resistance to the Norman Conquest from the fens
*[[High Fens]], between [[Belgium]] and Germany
*[[Pinchbeck Engine]], a museum of fen drainage based around the longest-working beam engine and scoopwheel
*[[Somerset Levels]], a similar area of wetlands in the southwest of England
*[[Wicken Fen]], one of the few remaining undrained fens, owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]
*[[Devil's Dyke, Cambridgeshire]], a long straight ditch and bank
*[[The Broads]], the navigable waterway system which crosses the fenland of Norfolk and Suffolk
*[[History of malaria]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|first=William|last=Dugdale|author-link=William Dugdale|title=History of Imbanking and Drayning of Divers Fens and. Marshes|place=London|year=1662}}
*{{cite book|title=A history of the drainage of the Great Level of the Fens called Bedford Level|last=Wells|first=Samuel A.|year=1830|location=Fleet Street, London|publisher=R.Pheney|volume=2 }} archived online: [https://books.google.com/books?id=T6PQAAAAMAAJ Volume 1], [https://books.google.com/books?id=apIJAAAAIAAJ Volume 2]
*{{Wheeler1896}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Fens | volume= 10 |last= Bealby |first=John Thomas | pages = 256&ndash;259 |short=1}}
*{{cite book|series=Victoria County History|title=A History of the County of Huntingdon|editor1-first=William|editor1-last=Page|editor2-first=Granville|editor2-last= Proby|editor3-first= S.|editor3-last= Inskip Ladds|year=1936|pages=249–290: "The Middle Level of the Fens and its reclamation"|volume=3|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=66187|access-date=30 December 2010}}
*{{cite book|first=Trevor|last=Bevis|year=1990|title=A pocket guide to The Fenland|publisher=Trevor Bevis}}
*{{cite book|title=FENLAND: A Landscape made by Man|first=Peter |last=Hewitt|publisher=Wisbech Society|year=2000}}
*{{cite book|first=Rex|last=Sly|year=2003|title=From Punt to Plough: A history of the Fens|publisher=The History Press}}
*{{cite book|first=Eric|last=Ash|year = 2017|title=The Draining of the Fens|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|doi=10.1353/book.51998 |isbn=9781421422015 |url=https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/content/draining-fens|access-date=2017-03-15}}
*{{cite book|first=Francis|last=Pryor|year=2019|title=The Fens: Discovering England's Ancient Depths|publisher=Head of Zeus Ltd}}
*{{cite book|first=James|last=Boyce|year=2020|title=Imperial Mud: The Fight for the Fens|publisher=Icon Books}}
*{{cite book|first= Karen|last= Merrison|title= Secret Fens|year= 2022|publisher= Amberley}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.prickwillowmuseum.com Prickwillow Museum] the changing face of Fenland
*[http://www.flagfen.com/ Flag Fen Archaeology Trust official website]
*[http://www.greatfen.org.uk/index.php The Great Fen Project official website]

{{Coord|52.48838|-0.23118|type:landmark_region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(TL202893)|display=title}}
{{Authority control}}

{{The Fens}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fens, The}}
[[Category:Fens of England| ]]
[[Category:Landforms of Cambridgeshire]]
[[Category:Landforms of Lincolnshire]]
[[Category:Land management in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Polders]]
[[Category:Natural regions of England]]
[[Category:Levels in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Wetlands of England]]
[[Category:Fenland District]]