View source for Trade union

{{Short description|Organisation of workers with common goals}}
{{Distinguish|Trade association}}
{{Redirect|Labour Union}}
{{Redirect|Trade unionism|the trade union movement|Labour movement}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=April 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Labor|expanded=unions}}

A '''trade union''' ([[British English]]) or '''labor union''' ([[American English]]), often simply referred to as a '''union''', is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their [[employment]],{{sfn|Webb|Webb|1920}} such as attaining better [[wage]]s and [[Employee benefits|benefits]], improving [[Work (human activity)|working]] conditions, improving safety standards, establishing complaint procedures, developing rules governing status of employees (rules governing promotions, just-cause conditions for termination) and protecting and increasing the [[bargaining power]] of workers.

Trade unions typically fund their head office and legal team functions through regularly imposed fees called ''union dues''. The [[union representative]]s in the [[workforce]] are usually made up of [[workplace]] volunteers who are often appointed by members through internal democratic elections. The trade union, through an elected leadership and bargaining committee, bargains with the employer on behalf of its members, known as the rank and file, and negotiates [[Labour law|labour contracts]] (collective bargaining agreements) with employers.

Unions may organize a particular section of skilled or unskilled workers ([[craft unionism]]),<ref name="Poole, M. 1986">Poole, M., 1986. Industrial Relations: Origins and Patterns of National Diversity. London UK: [[Routledge]].</ref> a cross-section of workers from various trades ([[general union]]ism), or an attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry ([[industrial unionism]]). The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank-and-file members and the employer, and in some cases on other non-member workers. Trade unions traditionally have a [[constitution]] which details the governance of their bargaining unit and also have governance at various levels of government depending on the industry that binds them legally to their negotiations and functioning.

Originating in the [[United Kingdom]], trade unions became popular in many countries during the [[Industrial Revolution]] when employment (rather than subsistence farming) became the primary mode of earning a living.  Trade unions may be composed of individual workers, [[professional]]s, [[Pensioner|past workers]], [[student]]s, [[Apprenticeship|apprentices]] or the [[unemployment|unemployed]]. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union, is highest in the [[Nordic countries]].<ref name=":OECD union density" /><ref name="ILO Density">{{cite web |title=Industrial relations |url= https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/country-profiles/ |publisher=ILOSTAT |access-date=9 October 2018 <!-- |In the search box use "Trade union density rate" --> }}</ref>

== Definition ==
[[File:Garment Workers on Strike, New York City circa 1913.jpg|thumb|Garment workers on strike, New York City, {{Circa|1913}}]]
Since the publication of the ''[[History of Trade Unionism]]'' (1894) by [[Sidney Webb, 1st Baron Passfield|Sidney]] and [[Beatrice Webb]], the predominant historical view is that a trade union "is a continuous association of wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment".{{sfn|Webb|Webb|1920}} [[Karl Marx]] described trade unions thus: "The value of labour-power constitutes the conscious and explicit foundation of the trade unions, whose importance for the ... working class can scarcely be overestimated. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is traditionally maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value" (''Capital'' V1, 1867, p.&nbsp;1069). Early [[Socialism|socialists]] also saw trade unions as a way to [[Democratization|democratize]] the workplace, in order to obtain political power.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Botz|first=Dan La|date=2013|title=The Marxist View of the Labor Unions: Complex and Critical|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/wusa.12021|journal=WorkingUSA|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=5–42|doi=10.1111/wusa.12021|issn=1743-4580|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

A modern definition by the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] states that a trade union is "an organisation consisting predominantly of employees, the principal activities of which include the negotiation of rates of pay and conditions of employment for its members".<ref>{{cite web |title=Trade Union Census |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/0/9FCBBF538897395ACA2570EC001A6CED?OpenDocument |access-date=27 July 2011}}</ref>

Recent historical research by Bob James puts forward the view that trade unions are part of a broader movement of [[benefit society|benefit societies]], which includes medieval [[guild]]s, [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]], [[independent Order of Odd Fellows|Oddfellows]], [[Friendly society|friendly societies]], and other [[List of general fraternities|fraternal organizations]].{{Sfn|James|2001}}

==History==
{{Main|Labour movement|Collegium (ancient Rome)|Guild}}

=== Trade guilds ===
A ''collegium'' was any association in ancient Rome that acted as a [[Legal person|legal entity]]. Following the passage of the ''[[Lex Julia]]'' during the reign of Julius Caesar (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]] (27 BC–14 AD), ''collegia'' required the approval of the [[Roman Senate]] or the Roman emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies.<ref name="de Ligt 2001">{{Cite journal|last=de Ligt|first=L.|date=2001|title=D. 47,22, 1, pr.-1 and the Formation of Semi-Public "Collegia"|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41539517|journal=Latomus|volume=60|issue=2|pages=346–349|jstor=41539517|issn=0023-8856}}</ref> Ruins at [[Lambaesis]] date the formation of burial societies among Roman Army soldiers and [[Roman navy|Roman Navy]] mariners to the reign of [[Septimius Severus]] (193–211) in 198 AD.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ginsburg|first=Michael|year=1940|title=Roman military clubs and their social functions|journal=[[Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association]]|volume=71|pages=149–156|doi=10.2307/283119|jstor=283119}}</ref> In September 2011, archaeological investigations done at the site of the artificial harbor [[Portus]] in Rome revealed inscriptions in a shipyard constructed during the reign of [[Trajan]] (98–117) indicating the existence of a shipbuilders guild.<ref>{{cite news|last=Welsh|first=Jennifer|date=September 23, 2011|title=Huge Ancient Roman Shipyard Unearthed in Italy|website=[[Live Science]]|publisher=[[Future plc|Future]]|url=http://www.livescience.com/16201-rome-ancient-shipyard.html|access-date=June 23, 2021}}</ref> Rome's [[Ostia Antica|La Ostia port]] was home to a guildhall for a ''corpus naviculariorum'', a ''collegium'' of merchant mariners.<ref>{{cite book|last=Epstein|first=Steven A.|year=1995|title=Wage Labor and Guilds in Medieval Europe|place=[[Chapel Hill, North Carolina|Chapel Hill, NC]]|publisher=[[University of North Carolina Press]]|pages=10–49|isbn=978-0807844984}}</ref> ''Collegium'' also included fraternities of [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman priests]] overseeing [[Religion in ancient Rome#Sacrifice|Sacrificium Romanam (ritual sacrifices)]], practising [[augury]], keeping scriptures, arranging festivals, and maintaining specific religious cults.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lintott|first=Andrew|title=The Constitution of the Roman Republic|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1999|location=Oxford|pages=183–186|isbn=978-0198150688}}</ref>

=== Modern trade unions ===
While a commonly held mistaken view holds modern trade unionism to be a product of [[Marxism]], the earliest modern trade unions predate Marx's ''[[The Communist Manifesto|Communist Manifesto]]'' (1848) by almost a century (and Marx's writings themselves frequently address the prior existence of the workers' movements of his time.) The first recorded labour strike in the [[United States]] was by [[Philadelphia]] printers in 1786, who opposed a wage reduction and demanded $6 per week in wages.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Perlman|first=Selig|title=A History of Trade Unionism in the United States|publisher=MacMillan|year=1922|location=New York|pages=1–3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/social-science/economy/labor/strike/strikes-in-the-united-states |title=Strike: Strikes in the United States |website=infoplease.com |access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref> The origins of modern trade unions can be traced back to 18th-century Britain, where the [[Industrial Revolution]] drew masses of people, including [[dependant|dependents]], peasants and immigrants, into cities. Britain had ended the practice of [[serfdom]] in 1574, but the vast majority of people remained as [[Tenant farmer|tenant-farmers]] on estates owned by the [[landed aristocracy]]. This transition was not merely one of relocation from rural to urban environs; rather, the nature of industrial work created a new class of "worker". A farmer worked the land, raised animals and grew crops, and either owned the land or paid rent, but ultimately sold a ''product'' and had control over his life and work. As industrial workers, however, the workers sold their work as labour and took directions from employers, giving up part of their freedom and self-agency in the service of a master. The critics of the new arrangement would call this "[[wage slavery]]",<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tomich|first=Dale W.|title=Through the prism of slavery : labor, capital, and world economy|date=2004|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=1417503572|location=Lanham|oclc=55090137}}</ref> but the term that persisted was a new form of human relations: employment. Unlike farmers, workers often had less control over their jobs; without job security or a promise of an on-going relationship with their employers, they lacked some control over the work they performed or how it impacted their health and life. It is in this context that modern trade unions emerge.

In the cities, trade unions encountered much hostility from employers and government groups. In the United States, unions and unionists were regularly prosecuted under various restraint of trade and conspiracy laws, such as the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]].<ref name="Clark 1948">{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=O. L. |date=January 1948 |title=Application of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to Unions since the Apex Case |journal=SMU Law Review |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=94–103 |url=https://scholar.smu.edu/smulr/vol2/iss1/6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Restraint of Trade. Sherman Anti-Trust Law. Liability of Labor Unions |date=1908 |journal=Harvard Law Review |volume=21 |issue=6 |page=450 |doi=10.2307/1325438|jstor=1325438 }}</ref> This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings,{{sfn|Webb|Webb|1920}} and would later be an important arena for the development of trade unions. Trade unions have sometimes been seen as successors to the [[guild]]s of [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]], though the relationship between the two is disputed, as the masters of the guilds employed workers (apprentices and journeymen) who were not allowed to organize.<ref>{{cite news |date=3 March 1928 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19280303&id=rN9VAAAAIBAJ&sjid=AdgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7279,410871 |title=The Guild and the Trade Union |author=C. M. N. |work=The Age |page=25 |via=Google News Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Kautsky|first=Karl|date=April 1901|title=Trades Unions and Socialism|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1901/04/unions.htm|journal=International Socialist Review|volume=1|issue=10|access-date=27 July 2011}}</ref>

Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century, when the [[Ordinance of Labourers 1349|Ordinance of Labourers]] was enacted in the [[Kingdom of England]], but their way of thinking was the one that endured down the centuries, inspiring evolutions and advances in thinking which eventually gave workers more power. As collective bargaining and early worker unions grew with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the government began to clamp down on what it saw as the danger of popular unrest at the time of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. In 1799, the ''[[Combination Act]]'' was passed, which banned trade unions and collective bargaining by British workers. Although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as [[London]]. Workplace militancy had also manifested itself as [[Luddite|Luddism]] and had been prominent in struggles such as the [[Radical War|1820 Rising]] in Scotland, in which 60,000 workers went on a [[general strike]], which was soon crushed. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, although the [[Combinations of Workmen Act 1825|Combination Act 1825]] restricted their activity to bargaining for wage increases and changes in working hours.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frank|first=Christopher|date=January 2005|title="Let But One of Them Come before Me, and I'll Commit Him": Trade Unions, Magistrates, and the Law in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Staffordshire|journal=Journal of British Studies|volume=44|issue=1|pages=76–77|jstor=10.1086/426157|doi=10.1086/426157}}</ref>

By the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, founded in 1818 in [[Manchester]]. The latter name was to hide the organization's real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal.{{Sfn|Cole|2010|p=3}}

===National general unions===
[[File:London Trades Demonstration.jpg|thumb|upright|Poster issued by the London Trades Council, advertising a demonstration held on 2 June 1873]]
The first attempts at forming a national [[general union]] in the United Kingdom were made in the 1820s and 30s. The [[National Association for the Protection of Labour]] was established in 1830 by [[John Doherty (trade unionist)|John Doherty]], after an apparently unsuccessful attempt to create a similar national presence with the National Union of Cotton-spinners. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of [[List of textile and clothing trade unions|Textile and clothing trade unions|textile related unions]], but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others. Membership rose to between 10,000 and 20,000 individuals spread across the five counties of [[Lancashire]], [[Cheshire]], [[Derbyshire]], [[Nottinghamshire]] and [[Leicestershire]] within a year.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Webb | first1 = Sidney | author-link = Sidney James Webb, 1st Baron Passfield |last2= Webb | first2= Beatrice | year = 1894| title = [[History of Trade Unionism]] | publisher = Longmans Green and Co | location = London| pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyoftradeun00webb/page/120 120–124]}}</ref> To establish awareness and legitimacy, the union started the weekly ''[[Voice of the People (newspaper)|Voice of the People]]'' publication, having the declared intention "to unite the productive classes of the community in one common bond of union."{{sfn|Webb|Webb|1894|p=122}}

In 1834, the Welsh socialist [[Robert Owen]] established the [[Grand National Consolidated Trades Union]]. The organization attracted a range of [[Socialism|socialists]] from Owenites to revolutionaries and played a part in the protests after the [[Tolpuddle Martyrs]]' case, but soon collapsed.

More permanent trade unions were established from the 1850s, better resourced but often less radical. The [[London Trades Council]] was founded in 1860, and the [[Sheffield Outrages]] spurred the establishment of the [[Trades Union Congress]] in 1868, the first long-lived [[Trade union federation|national trade union center]]. By this time, the existence and the demands of the trade unions were becoming accepted by [[liberalism|liberal]] middle-class opinion. In ''[[Principles of Political Economy]]'' (1871) [[John Stuart Mill]] wrote:

<blockquote>If it were possible for the working classes, by combining among themselves, to raise or keep up the general rate of wages, it needs hardly be said that this would be a thing not to be punished, but to be welcomed and rejoiced at. Unfortunately the effect is quite beyond attainment by such means. The multitudes who compose the working class are too numerous and too widely scattered to combine at all, much more to combine effectually. If they could do so, they might doubtless succeed in diminishing the hours of labour, and obtaining the same wages for less work. They would also have a limited power of obtaining, by combination, an increase of general wages at the expense of profits.<ref>''[[Principles of Political Economy]]'' (1871)[http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/mill/book5/bk5ch10 Book V, Ch.10] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106033951/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/mill/book5/bk5ch10 |date=6 November 2014 }}, para. 5</ref></blockquote>Beyond this claim, Mill also argued that, because individual workers had no basis for assessing the wages for a particular task, labour unions would lead to greater efficiency of the market system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=King|first1=John T.|last2=Yanochik|first2=Mark A.|title=John Stuart Mill and the Economic Rationale for Organized Labor|date=2011|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23240389|journal=The American Economist|volume=56|issue=2|pages=28–34|doi=10.1177/056943451105600205|jstor=23240389|s2cid=157935634|issn=0569-4345}}</ref>

===Legalization, expansion and recognition===
[[File:1912 Lawrence Textile Strike 1.jpg|thumb|Trade union demonstrators held at bay by soldiers during the 1912 [[Lawrence textile strike]] in [[Lawrence, Massachusetts]]]]
[[British Empire|British]] trade unions were finally legalized in 1872, after a ''[[Eleventh and Final Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed to Inquire into the Organization and Rules of Trades Unions and Other Associations|Royal Commission on Trade Unions]]'' in 1867 agreed that the establishment of the organizations was to the advantage of both employers and employees.

This period also saw the growth of trade unions in other industrializing countries, especially the United States, Germany and France.

In the United States, the first effective nationwide labour organization was the [[Knights of Labor]], in 1869, which began to grow after 1880. Legalization occurred slowly as a result of a series of court decisions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1357701/trade-union|title=Trade union|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=13 March 2024 }}</ref> The [[Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions]] began in 1881 as a federation of different unions that did not directly enrol workers. In 1886, it became known as the [[American Federation of Labor]] or AFL.

In Germany, the [[Free Association of German Trade Unions]] was formed in 1897 after the [[Conservatism|conservative]] [[Anti-Socialist Laws]] of Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] were repealed.

In France, labour organisation was illegal until the [[Waldeck Rousseau law (1884)|1884 Waldeck Rousseau laws]]. The [[Bourse du Travail|Fédération des bourses du travail]] was founded in 1887 and merged with the Fédération nationale des syndicats (National Federation of Trade Unions) in 1895 to form the [[General Confederation of Labour (France)|General Confederation of Labour]].

In a number of countries during the 20th century, including in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom, legislation was passed to provide for the voluntary or statutory recognition of a union by an employer.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Townshend-Smith | first = R | date = 1981 | title = Trade union recognition legislation – Britain and America compared | journal = Legal Studies | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 190–212 | doi = 10.1111/j.1748-121X.1981.tb00120.x| s2cid = 145725063 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Briggs | first = C. | date = 2007 | title = Statutory Union Recognition in North America and the UK: Lessons for Australia? | journal = The Economic and Labour Relations Review | volume = 17 | issue = 2 |pages = 77–97 | doi = 10.1177/103530460701700205 | s2cid = 153980466 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Goodard | first = J. | date = 2013 | title = Labour Law and Union Recognition in Canada: A Historical-Institutionalist Perspective | journal = Queen's Law Journal | volume = 38 | issue = 2| pages = 391–417}}</ref>

==Prevalence worldwide==
[[File:Trade union density rate map.svg|thumb|World map with countries shaded according to their trade union density rate with statistics provided by the [[International Labour Organization]] Department of Statistics
{{Legend|#051d3b|90.0–99.9%}}
{{Legend|#083062|80.0–89.9%}}
{{Legend|#0c4389|70.0–79.9%}}
{{Legend|#0f56b0|60.0–69.9%}}
{{Legend|#1369d7|50.0–59.9%}}
{{Legend|#287eec|40.0–49.9%}}
{{Legend|#4f96f0|30.0–39.9%}}
{{Legend|#76adf3|20.0–29.9%}}
{{Legend|#9dc5f6|10.0–19.9%}}
{{Legend|#c4dcfa|0.0–9.9%}}
{{Legend|#c0c0c0|No data}}]]
[[File:Labor union membership by country.webp|thumb|Labor union membership by country]]
[[File:Hours Worked Compared to Earnings Per Week.webp|thumb|Hours Worked Compared to Earnings Per Week]]
[[Union density]] has been steadily declining from the [[OECD]] average of 35.9% in 1998 to 27.9% in the year 2018.<ref name=":OECD union density" /> The main reasons for these developments are a [[Deindustrialization|decline in manufacturing]], increased [[globalization]], and governmental policies.

The decline in manufacturing is the most direct influence, as unions were historically beneficial and prevalent in the sector; for this reason, there may be an increase in [[Developing country|developing nations]] as OECD nations continue to export manufacturing industries to these markets. The second reason is globalization, which makes it harder for unions to maintain standards across countries. The last reason is governmental policies. These come from both sides of the political spectrum. In the UK and US, it has been mostly right-wing proposals that make it harder for unions to form or that limit their power. On the other side, there are many social policies such as [[minimum wage]], [[Annual leave|paid vacation]], parental leave, etc., that decrease the need to be in a union.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-09-29|title=Why trade unions are declining|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2015/09/29/why-trade-unions-are-declining |url-access=subscription |author1=E.H. |access-date=2021-05-11|issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

The prevalence of labour unions can be measured by "union density", which is expressed as a percentage of the total number of workers in a given location who are trade union members.<ref name="ILO Stats">{{cite web|title=Industrial relations|url=https://www.ilo.org/ilostat-files/Documents/description_IR_EN.pdf|access-date=9 October 2018 |publisher=International Labour Organisation |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009132038/https://www.ilo.org/ilostat-files/Documents/description_IR_EN.pdf |archive-date= 9 October 2018 }}</ref> The table below shows the percentage across [[OECD]] members.<ref name=":OECD union density"/>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Union density across OECD members (in %)
!Country
!2020
!2018
!2017
!2016
!2015
!2000
|-
|Australia
|..
|13.7
|14.7
|..
|..
|24.9
|-
|Austria
|..
|26.3
|26.7
|26.9
|27.4
|36.9
|-
|Belgium
|..
|50.3
|51.9
|52.8
|54.2
|56.6
|-
|Canada
|27.2
|25.9
|26.3
|26.3
|29.4
|28.2
|-
|Chile
|..
|16.6
|17.0
|17.7
|16.1
|11.2
|-
|Czech Republic
|..
|11.5
|11.7
|12.0
|12.0
|27.2
|-
|Denmark
|..
|66.5
|66.1
|65.5
|67.1
|74.5
|-
|Estonia
|..
|4.3
|4.3
|4.4
|4.7
|14.0
|-
|Finland
|..
|60.3
|62.2
|64.9
|66.4
|74.2
|-
|France
|..
|8.8
|8.9
|9.0
|9.0
|10.8
|-
|Germany
|..
|16.5
|16.7
|17.0
|17.6
|24.6
|-
|Greece
|..
|..
|..
|19.0
|..
|..
|-
|Hungary
|..
|7.9
|8.1
|8.5
|9.4
|23.8
|-
|Iceland
|92.2
|91.8
|91.0
|89.8
|90.0
|89.1
|-
|Ireland
|26.2
|24.1
|24.3
|23.4
|25.4
|35.9
|-
|Israel
|..
|..
|25.0
|..
|..
|37.7
|-
|Italy
|..
|34.4
|34.3
|34.4
|35.7
|34.8
|-
|Japan
|..
|17.0
|17.1
|17.3
|17.4
|21.5
|-
|Korea
|..
|..
|10.5
|10.0
|10.0
|11.4
|-
|Latvia
|..
|11.9
|12.2
|12.3
|12.6
|..
|-
|Lithuania
|..
|7.1
|7.7
|7.7
|7.9
|..
|-
|Luxembourg
|..
|31.8
|32.1
|32.3
|33.3
|..
|-
|Mexico
|12.4
|12.0
|12.5
|12.7
|13.1
|16.7
|-
|Netherlands
|..
|16.4
|16.8
|17.3
|17.7
|22.3
|-
|New Zealand
|..
|..
|17.3
|17.7
|17.9
|22.4
|-
|Norway
|..
|49.2
|49.3
|49.3
|49.3
|53.6
|-
|Poland
|..
|..
|..
|12.7
|..
|23.5
|-
|Portugal
|..
|..
|..
|15.3
|16.1
|..
|-
|Slovak Republic
|..
|..
|..
|10.7
|11.7
|34.2
|-
|Slovenia
|..
|..
|..
|20.4
|20.9
|44.2
|-
|Spain
|..
|13.6
|14.2
|14.8
|15.2
|17.5
|-
|Sweden
|..
|65.5
|65.6
|66.9
|67.8
|81.0
|-
|Switzerland
|..
|14.4
|14.9
|15.3
|15.7
|20.7
|-
|Turkey
|..
|9.2
|8.6
|8.2
|8.0
|12.5
|-
|United Kingdom
|..
|23.4
|23.2
|23.7
|24.2
|29.8
|-
|United States
|10.3
|10.1
|10.3
|10.3
|10.6
|12.9
|}
Source: [[OECD]]<ref name=":OECD union density">{{cite web|title=Trade Union|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TUD#|access-date=2021-05-11|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref>

==Structure and politics==
[[File:Cesar chavez2.jpg|thumb|[[Cesar Chavez]] speaking at a 1974 [[United Farm Workers]] rally in [[Delano, California]]. The UFW during Chavez's tenure was committed to restricting immigration.]]
Unions may organize a particular section of skilled workers ([[craft unionism]], traditionally found in [[Australia]], Canada, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US<ref name="Poole, M. 1986"/>), a cross-section of workers from various trades ([[general union]]ism, traditionally found in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Netherlands, the UK and the US), or attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry ([[industrial unionism]], found in Australia, Canada, Germany, Finland, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the US).{{Citation needed|date=February 2023}} These unions are often divided into "[[Local union|locals]]", and united in national [[List of federations of trade unions|federations]]. These federations themselves will affiliate with [[International organization|International]]s, such as the [[International Trade Union Confederation]]. However, in [[Japan]], union organisation is slightly different due to the presence of enterprise unions, i.e. unions that are specific to a plant or company. These enterprise unions, however, join industry-wide federations which in turn are members of [[RENGO|Rengo]], the Japanese national trade union confederation.

In [[Western Europe]], [[professional association]]s often carry out the functions of a trade union. In these cases, they may be negotiating for white-collar or professional workers, such as physicians, engineers or teachers. In Sweden the white-collar unions have a strong position in collective bargaining where they cooperate with blue-colar unions in setting the "mark" (the industry norm) in negotiations with the employers' association in manufacturing industry.<ref>Kjellberg, Anders (2023) [https://portal.research.lu.se/sv/publications/trade-unions-in-sweden-still-high-union-density-but-widening-gaps "Trade unions in Sweden: still high union density, but widening gaps by social category and national origin"]. In Jeremy Waddington & Torsten Mueller & Kurt Vandaele (eds.) ''Trade unions in the European Union. Picking up the pieces of the neoliberal challenge''. Brussels: Peter Lang and Etui. Series: Travail et Société / Work and Society, Volume 86, 2023, chapter 28, pp. 1051–1092.</ref><ref>Kjellberg, Anders (2023) [https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/portalfiles/portal/141188161/The_Nordic_model_of_industrial_relations_comparing_Denmark_Finland_Norway_and_Sweden.pdf ''The Nordic Model of Industrial Relations: comparing Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden'']. Department of Sociology, Lund University and  Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies, Cologne.</ref>

A union may acquire the status of a "[[Juridical person|juristic person]]" (an artificial legal entity), with a mandate to negotiate with employers for the workers it represents. In such cases, unions have certain legal rights, most importantly the right to engage in [[collective bargaining]] with the employer (or employers) over wages, working hours, and other [[employment contract|terms and conditions of employment]]. The inability of the parties to reach an agreement may lead to [[industrial action]], culminating in either [[strike action]] or management [[Lockout (industry)|lockout]], or binding arbitration. In extreme cases, violent or illegal activities may develop around these events.

[[File:Great Railway Strike 1886 - E St Louis.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Great Southwest railroad strike of 1886]] was a trade union strike involving more than 200,000 workers.<ref>"[http://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/2011/08/09/10-biggest-strikes-in-american-history/ The 10 Biggest Strikes in American History] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202223030/http://www.foxbusiness.com/markets/2011/08/09/10-biggest-strikes-in-american-history/ |date=2 December 2013 }}". Fox Business. 9 August 2011</ref>]]
In some regions, unions may face active repression, either by governments or by extralegal organizations, with many [[Anti-union violence|cases of violence]], some having led to deaths, having been recorded historically.<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr23/031/2005/en/ Amnesty International report 23 September 2005] – fear for safety of [[SINALTRAINAL]] member José Onofre Esquivel Luna</ref>

Unions may also engage in broader political or social struggle. [[Social movement unionism|Social Unionism]] encompasses many unions that use their organizational strength to advocate for social policies and legislation favourable to their members or to workers in general. As well, unions in some countries are closely aligned with [[political party|political parties]]. Many [[List of Labour parties|Labour parties]] were founded as the electoral arms of trade unions.
[[File:Stamp of Finland - 1957 - Colnect 46257 - 50 Years Trade Union.jpeg|thumb|right|In 1957, the [[Posti Group|Finnish Post Office]] issued a stamp in honor of the 50th anniversary of the [[Finnish Trade Union Federation|trade union activity in Finland]].]]
Unions are also delineated by the [[service model]] and the [[organizing model]]. The service model union focuses more on maintaining worker rights, providing services, and resolving disputes. Alternately, the organizing model typically involves full-time [[union organizer]]s, who work by building up confidence, strong networks, and leaders within the workforce; and confrontational campaigns involving large numbers of union members. Many unions are a blend of these two philosophies, and the definitions of the models themselves are still debated. [[Informal economy|Informal workers]] often face unique challenges when trying to participate in trade union movements as formal trade union organizations recognized by the state and employers may not accommodate for the employment categories common in the informal economy. Simultaneously, the lack of regular work locations and loopholes relating to [[false self-employment]] add barriers and costs for the trade unions when trying to organize the informal economy. This has been a significant threshold to labour organizing in [[Developing country|low-income countries]], where the labour force mostly works in the informal economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schminke |first1=Tobias Gerhard |last2=Fridell |first2=Gavin |title=Trade Union Transformation and Informal Sector Organising in Uganda: The Prospects and Challenges for Promoting Labour-led Development |journal=Global Labour Movement |date=2021 |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.15173/glj.v12i2.4394 |url=https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/globallabour/article/view/4394 |access-date=24 July 2024|doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, the perceived left-leaning nature of trade unions (and their historical close alignment with the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]) has resulted in the formation of a reactionary right-wing trade union called [[Solidarity (British trade union)|Solidarity]] which is supported by the far-right [[British National Party|BNP]]. In Denmark, there are some newer apolitical "discount" unions who offer a very basic level of services, as opposed to the dominating Danish pattern of extensive services and organizing.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.detfagligehus.dk/ |title = See the website of the Danish discount union "Det faglige Hus" |publisher = Danish}}</ref>
[[File:Unison strike rally Oxford 20060328.jpg|thumb|right|A rally of the trade union [[Unison (trade union)|UNISON]] in [[Oxford]] during a strike on 28 March 2006]]
In contrast, in several European countries (e.g. Belgium, Denmark, the [[Netherlands]] and [[Switzerland]]), religious unions have existed for decades. These unions typically distanced themselves from some of the doctrines of orthodox [[Marxism]], such as the preference of atheism and from rhetoric suggesting that employees' interests always are in conflict with those of employers. Some of these Christian unions have had some ties to centrist or conservative political movements, and some do not regard strikes as acceptable political means for achieving employees' goals.<ref name="Poole, M. 1986"/> In [[Poland]], the biggest trade union [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] emerged as an [[anti-communism|anti-communist]] movement with [[religious nationalism|religious nationalist]] overtones<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxist.com/revolt-polish-workers101001.htm|title=The economic and social processes that led to the revolt of the Polish workers in the early eighties|first=Professor Jacek Tittenbrun of Poznan University|last=Poland|website=www.marxist.com|date=18 July 2005 |access-date=16 January 2018}}</ref> and today it supports the right-wing [[Law and Justice]] party.<ref>[http://news.money.pl/artykul/solidarnosc;popiera;kaczynskiego;jak;kiedys;walese,177,0,615857.html Solidarność popiera Kaczyńskiego jak kiedyś Wałęsę] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209051643/http://news.money.pl/artykul/solidarnosc;popiera;kaczynskiego;jak;kiedys;walese,177,0,615857.html |date=9 February 2014 }} at news.money.pl {{in lang|pl}}</ref>

Although their political structure and autonomy varies widely, union leaderships are usually formed through democratic [[election]]s.<ref>See E McGaughey, 'Democracy or Oligarchy? Models of Union Governance in the UK, Germany and US' (2017) [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2995297 ssrn.com]</ref> Some research, such as that conducted by the Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Research and Training,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acirrt.com/pubs/Trainingwagesupdate.pdf |title=Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Research and Training report |publisher=Acirrt.com |access-date=2011-07-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722154704/http://www.acirrt.com/pubs/Trainingwagesupdate.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 }}</ref> argues that unionized workers enjoy better conditions and wages than those who are not unionized.

=== International unions ===
The oldest global trade union organizations include the [[World Federation of Trade Unions]] created in 1945.<ref>{{cite web |title=WFTU » History |date=21 January 2014 |url=http://www.wftucentral.org/history/ |access-date=2022-01-25 |language=en-US}}</ref> The largest trade union federation in the world is the [[Brussels]]-based [[International Trade Union Confederation]] (ITUC), created in 2006,<ref>{{cite web |title=International Trade Union Confederation |url=https://www.ituc-csi.org/ |access-date=2022-01-25 |website=www.ituc-csi.org |language=en}}</ref> which has approximately 309 affiliated organizations in 156 countries and territories, with a combined membership of 166&nbsp;million. National and regional trade unions organizing in specific industry sectors or occupational groups also form [[global union federation]]s, such as [[UNI Global Union|UNI Global]], [[IndustriALL Global Union|IndustriALL]], the [[International Transport Workers' Federation]], the [[International Federation of Journalists]], the International Arts and Entertainment Alliance and [[Public Services International]].

== Labour law ==
{{Main|Labour law}}

Union law varies from country to country, as does the function of unions. For example, German and Dutch unions have played a greater role in management decisions through participation in [[supervisory board]]s and [[Worker representation on corporate boards of directors|co-determination]] than other countries.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bamberg|first=Ulrich|url=http://hesa.etui-rehs.org/uk/newsletter/files/BTS012EN_12-15.pdf|title=The role of German trade unions in the national and European standardisation process|journal=TUTB Newsletter|date=June 2004|volume=24–25|access-date=27 July 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726035804/http://hesa.etui-rehs.org/uk/newsletter/files/BTS012EN_12-15.pdf|archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref> Moreover, in the United States, collective bargaining is most commonly undertaken by unions directly with employers, whereas in Austria, Denmark, Germany or Sweden, unions most often negotiate with [[Employers' organization|employers associations]], a form of [[Sectoral collective bargaining|sectoral bargaining]].

Concerning labour market regulation in the EU, Gold (1993)<ref>Gold, M., 1993. ''The Social Dimension – Employment Policy in the European Community''. Basingstoke England UK: Macmillan Publishing</ref> and Hall (1994)<ref>Hall, M., 1994. ''Industrial Relations and the Social Dimension of European Integration: Before and after Maastricht'', pp. 281–331 in Hyman, R. & Ferner A., eds.: ''New Frontiers in European Industrial Relations'', Basil Blackwell Publishing</ref> have identified three distinct systems of labour market regulation, which also influence the role that unions play:
* "In the Continental European System of labour market regulation, the government plays an important role as there is a strong legislative core of employee rights, which provides the basis for agreements as well as a framework for discord between unions on one side and employers or employers' associations on the other. This model was said to be found in EU core countries such as Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Italy, and it is also mirrored and emulated to some extent in the institutions of the EU, due to the relative weight that these countries had in the EU until the EU expansion by the inclusion of 10 new [[Eastern Europe]]an member states in 2004.
* In the Anglo-Saxon System of labour market regulation, the government's legislative role is much more limited, which allows for more issues to be decided between employers and employees and any union or employers' associations which might represent these parties in the decision-making process. However, in these countries, collective agreements are not widespread; only a few businesses and a few sectors of the economy have a strong tradition of finding collective solutions in labour relations. [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] and the UK belong to this category, and in contrast to the EU core countries above, these countries first joined the EU in 1973.
* In the Nordic System of labour market regulation, the government's legislative role is limited in the same way as in the Anglo-Saxon system. However, in contrast to the countries in the Anglo-Saxon system category, this is a much more widespread network of collective agreements, which covers most industries and most firms. This model was said to encompass Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. Here, Denmark joined the EU in 1973, whereas Finland and Sweden joined in 1995."<ref>{{citation |last=Wagtmann |first=M. A. |date=2010 |title=Module 3, Maritime & Port Wages, Benefits, Labour Relations. International Maritime Human Resource Management}}</ref>

The United States takes a more [[laissez-faire]] approach, setting some minimum standards but leaving most workers' wages and benefits to collective bargaining and market forces. Thus, it comes closest to the above Anglo-Saxon model. Also, the Eastern European countries that have recently entered into the EU come closest to the Anglo-Saxon model.

In contrast, in Germany, the relation between individual employees and employers is considered to be asymmetrical. In consequence, many working conditions are not negotiable due to a strong legal protection of individuals. However, the German flavor or works legislation has as its main objective to create a balance of power between employees organized in unions and employers organized in employers' associations. This allows much wider legal boundaries for collective bargaining, compared to the narrow boundaries for individual negotiations. As a condition to obtain the legal status of a trade union, employee associations need to prove that their leverage is strong enough to serve as a counterforce in negotiations with employers. If such an employee's association is competing against another union, its leverage may be questioned by unions and then evaluated in labour court. In Germany, only very few professional associations obtained the right to negotiate salaries and working conditions for their members, notably the medical doctor's association {{Ill|Marburger Bund|de}} and the pilots association {{Ill|Vereinigung Cockpit|de}}. The engineer's association [[Verein Deutscher Ingenieure]] does not strive to act as a union, as it also represents the interests of engineering businesses.{{cn|date=July 2025}}

Beyond the classification listed above, unions' relations with political parties vary. In many countries unions are tightly bonded, or even share leadership, with a political party intended to represent the interests of the working class. Typically, this is a [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]], [[Socialism|socialist]], or [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party, but many exceptions exist, including some of the aforementioned Christian unions.<ref name="Poole, M. 1986" /> In the United States, trade unions are almost always aligned with the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] with a few exceptions. For example, the [[International Brotherhood of Teamsters]] has supported [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] candidates on a number of occasions and the [[Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (1968)|Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization]] (PATCO) endorsed [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1980.{{cn|date=July 2025}} 

In the United Kingdom, the trade union movement's relationship with the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] frayed as the party leadership embarked on [[privatization]] plans at odds with what unions see as the worker's interests. However, it strengthened after the Labour party's election of [[Ed Miliband]], who defeated his brother [[David Miliband]] to become leader of the party. Additionally, in the past, there was a group known as the [[Conservatives at Work|Conservative Trade Unionists]], or CTU, formed of people who sympathized with right-wing Conservative policy but were Trade Unionists.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Short |first1=Richard |title=Why must Conservatives embrace trades unionism? Because they always have |url=https://conservativehome.com/2025/06/06/richard-short-why-must-conservatives-embrace-trades-unionism-because-they-always-have/ |website=ConservativeHome |access-date=14 August 2025 |date=6 June 2025}}</ref>

=== Shop types ===
Companies that employ workers with a union generally operate on one of several models:
* A [[closed shop]] (US) or a "pre-entry closed shop" (UK) employs only people who are already union members. The compulsory [[hiring hall]] is an example of a closed shop—in this case the employer must recruit directly from the union, as well as the employee working strictly for unionized employers.
* A [[union shop]] (US) or a "post-entry closed shop" (UK) employs non-union workers as well but sets a time limit within which new employees must join a union.
* An [[agency shop]] requires non-union workers to pay a fee to the union for its services in negotiating their contract. This is sometimes called the [[Rand formula]].
* An [[open shop]] does not require union membership in employing or keeping workers. Where a union is active, workers who do not contribute to a union may include those who approve of the union contract ([[Free-rider problem|free riders]]) and those who do not. In the United States, state level [[right-to-work law]]s mandate the open shop in some states. In Germany only open shops are legal; that is, all discrimination based on union membership is forbidden. This affects the function and services of the union.

An EU case concerning Italy stated that, "The principle of trade union freedom in the Italian system implies recognition of the right of the individual not to belong to any trade union ("negative" freedom of association/trade union freedom), and the unlawfulness of discrimination liable to cause harm to non-unionized employees."<ref>{{cite web |title=Freedom of Association/Trade Union Freedom |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/emire/ITALY/FREEDOMOFASSOCIATIONTRADEUNIONFREEDOM-IT.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417233015/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/emire/ITALY/FREEDOMOFASSOCIATIONTRADEUNIONFREEDOM-IT.htm |archive-date=17 April 2011 |access-date=2012-03-03 |website=Eurofound website}}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, previous to this EU jurisprudence, a series of laws introduced during the 1980s by Margaret Thatcher's government restricted closed and union shops. All agreements requiring a worker to join a union are now illegal. In the United States, the [[Taft–Hartley Act]] of 1947 outlawed the closed shop.

In 2006, the [[European Court of Human Rights]] found Danish closed-shop agreements to be in breach of Article 11 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights|European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms]]. It was stressed that Denmark and [[Iceland]] were among a limited number of contracting states that continue to permit the conclusion of closed-shop agreements.<ref>{{cite web |title=ECHR rules against Danish closed-shop agreements |url=http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/2006/01/feature/dk0601104f.htm |publisher=Eurofound website |access-date=5 January 2013 |archive-date=30 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140730053950/http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/2006/01/feature/dk0601104f.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Impact==
{{Globalize|date=October 2021|2=United States}}

=== Economics ===
[[File:1907- Income inequality and union participation.svg|thumb|US income inequality and union participation have had a distinctly inverse relationship, with the disparity increasing since the 1980s.<ref name=NYTimes_20230707>{{cite news |last1=Leonhardt |first1=David |title=How Elba Makes a Living Wage |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/07/briefing/unions-living-wage-working-documentary.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=July 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230708002328/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/07/briefing/unions-living-wage-working-documentary.html |archive-date=July 8, 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
The academic literature shows substantial evidence that trade unions reduce [[economic inequality]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ahlquist|first=John S.|date=2017|title=Labor Unions, Political Representation, and Economic Inequality|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/2894m48p|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|volume=20|issue=1|pages=409–432 |doi= 10.1146/annurev-polisci-051215-023225|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Farber|first1=Henry S|last2=Herbst|first2=Daniel|last3=Kuziemko|first3=Ilyana|last4= Naidu |first4= Suresh |date= 2021 |title= Unions and Inequality over the Twentieth Century: New Evidence from Survey Data*|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|volume=136 |issue= 3|pages=1325–1385|doi=10.1093/qje/qjab012|issn=0033-5533|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Collins|first1=William J.|last2=Niemesh|first2=Gregory T. |year= 2019 |title=Unions and the Great Compression of wage inequality in the US at mid-century: evidence from local labour markets|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=72|language= en |issue=2|pages=691–715|doi=10.1111/ehr.12744|issn=1468-0289|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2019-02-12|title=Unions and American Income Inequality at Mid-Century |url= https://ehsthelongrun.net/2019/02/12/unions-and-american-income-inequality-at-mid-century/|website=The Long Run|archive-date = 7 November 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201107225804/https://ehsthelongrun.net/2019/02/12/unions-and-american-income-inequality-at-mid-century/ |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Rosenfeld2014">{{Cite book |last=Rosenfeld |first=Jake |title=What Unions No Longer Do |publisher=Harvard University |year=2014 |isbn=9780674726215 |location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref name="WesternRosenfeld2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Western |first1=Bruce |last2=Rosenfeld |first2=Jake |date=August 2011 |title=Unions, Norms, and the Rise in U.S. Wage Inequality |url=https://www.asanet.org/wp-content/uploads/savvy/images/journals/docs/pdf/asr/WesternandRosenfeld.pdf |journal=American Sociological Review |language=en |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=513–537 |doi=10.1177/0003122411414817 |s2cid=18351034 |issn=0003-1224 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111111217/https://www.asanet.org/wp-content/uploads/savvy/images/journals/docs/pdf/asr/WesternandRosenfeld.pdf |archive-date=2024-01-11}}</ref> The economist [[Joseph Stiglitz]] has asserted that, "Strong unions have helped to reduce inequality, whereas weaker unions have made it easier for [[CEO]]s, sometimes working with market forces that they have helped shape, to increase it." Evidence indicates that those who are ''not'' members of unions also see higher wages. Researchers suggest that unions set industrial norms as firms try to stop further unionization or losing workers to better-paying competitors.<ref name="WesternRosenfeld2011" /><ref name="Rosenfeld2014" /> The decline in unionization since the 1960s in the United States has been associated with a pronounced rise in [[income inequality in the United States|income]] and [[wealth inequality in the United States|wealth inequality]] and, since 1967, with loss of [[American middle class|middle class]] income.<ref>Doree Armstrong (12 February 2014). [http://www.washington.edu/news/2014/02/12/jake-rosenfeld-explores-the-sharp-decline-of-union-membership-influence/ Jake Rosenfeld explores the sharp decline of union membership, influence]. ''UW Today.'' Retrieved 6 March 2015. See also: Jake Rosenfeld (2014) ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674725119 What Unions No Longer Do].'' [[Harvard University Press]]. {{ISBN|0674725115}}</ref><ref>Keith Naughton, Lynn Doan and Jeffrey Green (20 February 2015). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-20/unions-poised-for-comeback-as-middle-class-wages-stall As the Rich Get Richer, Unions Are Poised for Comeback]. ''Bloomberg.'' Retrieved 6 March 2015.
* "A 2011 study drew a link between the decline in union membership since 1973 and expanding wage disparity. Those trends have since continued, said [[Bruce Western]], a professor of sociology at Harvard University who co-authored the study."</ref><ref>Stiglitz, Joseph E. (4 June 2012). The Price of Inequality: How Today's Divided Society Endangers Our Future (Kindle Locations 1148–1149). Norton. Kindle Edition.</ref><ref>Barry T. Hirsch, David A. Macpherson, and Wayne G. Vroman, "Estimates of Union Density by State", [[Monthly Labor Review]], Vol. 124, No. 7, July 2001.</ref> [[Right-to-work law]]s have been linked to greater economic inequality in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=VanHeuvelen|first=Tom|date=2020-03-01|title=The Right to Work, Power Resources, and Economic Inequality|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/708067|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=125|issue=5|pages=1255–1302|doi=10.1086/708067|s2cid=219517711|issn=0002-9602|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Western|first1=Bruce|last2=Rosenfeld|first2=Jake|date=2011-08-01|title=Unions, Norms, and the Rise in U.S. Wage Inequality|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122411414817|journal=American Sociological Review|language=en|volume=76|issue=4|pages=513–537|doi=10.1177/0003122411414817|s2cid=18351034|issn=0003-1224|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Research from Norway has found that high unionization rates lead to substantial increases in firm productivity, as well as increases in workers' wages.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Barth|first1=Erling|last2=Bryson|first2=Alex|last3=Dale-Olsen|first3=Harald|date=2020-10-16|title=Union Density Effects on Productivity and Wages|url=https://academic.oup.com/ej/article/130/631/1898/5824627|journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=130|issue=631|pages=1898–1936|doi=10.1093/ej/ueaa048|issn=0013-0133|doi-access=free|hdl=11250/2685607|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Research from Belgium also found productivity gains, although smaller.<ref>Van den Berg, Annette, Arjen van Witteloostuijn, and Olivier Van der Brempt. "Employee workplace representation in Belgium: Effects on firm performance." International Journal of Manpower (2017).</ref> However, other research in the United States has found that unions can harm profitability, employment and business growth rates.<ref>Hirsch, Barry T. "What do unions do for economic performance?." Journal of Labor Research 25, no. 3 (2004): 415–455.</ref><ref>Vedder, Richard, and Lowell Gallaway. "The economic effects of labor unions revisited." Journal of labor research 23, no. 1 (2002): 105–130.</ref> UK research on employment, wages, productivity, and investment found union density improved all metrics - but only until a limit. Forming U-shaped curves, after an optimal density, more unionisation ''worsened'' employment, wages, etc.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Monastiriotis |first=Vassilis |date=2003-02-17 |title=Union retreat and regional economic performance: the UK in the 1990s |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23749560 |journal=Research Papers in Environmental and Spatial Analysis |volume=77 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111123226/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vassilis-Monastiriotis/publication/23749560_Union_Retreat_and_Regional_Economic_Performance_the_UK_in_the_1990s/links/09e415112b90e6eecd000000/Union-Retreat-and-Regional-Economic-Performance-the-UK-in-the-1990s.pdf |archive-date=2024-01-11 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Monastiriotis |first=Vassilis |date=15 Mar 2007 |title=Union Retreat and Regional Economic Performance: The UK Experience |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/figure/10.1080/00343400601149915?scroll=top&needAccess=true |journal=Regional Studies |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=143–156 |doi=10.1080/00343400601149915 |bibcode=2007RegSt..41..143M |s2cid=154851210 |via=Taylor and Francis online|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Research from the [[Anglosphere]] indicates that unions can provide wage premiums and reduce inequality while reducing employment growth and restricting employment flexibility.<ref>Bryson, Alex. "Union wage effects." IZA World of Labor (2014).</ref> Some trade unions oppose approaches which increase productivity, such as [[automation]].<ref name="e922">{{cite web | last=Eavis | first=Peter | title=Will Automation Replace Jobs? Port Workers May Strike Over It. | website=The New York Times | date=2 September 2024 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/02/business/economy/port-workers-robots-automation-strike.html | access-date=8 September 2024}}</ref>

In the United States, the outsourcing of labour to Asia, Latin America, and Africa has been partially driven by increasing costs of union partnership, which gives other countries a [[comparative advantage]] in labour, making it more efficient to perform labour-intensive work there.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kramarz |first=Francis |date=2006-10-19 |title=Outsourcing, Unions, and Wages: Evidence from data matching imports, firms, and workers |url=http://www.eco.uc3m.es/temp/agenda/wage102006.pdf |access-date=2007-01-22}}</ref> Trade unions have been accused of benefiting insider workers and those with secure jobs at the cost of outsider workers, consumers of the goods or services produced, and the shareholders of the unionized business.<ref>Card David, Krueger Alan. (1995). Myth and measurement: The new economics of the minimum wage. Princeton, NJ. Princeton University Press.</ref> Economist [[Milton Friedman]] sought to show that unionization produces higher wages (for the union members) at the expense of fewer jobs, and that, if some industries are unionized while others are not, wages will tend to decline in non-unionized industries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Friedman|first=Milton|author-link=Milton Friedman|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EhcI5-D9wREC&pg=PA164|title=Price theory|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=2007|isbn=978-0202309699|edition=[New ed.], 3rd printing|location=New Brunswick, NJ}}</ref> [[Friedrich Hayek]] criticized unions in chapter 18 of his publication ''[[The Constitution of Liberty]]''.<ref>Kusunoki, S. Hayek on labor unions and restraint of trade. Const Polit Econ (2023). {{doi|10.1007/s10602-023-09396-y}}</ref>

Trade unions frequently advocate for [[Lockstep compensation|seniority-based compensation]] and against [[meritocracy]].<ref name="z950">{{cite report | last=Tracy | first=Joseph | title=Seniority Rules and the Gains from Union Organization | publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | year=1986 | doi=10.3386/w2039 | page=}}</ref>

=== Politics ===
In the United States, the weakening of unions has been linked to more favourable electoral outcomes for the Republican Party.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abdul-Razzak|first1=Nour|last2=Prato|first2=Carlo|last3=Wolton|first3=Stephane|date=2020-10-01|title=After Citizens United: How outside spending shapes American democracy|journal=Electoral Studies|language=en|volume=67|article-number=102190|doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102190|issn=0261-3794|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Macdonald|first=David|date=2020-06-25|title=Labor Unions and White Democratic Partisanship|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-020-09624-3|journal=Political Behavior|volume=43|issue=2|pages=859–879|language=en|doi=10.1007/s11109-020-09624-3|s2cid=220512676|issn=1573-6687|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hertel-Fernandez|first=Alexander|date=2018|title=Policy Feedback as Political Weapon: Conservative Advocacy and the Demobilization of the Public Sector Labor Movement|journal=Perspectives on Politics|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=364–379|doi=10.1017/S1537592717004236|issn=1537-5927|doi-access=free}}</ref> Legislators in areas with high unionization rates are more responsive to the interests of the poor, whereas areas with lower unionization rates are more responsive to the interests of the rich.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becher|first1=Michael|last2=Stegmueller|first2=Daniel|date=2020|title=Reducing Unequal Representation: The Impact of Labor Unions on Legislative Responsiveness in the U.S. Congress|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/perspectives-on-politics/article/abs/reducing-unequal-representation-the-impact-of-labor-unions-on-legislative-responsiveness-in-the-us-congress/D72A0BDB4EA513DFE988331D5380E8DE|journal=Perspectives on Politics|volume=19|issue=1 |language=en|pages=92–109|doi=10.1017/S153759272000208X|s2cid=204825962|issn=1537-5927|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Higher unionization rates increase the likelihood of parental leave policies being adopted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Engeman|first=Cassandra|date=2020|title=When Do Unions Matter to Social Policy? Organized Labor and Leave Legislation in US States|journal=Social Forces|volume=99|issue=4|pages=1745–1771|language=en|doi=10.1093/sf/soaa074|doi-access=free}}</ref> Republican-controlled states are less likely to adopt more restrictive labour policies when unions are strong in the state.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bucci|first1=Laura C.|last2=Jansa|first2=Joshua M.|date=2020|title=Who passes restrictive labour policy? A view from the States|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-public-policy/article/abs/who-passes-restrictive-labour-policy-a-view-from-the-states/792280CCB3221C4344149382A76FCB40|journal=Journal of Public Policy|volume=41|issue=3|language=en|pages=409–439|doi=10.1017/S0143814X20000070|s2cid=216258517|issn=0143-814X|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Research in the United States found that American congressional representatives were more responsive to the interests of the poor in districts with higher unionization rates.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becher|first1=Michael|last2=Stegmueller|first2=Daniel|date=2020|title=Reducing Unequal Representation: The Impact of Labor Unions on Legislative Responsiveness in the U.S. Congress|journal=Perspectives on Politics|volume=19|issue=1 |language=en|pages=92–109|doi=10.1017/S153759272000208X|issn=1537-5927|doi-access=free}}</ref> Another 2020 American study found an association between US state level adoption of parental leave legislation and trade union strength.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Engeman|first=Cassandra|date=2020|title=When Do Unions Matter to Social Policy? Organized Labor and Leave Legislation in US States|journal=Social Forces|volume=99|issue=4|pages=1745–1771|language=en|doi=10.1093/sf/soaa074|quote=Event history analysis of state-level leave policy adoption from 1983 to 2016 shows that union institutional strength, particularly in the public sector, is positively associated with the timing of leave policy adoption.|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In the United States, unions have been linked to lower racial resentment among whites.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frymer|first1=Paul|last2=Grumbach|first2=Jacob M.|title=Labor Unions and White Racial Politics|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ajps.12537|journal=American Journal of Political Science|year=2020|volume=65|issue=1 |language=en|pages=225–240|doi=10.1111/ajps.12537|s2cid=221245953|issn=1540-5907|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Membership in unions increases political knowledge, in particular among those with less formal education.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Macdonald|first=David|date=2019-04-29|title=How Labor Unions Increase Political Knowledge: Evidence from the United States|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-019-09548-7|journal=Political Behavior|volume=43|issue=1 |pages=1–24|language=en|doi=10.1007/s11109-019-09548-7|s2cid=159071392|issn=1573-6687|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

[[Public-sector trade union]]s have been associated with increased cost of government.<ref name="u201">{{cite journal | last1=Anzia | first1=Sarah F. | last2=Moe | first2=Terry M. | title=Public Sector Unions and the Costs of Government | journal=The Journal of Politics | volume=77 | issue=1 | date=2015 | issn=0022-3816 | doi=10.1086/678311 | pages=114–127| url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0n57c3tf }}</ref>

=== Health ===
In the United States, higher union density has been associated with lower suicide/overdose deaths.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eisenberg-Guyot|first1=Jerzy|last2=Mooney|first2=Stephen J.|last3=Hagopian|first3=Amy|last4=Barrington|first4=Wendy E.|last5=Hajat|first5=Anjum|date=2020|title=Solidarity and disparity: Declining labor union density and changing racial and educational mortality inequities in the United States|url= |journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|language=en|volume=63|issue=3|pages=218–231|doi=10.1002/ajim.23081|issn=1097-0274|pmc=7293351|pmid=31845387| quote=Results – Overall, a 10% increase in union density was associated with a 17% relative decrease in overdose/suicide mortality (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.70, 0.98), or 5.7 lives saved per 100 000 person‐years (95% CI: −10.7, −0.7). Union density's absolute (lives‐saved) effects on overdose/suicide mortality were stronger for men than women, but its relative effects were similar across genders. Union density had little effect on all‐cause mortality overall or across subgroups, and modeling suggested union‐density increases would not affect mortality inequities. Conclusions - Declining union density (as operationalized in this study) may not explain all‐cause mortality inequities, although increases in union density may reduce overdose/suicide mortality. }}</ref> Decreased unionization rates in the United States have been linked to an increase in occupational fatalities.<ref name="Zoorob 2018">{{cite journal | last=Zoorob | first=Michael | title=Does 'right to work' imperil the right to health? The effect of labour unions on workplace fatalities | journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine | volume=75 | issue=10 | date=October 1, 2018 | issn=1351-0711 | pmid=29898957 | doi=10.1136/oemed-2017-104747 | pages=736–738 | s2cid=49187014 | url=https://oem.bmj.com/content/75/10/736 | access-date=January 31, 2022 |quote= The Local Average Treatment Effect of a 1% decline in unionisation attributable to RTW is about a 5% increase in the rate of occupational fatalities. In total, RTW laws have led to a 14.2% increase in occupational mortality through decreased unionisation.| url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Organized labour}}
* [[Critique of work]]
* [[Digital Product Passport]]
* [[Excess profits tax]]
* [[Global labor arbitrage]]
* [[Labor federation competition in the United States]]
* [[Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act]]
* [[Labour inspectorate]]
* [[List of trade unions]]
* [[Police union]]
* [[Profit margin]]
* [[Progressive Librarians Guild]]
* [[Project Labor Agreement]]
* [[Salt (union organizing)]]
* [[Union busting]]
** [[Strikebreaker]]
* [[Workplace politics]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|35em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Braunthal |first=Gerard |title=The German Free Trade Unions during the Rise of Nazism |journal=Journal of Central European Affairs |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=339–353 |year=1956}}
* {{cite book |last=Cole |first=G. D. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YaBzZXueFFYC |title=Attempts at General Union |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1136885167}}
* {{Cite book |last=James |first=Robert Noel |title=Craft, Trade or Mystery |year=2001 |location=[[Tighes Hill]]}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Moses |first=John A. |title=The Trade Union Issue In German Social Democracy 1890–1900 |journal=Internationale Wissenschaftliche Korrespondenz zur Geschichte der Deutschen Arbeiterbewegung |date=December 1973 |issue=19/20 |pages=1–19}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schneider |first=Michael |title= A brief history of the German trade unions |publisher=JHW Dietz Nachfolger |year=1991 |location=[[Bonn]]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=Sidney |title=History of Trade Unionism |last2=Webb |first2=Beatrice |publisher=[[Longman]]|year=1920 |chapter=Chapter I}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Docherty |first=James C. |title=Historical Dictionary of Organized Labor |year=2004}}
* {{cite book |last=Docherty |first=James C. |title=The A to Z of Organized Labor |year=2010}}
* Kaplan, Ethan; Naidu, Suresh (2025). "Between Government and Market: The Political Economics of Labor Unions". ''Annual Review of Economics''.
* ''St. James Encyclopedia of Labor History Worldwide : Major Events in Labor History and Their Impact'' ed by Neil Schlager (2 vol. 2004)
{{refend}}

===Britain===
{{refbegin}}
* Aldcroft, D. H. and Oliver, M. J., eds. ''Trade Unions and the Economy, 1870–2000.'' (2000).
* Campbell, A., Fishman, N., and McIlroy, J. eds. ''British Trade Unions and Industrial Politics: The Post-War Compromise 1945–64'' (1999).
* {{Cite book |author-link=Hugh Clegg (industrial relations) |last=Clegg |first=H.A. |title=1889–1910 |series=A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889 |year=1964 |volume=I}}
* {{Cite book |last=Clegg |first=H.A. |title=1911–1933 |year=1985 |volume=II |series=A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889}} 
* {{Cite book |last=Clegg |first=H.A. |title=1934–1951 |year=1994 |volume=III |series=A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889}} 
* {{Cite book |last=Davies |first=A. J. |title=To Build a New Jerusalem: Labour Movement from the 1890s to the 1990s |year=1996}}
* {{Cite book |last=Laybourn |first=Keith |title=A history of British trade unionism c. 1770–1990 |year=1992 |author-link=Keith Laybourn}}
* {{Cite book |last=Minkin |first=Lewis |title=The Contentious Alliance: Trade Unions and the Labour Party |year=1991 |page=708 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/7833038/the-contentious-alliance-trade-unions-and-the-labour}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pelling |first=Henry |title=A history of British trade unionism |year=1987}}
* Wrigley, Chris, ed. ''British Trade Unions, 1945–1995'' (Manchester University Press, 1997)
* {{Cite journal |last=Zeitlin |first=Jonathan |year=1987 |title=From labour history to the history of industrial relations |journal=Economic History Review |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=159–184 |doi=10.2307/2596686 |jstor=2596686}}
* {{Cite book |title=Directory of Employer's Associations, Trade unions, Joint Organisations |publisher=[[Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] |year=1986 |isbn=0113612508}}
{{refend}}

===Europe===
{{refbegin}}
* Berghahn, Volker R., and Detlev Karsten. ''Industrial Relations in West Germany'' (Bloomsbury Academic, 1988).
* European Commission, Directorate General for Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion: [http://ec.europa.eu/social/keyDocuments.jsp?type=0&policyArea=0&subCategory=0&country=0&year=0&advSearchKey=IRIE&mode=advancedSubmit&langId=en ''Industrial Relations in Europe 2010.'']
* Gumbrell-McCormick, Rebecca, and Richard Hyman. ''Trade unions in western Europe: Hard times, hard choices'' (Oxford UP, 2013).
* Kjellberg, Anders. [http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=1964092&fileOId=2064087 "The Decline in Swedish Union Density since 2007"], ''Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies'' (NJWLS) Vol. 1. No 1 (August 2011), pp.&nbsp;67–93.
* Kjellberg, Anders (2017) [http://portal.research.lu.se/portal/en/publications/the-membership-development-of-swedish-trade-unions-and-union-confederations-since-the-end-of-the-nineteenth-century(f155826a-fa3c-41c7-9e34-19c7fc94a8dc).html ''The Membership Development of Swedish Trade Unions and Union Confederations Since the End of the Nineteenth Century''] (Studies in Social Policy, Industrial Relations, Working Life and Mobility). Research Reports 2017:2. Lund: Department of Sociology, Lund University.
* Kjellberg, Anders (2025) [https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/portalfiles/portal/218634009/nord2025-001_Kjellberg_union_density.pdf ”Changes in union density in the Nordic countries”], ''Nordic Economic Policy Review'', pp. 124–129 (Nordregio and the Nordic Council of Ministers)
* Markovits, Andrei. ''The Politics of West German Trade Unions: Strategies of Class and Interest Representation in Growth and Crisis'' (Routledge, 2016).
* McGaughey, Ewan, 'Democracy or Oligarchy? Models of Union Governance in the UK, Germany and US' (2017) [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2995297 ssrn.com]
* Misner, Paul. ''Catholic Labor Movements in Europe. Social Thought and Action, 1914–1965'' (2015). [http://www.h-france.net/vol16reviews/vol16no120horn.pdf online review]
* Mommsen, Wolfgang J., and Hans-Gerhard Husung, eds. ''The development of trade unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880–1914'' (Taylor & Francis, 1985).
* Ribeiro, Ana Teresa. "Recent Trends in Collective Bargaining in Europe." ''E-Journal of International and Comparative Labour Studies'' 5.1 (2016). [http://www.adapt.it/EJCLS/index.php/ejcls_adapt/article/viewFile/342/447 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170111161958/http://www.adapt.it/EJCLS/index.php/ejcls_adapt/article/viewFile/342/447 |date=11 January 2017 }}
* Upchurch, Martin, and Graham Taylor. ''The Crisis of Social Democratic Trade Unionism in Western Europe: The Search for Alternatives'' (Routledge, 2016).
{{refend}}

===United States===
{{refbegin}}
* Arnesen, Eric, ed. ''Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-Class History'' (2006), 3 vol; 2064pp; 650 articles by experts [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0415968267 excerpt and text search]
* Beik, Millie, ed. ''Labor Relations: Major Issues in American History'' (2005) over 100 annotated primary documents [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313318646 excerpt and text search]
* Boris, Eileen, and Nelson Lichtenstein, eds. ''Major Problems In The History Of American Workers: Documents and Essays'' (2002)
* Brody, David. ''In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker'' (1993) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195067908 excerpt and text search]
* Guild, C. M. (2021). Union Library Workers Blog: The Years 2019–2020 in Review. ''Progressive Librarian'', 48, 110–165.
* Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Foster Rhea Dulles. ''Labor in America: A History'' (2004), textbook, based on earlier textbooks by Dulles.
* [[Evan Osnos|Osnos, Evan]], "Ruling-Class Rules: How to thrive in the power elite – while declaring it your enemy", ''[[The New Yorker]]'', 29 January 2024
* Taylor, Paul F. ''The ABC-CLIO Companion to the American Labor Movement'' (1993) 237pp; short encyclopedia
* Zieger, Robert H., and Gilbert J. Gall, ''American Workers, American Unions: The Twentieth Century''(3rd ed. 2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/080187078X excerpt and text search]
{{refend}}

===Other===
{{refbegin}}
* Alexander, Robert Jackson, and Eldon M. Parker. ''A history of organized labor in Brazil'' (Greenwood, 2003).
* Dean, Adam. 2022. ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/opening-up-by-cracking-down/0986F8FA66EC6A2FEB76C5DB1CDCBFCD Opening Up By Cracking Down: Labor Repression and Trade Liberalization in Democratic Developing Countries]''. Cambridge University Press.
* Hodder, A. and L. Kretsos, eds. ''Young Workers and Trade Unions: A Global View'' (Palgrave-Macmillan, 2015). Review: {{Cite journal |last=Holgate |first=Jane |date=July 9, 2016 |title=Book review: A Hodder and L Kretsos (eds), Young Workers and Trade Unions: A Global View |journal=Work, Employment and Society |language=en |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=561–562 |doi=10.1177/0950017015614214 |s2cid=155792641 |issn=0950-0170}}
* Kester, Gérard. ''Trade unions and workplace democracy in Africa'' (Routledge, 2016).
* Lenti, Joseph U. ''Redeeming the Revolution: The State and Organized Labor in Post-Tlatelolco Mexico'' (University of Nebraska Press, 2017). 
* Levitsky, Steven, and Scott Mainwaring. "Organized labor and democracy in Latin America". ''Comparative Politics'' (2006): 21–42, {{JSTOR|20434019}}, {{doi|10.2307/20434019}}.
* Lipton, Charles (1967). ''The Trade Union Movement of Canada: 1827–1959''. (3rd ed. Toronto, Ont.: New Canada Publications, 1973).
* Orr, Charles A. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/159416 "Trade Unionism in Colonial Africa"] ''Journal of Modern African Studies'', 4 (1966), pp.&nbsp;65–81
* Panitch, Leo & Swartz, Donald (2003). ''From consent to coercion: The assault on trade union freedoms'' (third edition. Ontario: Garamound Press).
* Taylor, Andrew. ''Trade Unions and Politics: A Comparative Introduction'' (Macmillan, 1989).
* Visser, Jelle. "Union membership statistics in 24 countries." ''Monthly Labor Review''. 129 (2006): 38+ [https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1276&context=key_workplace online]
* Visser, Jelle. "ICTWSS: Database on institutional characteristics of trade unions, wage setting, state intervention and social pacts in 34 countries between 1960 and 2007". Institute for Advanced Labour Studies, AIAS, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam (2011). [http://www.uva-aias.net/208 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428080607/http://www.uva-aias.net/208 |date=28 April 2020 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Trade unions}}
{{wikiquote|Trade union}}
{{EB1911 poster|Trade Unions}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050625080457/http://www.actu.asn.au/ Australian Council of Trade Unions]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/19981202051850/http://labourstart.org/ LabourStart international trade union news service]
* [https://www.radiolabour.net/ RadioLabour]
* [http://www.newunionism.net/ New Unionism Network] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106180541/http://newunionism.net/ |date=6 January 2011 }}
* [https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2004/trade-union-membership-1993-2003 Trade union membership 1993–2003] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407002543/https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2004/trade-union-membership-1993-2003 |date=7 April 2022 }} – European Industrial Relations Observatory report on membership trends in 26 European countries
* [https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2009/trade-union-membership-2003-2008 Trade union membership 2003–2008] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412210344/https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2009/trade-union-membership-2003-2008 |date=12 April 2022 }} – European Industrial Relations Observatory report on membership trends in 28 European countries
* [http://www.unionancestors.co.uk/ Trade Union Ancestors] – Listing of 5,000 UK trade unions with histories of main organisations, trade union "family trees" and details of union membership and strikes since 1900.
* [http://www.unionhistory.info/index.php TUC History online] – History of the British union movement
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090718192916/http://www.ugt-cat.net/subdominis/ajlleida/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=74&Itemid=116 Short history of the UGT in Catalonia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101105041417/http://www.younionize.info/ Younionize Global Union Directory]
* "[https://www.workplacefairness.org/unions-retaliation Retaliation for Union Activity and Collection Action Rights]", Workplace Fairness
* [https://www.labornotes.org/ ''Labor Notes'' magazine]
* [https://mises.org/library/history-labor-unions-colonial-times-2009 ''A History of Labor Unions from Colonial Times to 2009''], from the [[Mises Institute]]

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