View source for Tragedy

{{Short description|Genre of drama based on human suffering}}
{{about|the genre of drama|the loss of life|Tragedy (event)|other uses}}
{{redirect2|Tragedian|Tragic|other uses|Tragedian (disambiguation)|and|Tragic (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2016}}
[[File:Heer_Ranjha_painting.jpg|thumb|The classical Punjabi tragedy of ''[[Heer Ranjha]]'', one of the four classic tragedies of [[Punjabi folklore]]; the tragedy's epic form by [[Waris Shah]] is regarded as one of the greatest pieces of [[Punjabi literature]]]]
{{Literature}}
A '''tragedy''' is a genre of [[drama]] based on human [[suffering]] and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a [[tragic hero|main character]] or cast of characters.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Tragedy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/tragedy-literature |last=Conversi |first=Leonard W. |date=2019 |language=en}}</ref> Traditionally, the intention of tragedy is to invoke an accompanying [[catharsis]], or a "pain [that] awakens pleasure," for the audience.{{Sfn | Banham | 1998 | p = 1118}}{{Sfn | Nietzsche | 1999 | p = 21 | loc = §2 | ps =: 'two-fold mood[…] the strange mixture and duality in the effects of the [[Dionysus|Dionysiac]] [[Cult of Dionysus|enthusiasts]], that phenomenon whereby pain awakens pleasure while rejoicing wrings cries of agony from the breast. From highest joy there comes a cry of horror or a yearning lament at some irredeemable loss. In those Greek festivals there erupts what one might call a [[Sentimentality|sentimental]] tendency in nature, as if it had cause to sigh over its [[Sparagmos|dismemberment]] into [[Individuation|individuals]]'.}} While many cultures have developed forms that provoke this [[paradox]]ical response, the term ''tragedy'' often refers to a specific [[Poetic tradition|tradition]] of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of [[Western culture|Western civilization]].{{Sfn | Banham | 1998 | p = 1118}}{{Sfn | Williams | 1966 | pp = 14–16}} That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of [[cultural identity]] and historical continuity—"the [[Classical Athens|Greeks]] and the [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethans]], in one cultural form; [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenes]] and Christians, in a common activity," as [[Raymond Williams]] puts it.{{Sfn | Williams | 1966 | p = 16}}

Originating in the [[theatre of ancient Greece]] 2500 years ago, where only a fraction of the works of [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]] survive, as well as many fragments from other poets, and the later Roman tragedies of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]; through its singular articulations in the works of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Jean Racine]], and [[Friedrich Schiller]] to the more recent [[Naturalism (theatre)|naturalistic]] tragedy of [[Henrik Ibsen]] and [[August Strindberg]]; [[Nurul Momen]]'s [[Nemesis (Momen play)|Nemesis]]' tragic vengeance & [[Samuel Beckett]]'s [[Modernism|modernist]] meditations on death, loss and suffering; [[Heiner Müller]] [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.{{Sfn | Williams | 1966 | pp = 13–84}}{{Sfn | Taxidou | 2004 | pp = 193–209}} A long line of [[philosophers]]—which includes [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], [[Voltaire]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]], [[Walter Benjamin|Benjamin]],{{Sfn | Benjamin | 1998}} [[Albert Camus|Camus]], [[Jacques Lacan|Lacan]], and [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze]]—have analysed, speculated upon, and criticised the genre.{{Sfn | Felski | 2008 | p = 1}}{{Sfn | Dukore | 1974 | ps =: primary material.}}{{Sfn | Carlson | 1993 | ps =: analysis.}}

In the wake of Aristotle's ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the scale of poetry in general (where the tragic divides against [[Epic poetry|epic]] and [[Lyric poetry|lyric]]) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to [[Comedy (drama)|comedy]]). In the [[Modernity|modern]] era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, [[melodrama]], [[Tragicomedy|the tragicomic]], and [[epic theatre]].{{Sfn | Carlson | 1993 | ps =: analysis.}}{{Sfn | Pfister | 1988}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elam |first=Keir |title=The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama |date=1980 |publisher=Methuen |isbn=9780416720501}}</ref> Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-[[Genre|generic]] [[deterritorialization]] from the [[Nineteenth century theatre|mid-19th century]] onwards. Both [[Bertolt Brecht]] and [[Augusto Boal]] define their epic theatre projects ([[non-Aristotelian drama]] and [[Theatre of the Oppressed]], respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.{{Sfn | Taxidou | 2004 | pp = 193–209}}

== Etymology ==
The word "tragedy" appears to have been used to describe different phenomena at different times. It derives from [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|τραγῳδία}} "goat song", which comes from τράγος ''tragos'' "he-goat" and ᾠδή ''ōidḗ'' "singing, ode." Scholars suspect this may be traced to a time when a goat was either the prize<ref>See [[Horace]], ''Epistulae'', II, 3, 220: "Carmine qui tragico vilem certavit ob hircum".</ref> in a competition of [[Greek dances|choral dancing]] or was what a [[Greek chorus|chorus]] danced around prior to the animal's [[ritual]] [[Animal sacrifice|sacrifice]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 13}} In another view on the etymology, [[Athenaeus]] of Naucratis (2nd–3rd century CE) says that the original form of the word was ''trygodia'' from ''trygos'' (grape harvest) and ''ode'' (song), because those events were first introduced during grape harvest.<ref>{{Citation |last=of Naucratis |first=Athenaeus |title=The deipnosophists |url=http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature.AthV1.p0071&id=Literature.AthV1&isize=M&pview=hide%20 |publisher=Wisc |mode=cs1 |access-date=12 January 2011 |archive-date=27 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727012240/http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/Literature/Literature-idx?type=turn&entity=Literature.AthV1.p0071&id=Literature.AthV1&isize=M&pview=hide%20 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Writing in 335 BCE (long after the [[Age of Pericles|Golden Age]] of [[Classical Greece|5th-century]] [[Classical Athens|Athenian]] tragedy), [[Aristotle]] provides the earliest surviving explanation for the origin of the dramatic [[The arts|art form]] in his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'', in which he argues that tragedy developed from the [[improvisation]]s of the leader of [[Greek chorus|choral]] [[dithyramb]]s ([[hymn]]s sung and danced in praise of [[Dionysos]], the god of wine and fertility):{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 13}}
{{Blockquote |Anyway, arising from an improvisatory beginning (both tragedy and comedy—tragedy from the leaders of the dithyramb, and comedy from the leaders of the phallic processions which even now continue as a custom in many of our cities), [tragedy] grew little by little, as [the poets] developed whatever [new part] of it had appeared; and, passing through many changes, tragedy came to a halt, since it had attained its own nature. | ''Poetics'' IV, 1449a 10–15{{Sfn | Aristotle | 1987 | p = 6}}}}

In the same work, Aristotle attempts to provide a scholastic definition of what tragedy is:
{{Blockquote |Tragedy is, then, an enactment of a deed that is important and complete, and of [a certain] magnitude, by means of language enriched [with ornaments], each used separately in the different parts [of the play]: it is enacted, not [merely] recited, and through pity and fear it effects relief ([[catharsis]]) to such [and similar] emotions. | Poetics, VI 1449b 2–3{{sfn|Aristotle|1932|loc=Section 1449b}}}}

There is some dissent to the dithyrambic origins of tragedy, mostly based on the differences between the shapes of their choruses and styles of dancing.{{sfn|Nietzsche|1999}} A common descent from pre-[[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]] fertility and burial rites has been suggested.{{sfn|Nietzsche|1999}} [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] discussed the origins of Greek tragedy in his early book ''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'' (1872). Here, he suggests the name originates in the use of a chorus of goat-like [[satyr]]s in the original [[dithyramb]]s from which the tragic genre developed.

Scott Scullion writes:  {{blockquote|There is abundant evidence for tragoidia understood as "song for the prize goat". The best-known evidence is Horace, Ars poetica 220-24 ("he who with a tragic song competed for a mere goat"); the earliest is the Parian Marble, a chronicle inscribed about 264/63 BCE, which records, under a date between 538 and 528 BCE: "Thespis is the poet ... first produced ... and as prize was established the billy goat" (FrGHist 239A, epoch 43); the clearest is Eustathius 1769.45: "They called those competing tragedians, clearly because of the song over the billy goat"...<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scullion |first=Scott |title=Companion to Greek tragedy |date=2007 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-5205-1 |editor-last=Gregory |editor-first=Justina |location=Hoboken, NJ |page=29 |chapter=Tragedy and Religion: The Problem of Origins |oclc=299571432 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AdTuNrx6z4oC&dq=there%20is%20abundant%20ancient%20evidence&pg=PA29}}</ref>}}

==Greek==
{{Main|Greek tragedy}}
[[File:Pompeii - Casa dei Vettii - Pentheus.jpg|thumb|''[[The Bacchae]]'', [[Greek tragedy|ancient Greek tragedy]] by [[Euripides]]]]
Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Andrew |title=The Cambridge Guide to Theatre |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-521-43437-8 |editor-last=Banham |editor-first=Martin |edition=Revised |location=Cambridge |page=441 |chapter=Greece, Ancient |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/441}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cartledge |first=Paul |title=The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-521-42351-1 |editor-last=Easterling |editor-first=P. E. |editor-link=P. E. Easterling |series=Cambridge Companions to Literature series |location=Cambridge |pages=3–5 |chapter='Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life}}</ref>{{Sfn | Goldhill | 1997 | p = 54}}{{Sfn | Ley | 2007 | p = 206}}{{Sfn | Styan | 2000 | p = 140}}{{Sfn | Taxidou | 2004 | p = 104 | ps =: "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct".}} Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world), and continued to be popular until the beginning of the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 32–3}}{{Sfn | Brown | 1998 | p = 444}}{{Sfn | Cartledge | 1997 | pp = 3–5, 33 | ps =: [although [[Classical Athens|Athenians]] of the 4th century judged [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]] "as the nonpareils of the genre, and regularly honored their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was not merely a 5th-century phenomenon, the product of a short-lived [[Fifth-century Athens|golden age]]. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the [[Athenian democracy|democracy]]—and beyond it".}} No tragedies from the 6th century and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in the 5th century have survived.{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 15}}{{Sfn | Kovacs | 2005 | p = 379}}{{Refn | group = "lower-alpha" | We have seven by Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by Euripides. In addition, we also have the ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', a satyr play by Euripides.  Some critics since the 17th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as Euripides'—''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]''—is a 4th-century play by an unknown author; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Euripides |title=Plays VI |publisher=Methuen |others=J. Michael Walton, introduction |year=1997 |isbn=0-413-71650-3 |series=Methuen Classical Greek Dramatists |location=London |pages=viii, xix |chapter=Introduction |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/playssix0000euri/page/}}</ref>  This uncertainty accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies.}} We have complete texts [[Extant literature|extant]] by [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 15}}{{Refn | group = "lower-alpha" | The theory that ''[[Prometheus Bound]]'' was not written by [[Aeschylus]] adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.}} Aeschylus' ''[[The Persians]]'' is recognized to be the earliest extant Greek tragedy, and as such it is doubly unique among the extant ancient dramas.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Thomas |title=The emptiness of Asia : Aeschylus' 'Persians' and the history of the fifth century |date=2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |location=London |isbn=9781350113411 |page=13}}</ref>

Athenian tragedies were performed in late March/early April at an annual state religious festival in honor of Dionysus. The presentations took the form of a contest between three playwrights, who presented their works on three successive days. Each playwright offered a tetralogy consisting of three tragedies and a concluding comic piece called a [[satyr play]].{{sfn|Lucas|1954|p=7}} The four plays sometimes featured linked stories. Only one complete trilogy of tragedies has survived, the ''[[Oresteia]]'' of Aeschylus. The Greek theatre was in the open air, on the side of a hill, and performances of a trilogy and satyr play probably lasted most of the day. Performances were apparently open to all citizens, including women, but evidence is scant.{{Citation needed|date=June 2012}} The theatre of Dionysus at Athens probably held around 12,000 people.{{Sfn | Ley | 2007 | p = 33–34}}

All of the choral parts were sung (to the accompaniment of an ''[[aulos]]'') and some of the actors' answers to the chorus were sung as well. The play as a whole was composed in various verse metres. All actors were male and wore masks. A [[Greek chorus]] danced as well as sang, though no one knows exactly what sorts of steps the chorus performed as it sang. Choral songs in tragedy are often divided into three sections: strophe ("turning, circling"), antistrophe ("counter-turning, counter-circling") and epode ("after-song").

Many ancient Greek tragedians employed the ''[[Ekkyklema|ekkyklêma]]'' as a theatrical device, which was a platform hidden behind the scene that could be rolled out to display the aftermath of some event which had happened out of sight of the audience. This event was frequently a brutal murder of some sort, an act of violence which could not be effectively portrayed visually, but an action of which the other characters must see the effects for it to have meaning and emotional resonance. A prime example of the use of the ''ekkyklêma'' is after the murder of [[Agamemnon (play)|Agamemnon]] in the first play of Aeschylus' ''Oresteia'', when the king's butchered body is wheeled out in a grand display for all to see. Variations on the ''ekkyklêma'' are used in tragedies and other forms to this day, as writers still find it a useful and often powerful device for showing the consequences of extreme human actions. Another such device was a crane, the [[mechane]], which served to hoist a god or goddess on stage when they were supposed to arrive flying. This device gave origin to the phrase "[[deus ex machina]]" ("god out of a machine"), that is, the surprise intervention of an unforeseen external factor that changes the outcome of an event.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chondros |first1=Thomas G. |last2=Milidonis |first2=Kypros |last3=Vitzilaios |first3=George |last4=Vaitsis |first4=John |date=1 September 2013 |title="Deus-Ex-Machina" reconstruction in the Athens theater of Dionysus |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094114X13000827 |journal=Mechanism and Machine Theory |language=en |volume=67 |pages=172–191 |doi=10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2013.04.010 |issn=0094-114X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Roman<!--'Roman tragedy' redirects here-->==
{{See also|Senecan tragedy}}
[[File:Pompeii - Casa del Centenario - Orest.jpg|thumb|Scene from the tragedy ''Iphigenia in Tauris'' by Euripides. Roman fresco in Pompeii.]]
Following the expansion of the [[Roman Republic]] (509–27 BCE) into several Greek territories between 270 and 240 BCE, Rome encountered [[Theatre of ancient Greece|Greek tragedy]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 43}} From the later years of the republic and by means of the [[Roman Empire]] (27 BCE-476 CE), theatre spread west across Europe, around the Mediterranean and even reached Britain.{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 36, 47}} While Greek tragedy continued to be performed throughout the Roman period, the year 240 BCE marks the beginning of regular [[Theatre of ancient Rome|Roman drama]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 43}}{{Refn | group = "lower-alpha" | For more information on the ancient Roman dramatists, see [[:Category:Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights|the articles categorised under "Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia]].}} [[Livius Andronicus]] began to write Roman tragedies, thus creating some of the first important works of [[Latin literature|Roman literature]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 47}} Five years later, [[Gnaeus Naevius]] also began to write tragedies (though he was more appreciated for his comedies).{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 47}} No complete early Roman tragedy survives, though it was highly regarded in its day; historians know of three other early tragic playwrights—[[Quintus Ennius]], [[Marcus Pacuvius]] and [[Lucius Accius]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | p = 49}}

From the time of the empire, the tragedies of two playwrights survive—one is an unknown author, while the other is the [[Stoicism|Stoic philosopher]] [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]].{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 50}} Nine of [[Senecan tragedy|Seneca's tragedies]] survive, all of which are ''fabula crepidata'' (tragedies adapted from Greek originals); his ''[[Phaedra (Seneca)|Phaedra]]'', for example, was based on [[Euripides]]' ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]''.{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 49–50}} Historians do not know who wrote the only [[Extant literature|extant]] example of the ''fabula praetexta'' (tragedies based on Roman subjects), ''[[Octavia (play)|Octavia]]'', but in former times it was mistakenly attributed to Seneca due to his appearance as a character in the tragedy.{{Sfn | Brockett | Hildy | 2003 | pp = 50}}

Seneca's tragedies rework those of all three of the Athenian tragic playwrights whose work has survived. Probably meant to be recited at elite gatherings, they differ from the Greek versions with their long declamatory, narrative accounts of action, their obtrusive moralizing, and their bombastic rhetoric. They dwell on detailed accounts of horrible deeds and contain long reflective [[Soliloquy|soliloquies]]. Though the gods rarely appear in these plays, ghosts and witches are abound. Senecan tragedies explore ideas of [[Revenge tragedy|revenge]], the occult, the supernatural, suicide, blood and gore. The Renaissance scholar [[Julius Caesar Scaliger]] (1484–1558), who knew both Latin and Greek, preferred Seneca to Euripides.

==Renaissance==
===Influence of Greek and Roman===
Classical Greek drama was largely forgotten in Western Europe from the Middle Ages to the beginning of the 16th century. [[Medieval theatre]] was dominated by [[mystery play]]s, [[morality play]]s, [[farce]]s and [[miracle play]]s. In Italy, the models for tragedy in the later Middle Ages were Roman, particularly the works of Seneca, interest in which was reawakened by the [[Padua]]n [[Lovato Lovati|Lovato de' Lovati]] (1241–1309).<ref name="lovati">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Lovati, Lovato de' |encyclopedia=Enciclopedia on line |publisher=Treccani |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/lovato-de-lovati |access-date=23 March 2013 |language=it-IT}}</ref> His pupil [[Albertino Mussato]] (1261–1329), also of Padua, in 1315 wrote the [[Latin verse]] tragedy ''Eccerinis'', which uses the story of the tyrant [[Ezzelino III da Romano]] to highlight the danger to Padua posed by [[Cangrande della Scala]] of [[Verona]].<ref name="muss">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Mussato, Albertino |encyclopedia=Enciclopedia on line |publisher=Treccani |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/albertino-mussato |access-date=23 March 2013 |language=it-IT}}</ref> It was the first secular tragedy written since Roman times, and may be considered the first Italian tragedy identifiable as a Renaissance work. The earliest tragedies to employ purely classical themes are the ''Achilles'' written before 1390 by [[Antonio Loschi]] of [[Vicenza]] (c.1365–1441) and the ''Progne'' of the [[Venice|Venetian]] [[Gregorio Correr]] (1409–1464) which dates from 1428 to 1429.<ref name="eb">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Drama |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |edition=11th |volume=VIII |page=503}}</ref>

In 1515 [[Gian Giorgio Trissino]] (1478–1550) of Vicenza wrote his tragedy ''Sophonisba'' in the [[vernacular]] that would later be called Italian. Drawn from [[Livy]]'s account of [[Sophonisba]], the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] princess who drank poison to avoid being taken by the Romans, it adheres closely to classical rules. It was soon followed by the ''Oreste'' and ''Rosmunda'' of Trissino's friend, the Florentine [[Giovanni di Bernardo Rucellai]] (1475–1525). Both were completed by early 1516 and are based on classical Greek models, ''Rosmunda'' on the ''[[Hecuba (play)|Hecuba]]'' of [[Euripides]], and ''Oreste'' on the ''[[Iphigenia in Tauris]]'' of the same author; like ''Sophonisba'', they are in Italian and in blank (unrhymed) [[hendecasyllable]]s. Another of the first of all modern tragedies is ''A Castro'', by Portuguese poet and playwright [[António Ferreira (poet)|António Ferreira]], written around 1550 (but only published in 1587) in polymetric verse (most of it being blank hendecasyllables), dealing with the murder of [[Inês de Castro]], one of the most dramatic episodes in Portuguese history. Although these three Italian plays are often cited, separately or together, as being the first regular tragedies in modern times, as well as the earliest substantial works to be written in blank hendecasyllables, they were apparently preceded by two other works in the vernacular: ''Pamfila'' or ''Filostrato e Panfila'' written in 1498 or 1508 by [[Antonio Cammelli]] (Antonio da Pistoia); and a ''Sophonisba'' by [[Galeotto del Carretto]] of 1502.<ref name="hallam">{{Cite book |last=Hallam |first=Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M8JMAAAAcAAJ |title=Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries |date=1837 |publisher=Baudry's European Library |page=212 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="gal">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Del Carrétto, Galeotto, dei marchesi di Savona |encyclopedia=Enciclopedia on line |publisher=Treccani |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/del-carretto-galeotto-dei-marchesi-di-savona |access-date=23 March 2013 |language=it-IT}}</ref>

From about 1500 printed copies, in the original languages, of the works of [[Sophocles]], [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], and [[Euripides]], as well as comedic writers such as [[Aristophanes]], [[Terence]] and [[Plautus]], were available in Europe and the next forty years saw [[Humanism|humanists]] and poets translating and adapting their tragedies. In the 1540s, the European university setting (and especially, from 1553 on, the Jesuit colleges) became host to a Neo-Latin theatre (in Latin) written by scholars. The influence of Seneca was particularly strong in its humanist tragedy. His plays, with their ghosts, lyrical passages and rhetorical oratory, brought a concentration on rhetoric and language over dramatic action to many humanist tragedies.

The most important sources for French tragic theatre in the Renaissance were the example of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and the precepts of [[Horace]] and [[Aristotle]] (and contemporary commentaries by [[Julius Caesar Scaliger]] and [[Lodovico Castelvetro]]), although plots were taken from classical authors such as [[Plutarch]], [[Lives of the Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]], etc., from the Bible, from contemporary events and from short story collections (Italian, French and Spanish). The Greek tragic authors ([[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]]) would become increasingly important as models by the middle of the 17th century. Important models were also supplied by the [[Spanish Golden Age]] playwrights [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca]], [[Tirso de Molina]] and [[Lope de Vega]], many of whose works were translated and adapted for the French stage.

===Britain===
[[File:Edwin Austin Abbey King Lear, Act I, Scene I The Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|thumbnail|[[Edwin Austin Abbey]] (1852–1911) ''[[King Lear]]'', Cordelia's Farewell ]]
{{see also|English Renaissance theatre|Heroic drama|Shakespearean tragedy|Revenge play}}
{{Reformationliterature |expanded=british}}British tragedy, particularly in the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, diverged from classical models in both form and theme.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blevins |first=Jacob |date=2004 |title=Radical Tragedy: Religion, Ideology and Power in the Drama of Shakespeare and His Contemporaries by Jonathan Dollimore |url=https://doi.org/10.1353/itx.2004.0008 |journal=Intertexts |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=201–203 |doi=10.1353/itx.2004.0008 |issn=2156-5465|url-access=subscription }}</ref> While influenced by Senecan drama, British tragedies frequently defied the unities of time, place, and action, favoring a more flexible dramatic structure.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bushnell |first=Rebecca Weld |url=https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501745577 |title=Tragedies of Tyrants |date=2019-12-31 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-4557-7 |location=Ithaca, NY}}</ref> This allowed for a deeper exploration of psychological complexity, political instability, and moral ambiguity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kasten |first=David Scott |date=1982 |title=Shakespeare and the Shapes of Time |journal=Macmillan}}</ref>

Rather than adhering to neoclassical ideals, British tragedies frequently blended high and low characters and adopted tragicomic tones, contributing to the development of a distinct national tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kermode |first=Frank |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195136128.001.0001 |title=The Sense of an Ending |date=2000-04-06 |publisher=Oxford University PressNew York, NY |isbn=978-0-19-513612-8}}</ref> The chaotic structure and social hybridity of many of these plays mirrored the turbulent political and religious transformations of the time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Greenblatt |first=Stephen |url=https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226027043.001.0001 |title=Renaissance Self-Fashioning |date=2005 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-30659-9}}</ref>[[File:Romeo and juliet brown.jpg|thumb|''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'', the classic tragedy by English playwright [[William Shakespeare]]]]
The common forms are the:
* ''Tragedy of circumstance'': people are born into their situations, and do not choose them; such tragedies explore the consequences of birthrights, particularly but not always for monarchs. (This particular variant of tragedy was the genre's first shift away from stories about characters suffering due to their own faults, but rather due to circumstances out of their control.)
* ''Tragedy of miscalculation'': the [[protagonist]]'s error of judgement has tragic consequences
* ''[[Revenge play]]''
In English, the most famous and most successful tragedies are those of [[William Shakespeare]] and his [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan]] contemporaries. Shakespeare's tragedies include:
* ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]''
* ''[[Coriolanus]]''
* ''[[Hamlet]]''
* ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]''
* ''[[King Lear]]''
* ''[[Macbeth]]''
* ''[[Othello]]''
* ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''
* ''[[Timon of Athens]]''
* ''[[Titus Andronicus]]''
* ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]''
William Shakespeare expanded the tragedy genre further by integrating elements of comedy, history, and philosophy into his tragedies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clifford |first=Catherine |date=2017-12-16 |title=Dutton, Shakespeare, Court Dramatist (Oxford University Press, 2016) |url=https://doi.org/10.21039/rsj.v4i2.171 |journal=Royal Studies Journal |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=263 |doi=10.21039/rsj.v4i2.171 |issn=2057-6730|doi-access=free }}</ref> His works such as ''King Lear'', ''Hamlet,'' and ''Macbeth'' are noted for their interiority use of soliloquy, and exploration of fate, madness and human agency.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burke |first=John J. |last2=Bloom |first2=Harold |date=1999 |title=Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human |url=https://doi.org/10.2307/3201503 |journal=South Atlantic Review |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=115 |doi=10.2307/3201503 |issn=0277-335X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A contemporary of Shakespeare, [[Christopher Marlowe]], also wrote examples of tragedy in English, notably:
* ''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus]]''
* ''[[Tamburlaine (play)|Tamburlaine the Great]]''
Christopher Marlowe's ''Doctor Faustus'' merges medieval morality traditions with Renaissance humanism, portraying a tragic protagonist who seeks knowledge and power at the expense of salvation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Christopher D. |date=2010 |title=Patrick G. Cheney. Marlowe's Republican Authorship: Lucan, Liberty, and the Sublime. Early Modern Literature in History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. xiii + 248 pp. index. bibl. $75. ISBN: 978–1–4039–3341–6. |url=https://doi.org/10.1086/652624 |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=318–319 |doi=10.1086/652624 |issn=0034-4338|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[John Webster]] (1580?–1635?), also wrote famous plays of the genre:
* ''[[The Duchess of Malfi]]''
* ''[[The White Devil]]''

===Domestic tragedy===
{{Main|Domestic tragedy}}

Domestic tragedies are tragedies in which the tragic protagonists are ordinary middle-class or working-class individuals. This subgenre contrasts with [[classical antiquity|classical]] and [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] tragedy, in which the protagonists are of kingly or [[Aristocracy (class)|aristocratic]] rank and their downfall is an affair of state as well as a personal matter.

The [[Ancient Greek]] theorist [[Aristotle]] had argued that tragedy should concern only great individuals with great minds and souls, because their catastrophic downfall would be more emotionally powerful to the audience; only comedy should depict middle-class people. Domestic tragedy breaks with Aristotle's precepts, taking as its subjects merchants or citizens whose lives have less consequence in the wider world.

The advent of the domestic tragedy ushered in the first phase shift of the genre focusing less on the Aristotelian definition of the genre and more on the definition of tragedy on the scale of the drama, where tragedy is opposed to comedy i.e. melancholic stories. Although the utilization of key elements such as suffering, hamartia, morality, and spectacle ultimately ties this variety of tragedy to all the rest. This variant of tragedy noticeably had a larger number of stories that featured characters' downfalls being due to circumstances out of their control - a feature first established by the tragedies of Shakespeare - and less due to their own personal flaws.

This variant of tragedy has led to the evolution and development of tragedies of the modern era especially those past the mid-1800s such as the works of [[Arthur Miller]], [[Eugene O'Neill]] and [[Henrik Ibsen]]. This variant of tragedy is especially popular in the modern age due to its characters being more relatable to mass audiences and is the most common form of tragedy adapted into modern day [[Television show|television programs]], [[books]], [[films]], [[Play (theatre)|theatrical plays]], etc. Newly dealt with themes that sprang forth from the Domestic tragedy movement include: wrongful convictions and executions, poverty, starvation, [[addiction]], [[alcoholism]], debt, [[structural abuse]], [[child abuse]], [[crime]], [[domestic violence]], [[shunning|social shunning]], [[Major depressive disorder|depression]], and loneliness.

Classical Domestic tragedies include:
* ''[[Arden of Faversham]]'' (1592)
* ''[[A Woman Killed with Kindness]]'' (1607)
* ''[[A Yorkshire Tragedy]]'' (1608)
* ''[[The Witch of Edmonton]]'' (1621)

===Opera===
Contemporary with Shakespeare, an entirely different approach to facilitating the rebirth of tragedy was taken in Italy. [[Jacopo Peri]], in the preface to his ''[[Euridice (Peri)|Euridice]]'' refers to "the ancient Greeks and Romans (who in the opinion of many sang their staged tragedies throughout in representing them on stage)."{{Sfn | Headington | Westbrook | Barfoot | 1991 | p = 22}} The attempts of Peri and his contemporaries to recreate ancient tragedy gave rise to the new Italian musical genre of opera. In France, tragic operatic works from the time of [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] to about that of [[Christoph Willibald Gluck|Gluck]] were not called opera, but ''tragédie en musique'' ("tragedy in music") or some similar name; the ''tragédie en musique'' is regarded as a distinct musical genre.<ref name="grove">{{Cite journal |last=Sadler |first=Graham |date=2001 |title=Tragédie en musique |url=http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000044040 |journal=Grove Music Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=1 |doi=10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.44040 |isbn=978-1-56159-263-0 |url-access=subscription |access-date=23 March 2013 |archive-date=13 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180413032000/http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000044040 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some later operatic composers have also shared Peri's aims: [[Richard Wagner]]'s concept of ''[[Gesamtkunstwerk]]'' ("integrated work of art"), for example, was intended as a return to the ideal of Greek tragedy in which all the arts were blended in service of the drama.{{Sfn | Headington | Westbrook | Barfoot | 1991 | p = 178}} [[Nietzsche]], in his ''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'' (1872) was to support Wagner in his claims to be a successor of the ancient dramatists.

==Neo-classical==
[[File:Talma as Nero in Britannicus by Racine - Delacroix - zeno.jpg|thumb|190px|French actor [[François-Joseph Talma|Talma]] as Nero in Racine's ''[[Britannicus (play)|Britannicus]]''.]]
For much of the 17th century, [[Pierre Corneille]], who made his mark on the world of tragedy with plays like ''[[Médée]]'' (1635) and ''[[Le Cid]]'' (1636), was the most successful writer of French tragedies. Corneille's tragedies were strangely un-tragic (his first version of ''Le Cid'' was even listed as a tragicomedy), for they had happy endings. In his theoretical works on theatre, Corneille redefined both comedy and tragedy around the following suppositions:
* The stage—in both comedy and tragedy—should feature noble characters (this would eliminate many low-characters, typical of the farce, from Corneille's comedies). Noble characters should not be depicted as vile (reprehensible actions are generally due to non-noble characters in Corneille's plays).
* Tragedy deals with affairs of the state (wars, dynastic marriages); comedy deals with love. For a work to be tragic, it need not have a tragic ending.
* Although [[Aristotle]] says that [[catharsis]] (purgation of emotion) should be the goal of tragedy, this is only an ideal. In conformity with the moral codes of the period, plays should not show evil being rewarded or nobility being degraded.

Corneille continued to write plays through 1674 (mainly tragedies, but also something he called "heroic comedies") and many continued to be successes, although the "irregularities" of his theatrical methods were increasingly criticised (notably by [[François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac]]) and the success of Jean Racine from the late 1660s signalled the end of his preeminence.

[[Jean Racine]]'s tragedies—inspired by Greek myths, [[Euripides]], [[Sophocles]] and [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]—condensed their plot into a tight set of passionate and duty-bound conflicts between a small group of noble characters, and concentrated on these characters' double-binds and the geometry of their unfulfilled desires and hatreds. Racine's poetic skill was in the representation of [[pathos]] and amorous passion (like [[Phèdre]]'s love for her stepson) and his impact was such that emotional crisis would be the dominant mode of tragedy to the end of the century. Racine's two late plays ("Esther" and "Athalie") opened new doors to biblical subject matter and to the use of theatre in the education of young women. Racine also faced criticism for his irregularities: when his play, ''[[Bérénice]]'', was criticised for not containing any deaths, Racine disputed the conventional view of tragedy.

For more on French tragedy of the 16th and 17th centuries, see [[French Renaissance literature]] and [[French literature of the 17th century]].

===Later development===

Towards the close of the eighteenth century, having studied her predecessors, [[Joanna Baillie]] wanted to revolutionise theatre, believing that it could be used more effectively to affect people's lives.{{sfn|Colón|2007|p=xi}} To this end she gave a new direction to tragedy, which she defined as 'the unveiling of the human mind under the dominion of those strong and fixed passions, which seemingly unprovoked by outward circumstances, will from small beginnings brood within the breast, till all the better dispositions, all the fair gifts of nature are borne down before them'.{{sfn|Baillie|1798|p=38}} 
This theory, she put into practice in her 'Series of Plays on the Passions' in three volumes (commencing in 1798) and in other dramatic works. Her method was to create a series of scenes and incidents intended to capture the audience's inquisitiveness and 'trace the progress of the passion, pointing out those stages in the approach of the enemy, when he might have been combated most successfully; and where the suffering him to pass may be considered as occasioning all the misery that ensues.'{{sfn|Baillie|1798|p=41}}

==Bourgeois==
{{further|Bourgeois tragedy|Augustan drama}}

Bourgeois tragedy, known in German as ''Bürgerliches Trauerspiel,'' emerged in 18th-century Europe as a product of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and the rise of the [[Bourgeoisie|bourgeoise]]. This genre of tragedy is distinguished by its focus on ordinary citizens as protagonists, deviating from the classical emphasis on nobility. The first true bourgeois tragedy was English playwright, [[George Lillo]]'s 1731 play, ''[[The London Merchant|The London Merchant; or, the History of George Barnwell]].'' [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]'s play ''[[Miss Sara Sampson]]'', which was first produced in 1755, is said to be the earliest ''Bürgerliches Trauerspiel'' in Germany.

==Modern development==

In [[modernist literature]], the definition of tragedy has become less precise. The most fundamental change has been the rejection of Aristotle's dictum that true tragedy can only depict those with power and high status. [[Arthur Miller]]'s essay "Tragedy and the Common Man" (1949) argues that tragedy may also depict ordinary people in domestic surroundings thus defining Domestic tragedies.{{sfn|Miller|1949|p=894}} British playwright [[Howard Barker]] has argued strenuously for the rebirth of tragedy in the contemporary theatre, most notably in his volume ''Arguments for a Theatre''. "You emerge from tragedy equipped against lies. After the musical, you're anybody's fool," he insists.{{sfn|Barker|1989|p=13}}

Critics such as [[George Steiner]] have even been prepared to argue that tragedy may no longer exist in comparison with its former manifestations in classical antiquity. In ''The Death of Tragedy'' (1961), Steiner outlined the characteristics of Greek tragedy and the traditions that developed from that period. In the Foreword (1980) to a new edition of his book Steiner concluded that 'the dramas of Shakespeare are not a renascence of or a humanistic variant of the absolute tragic model. They are, rather, a rejection of this model in the light of tragi-comic and "realistic" criteria.' In part, this feature of Shakespeare's mind is explained by his bent of mind or imagination which was 'so encompassing, so receptive to the plurality of diverse orders of experience.' When compared to the drama of Greek antiquity and French classicism Shakespeare's forms are 'richer but hybrid'.<ref>George Steiner, ''The Death of Tragedy'' [1961] (Oxford University Press, 1980; Yale University Press, 1996), p. xiii.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Steiner |first=George |date=Winter 2004 |title="Tragedy," Reconsidered |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20057818 |journal=New Literary History |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.1353/nlh.2004.0024 |jstor=20057818 |s2cid=201768479 |issn=0028-6087 |url-access=subscription |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926035926/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20057818 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Numerous books and plays continue to be written in the tradition of tragedy to this day examples include ''[[Froth on the Daydream]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sallis |first=James |date=4 May 2008 |title='The Dead All Have the Same Skin' by Boris Vian |url=https://www.latimes.com/style/la-bk-sallis4-2008may04-story.html |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.latimes.com |quote=His great novel, "L'Écume des jours" ("Foam of the Daze"), is a tragedy of young love in which a woman dies of the lily growing in her lung. |archive-date=27 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190127152626/https://www.latimes.com/style/la-bk-sallis4-2008may04-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Chapple |first=Tobias |title=Books in Review: Froth on the Daydream by Boris Vian |url=https://www.litro.co.uk/2014/08/books-in-review-froth-on-the-daydream-by-boris-vian/ |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.litro.co.uk |quote=The characters aren't meant to be real. But it's also devastating when the novel central tragedy strikes – that all too real feeling of an unjust world that takes away as easily as it gives, and of people trying as hard as they can to be happy despite it. |archive-date=5 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405214540/https://www.litro.co.uk/2014/08/books-in-review-froth-on-the-daydream-by-boris-vian/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[The Road]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bernier |first=Kathy |date=3 December 2016 |title=REVIEW: 'The Road' Is A Gripping Prepper Novel Full Of Tragedy, Struggle And Hope |url=https://www.offthegridnews.com/extreme-survival/review-the-road-is-a-gripping-prepper-novel-full-of-tragedy-struggle-and-hope/ |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.offthegridnews.com |archive-date=23 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223164734/http://www.offthegridnews.com/extreme-survival/review-the-road-is-a-gripping-prepper-novel-full-of-tragedy-struggle-and-hope/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[The Fault in Our Stars]]'', ''[[Sophie's Choice (novel)|Sophie's Choice]]'', ''[[Fat City (novel)|Fat City]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |last=Meehan |first=Ryan |title=The Frontiers of American Tragedy |url=https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2009/9/4/the-frontiers-of-american-tragedy-he/ |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.thecrimson.com |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809111324/https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2009/9/4/the-frontiers-of-american-tragedy-he/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Rabbit Hole (play)|Rabbit Hole]]'',<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 November 2009 |title=Young boy's death drives tragedy of 'Rabbit Hole' |url=https://www.ocregister.com/2009/11/18/young-boys-death-drives-tragedy-of-rabbit-hole/ |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.ocregister.com |archive-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711021954/https://www.ocregister.com/2009/11/18/young-boys-death-drives-tragedy-of-rabbit-hole/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bustin |first=Jeremy |title=BWW Review: Cadence Theatre's RABBIT HOLE Examines Life After Tragedy |url=https://www.broadwayworld.com/norfolk/article/BWW-Review-Cadence-Theatres-RABBIT-HOLE-Examines-Life-After-Tragedy-20170505 |access-date=26 January 2019 |website=www.broadwayworld.com |archive-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711021952/https://www.broadwayworld.com/norfolk/article/BWW-Review-Cadence-Theatres-RABBIT-HOLE-Examines-Life-After-Tragedy-20170505 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[Requiem for a Dream (novel)|Requiem for a Dream]]'', and ''[[The Handmaid's Tale]].''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CMq2Cirr4AC&q=handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA45 |title=Tragedy in Transition |date=15 April 2008 |isbn=9780470691304 |page=45 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093354/https://books.google.com/books?id=4CMq2Cirr4AC&q=handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA45 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Kevin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEBvDwAAQBAJ&q=%22handmaid%27s+tale%22+kevin+taylor&pg=PT287 |title=Christ the Tragedy of God: A Theological Exploration of Tragedy |date=21 September 2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781351607834 |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093354/https://books.google.com/books?id=kEBvDwAAQBAJ&q=%22handmaid%27s+tale%22+kevin+taylor&pg=PT287 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kendrick |first=Tom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEomBiT6d9IC&q=the+handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA148 |title=Margaret Atwood's Textual Assassinations: Recent Poetry and Fiction |year=2003 |isbn=9780814209295 |page=148 |publisher=Ohio State University Press |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093354/https://books.google.com/books?id=cEomBiT6d9IC&q=the+handmaid%27s+tale+%22tragedy%22&pg=PA148 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stray |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdXUAAAAQBAJ&q=Torn+by+Desire:+Sparagmos+in+Greek+Tragedy+and+Recent+Fiction+%22Handmaid%27s+tale%22&pg=PA78 |title=Remaking the Classics: Literature, Genre and Media in Britain 1800–2000 |date=16 October 2013 |isbn=9781472538604 |page=78 |publisher=A&C Black |access-date=22 November 2020 |archive-date=23 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323093404/https://books.google.com/books?id=jdXUAAAAQBAJ&q=Torn+by+Desire:+Sparagmos+in+Greek+Tragedy+and+Recent+Fiction+%22Handmaid%27s+tale%22&pg=PA78 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Theories==
Defining tragedy is no simple matter, and there are many definitions, some of which are incompatible with each other. Oscar Mandel, in ''A Definition of Tragedy'' (1961), contrasted two essentially different means of arriving at a definition. First is what he calls the ''derivative'' way, in which the tragedy is thought to be an expression of an ordering of the world; "instead of asking what tragedy expresses, the derivative definition tends to ask what expresses itself through tragedy". The second is the ''substantive'' way of defining tragedy, which starts with the work of art which is assumed to ''contain'' the ordering of the world. Substantive critics "are interested in the constituent elements of art, rather than its ontological sources". He recognizes four subclasses: a. "definition by formal elements" (for instance the supposed "three unities"); b. "definition by situation" (where one defines tragedy for instance as "exhibiting the fall of a good man"); c. "definition by ethical direction" (where the critic is concerned with the meaning, with the "intellectual and moral effect); and d. "definition by emotional effect" (and he cites Aristotle's "requirement of pity and fear").<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mandel |first=Oscar |url=https://archive.org/details/definitionoftrag00mand |title=A Definition of Tragedy |publisher=New York University Press |year=1961 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/definitionoftrag00mand/page/10 10–11] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

===Aristotle===
{{further|Poetics (Aristotle)}}

[[Aristotle]] wrote in his work [[Poetics (Aristotle)|''Poetics'']] that
tragedy is characterised by seriousness and involves a great person who experiences a reversal of [[luck|fortune]] (''[[Peripeteia]]''). Aristotle's [[definition]] can include a change of fortune from bad to good as in the ''[[The Eumenides|Eumenides]]'', but he says that the change from good to bad as in ''[[Oedipus Rex]]'' is preferable because this induces [[pity]] and [[fear]] within the spectators. Tragedy results in a [[catharsis]] (emotional cleansing) or healing for the audience through their experience of these emotions in response to the suffering of the characters in the drama.

According to Aristotle, "the structure of the best tragedy should not be simple but complex and one that represents incidents arousing [[fear]] and [[pity]]—for that is peculiar to this form of art."{{sfn|Aristotle|1932|loc=Section 1452b}} This reversal of fortune must be caused by the tragic hero's ''[[hamartia]]'', which is often translated as either a [[character flaw]], or as a mistake (since the original Greek etymology traces back to ''hamartanein'', a sporting term that refers to an [[archery|archer]] or [[spear]]-thrower missing his target).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rorty |first=Amelie Oksenberg |title=Essays on Aristotle's Poetics |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1992 |page=178}}</ref> According to Aristotle, "The misfortune is brought about not by [general] vice or depravity, but by some [particular] error or frailty."<ref>''Poetics'', Aristotle</ref>{{Nonspecific|date=September 2022}} The reversal is the inevitable but unforeseen result of some action taken by the hero. It is also a misconception that this reversal can be brought about by a higher power (e.g. the law, the gods, [[destiny|fate]], or society), but if a character's downfall is brought about by an external cause, Aristotle describes this as a [[Accident|misadventure]] and not a tragedy.{{sfn|Aristotle|1932|loc=Section 1135b}}

In addition, the tragic hero may achieve some revelation or recognition ([[anagnorisis]]—"knowing again" or "knowing back" or "knowing throughout") about human fate, destiny, and the will of the gods. Aristotle terms this sort of recognition "a change from ignorance to awareness of a bond of love or hate."

In ''Poetics'', Aristotle gave the following definition in [[ancient Greek]] of the word "tragedy" (τραγῳδία):{{sfn|Aristotle|1932|loc=Section 1449b}}

{{blockquote|Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is admirable, complete (composed of an introduction, a middle part and an ending), and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotions.}}

Common usage of tragedy refers to any story with a sad ending, whereas to be an [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] tragedy the [[narrative|story]] must fit the set of requirements as laid out by ''Poetics''. By this definition social drama cannot be tragic because the hero in it is a victim of circumstance and incidents that depend upon the society in which he lives and not upon the inner compulsions—psychological or religious—which determine his progress towards self-knowledge and death.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chiari |first=J. |title=Landmarks of Contemporary Drama |publisher=[[Jenkins (publisher)|Jenkins]] |year=1965 |location=London |page=41}}</ref> Exactly what constitutes a "tragedy", however, is a frequently debated matter.

According to Aristotle, there are four species of tragedy:

# Complex, which involves [[Peripety]] and [[Discovery (fiction)|Discovery]]
# Suffering, tragedies of such nature can be seen in the Greek mythological stories of Ajaxes and Ixions
# Character, a tragedy of moral or ethical character. Tragedies of this nature can be found in Phthiotides and [[Peleus]]
# Spectacle, that of a horror-like theme. Examples of this nature are [[Graeae|Phorcides]] and [[Prometheus]]

===Hegel===
[[G.W.F. Hegel]], the German philosopher most famous for his dialectical approach to [[epistemology]] and history, also applied such a methodology to his theory of tragedy. In his essay "Hegel's Theory of Tragedy," [[A.C. Bradley]] first introduced the English-speaking world to Hegel's theory, which Bradley called the "[[tragic collision]]", and contrasted against the Aristotelian notions of the "[[tragic hero]]" and his or her "hamartia" in subsequent analyses of the Aeschylus' ''Oresteia'' trilogy and of Sophocles' ''Antigone''.{{Sfn | Bradley | 2007 | pp = 114–56}} Hegel himself, however, in his seminal "[[The Phenomenology of Spirit]]" argues for a more complicated theory of tragedy, with two complementary branches which, though driven by a single dialectical principle, differentiate Greek tragedy from that which follows Shakespeare. His later lectures formulate such a theory of tragedy as a conflict of ethical forces, represented by characters, in ancient Greek tragedy, but in Shakespearean tragedy the conflict is rendered as one of subject and object, of individual personality which must manifest self-destructive passions because only such passions are strong enough to defend the individual from a hostile and capricious external world:
{{Blockquote |The heroes of ancient classical tragedy encounter situations in which, if they firmly decide in favor of the one ethical pathos that alone suits their finished character, they must necessarily come into conflict with the equally [''gleichberechtigt''] justified ethical power that confronts them. Modern characters, on the other hand, stand in a wealth of more accidental circumstances, within which one could act this way or that, so that the conflict is, though occasioned by external preconditions, still essentially grounded in the character. The new individuals, in their passions, obey their own nature... simply because they are what they are. Greek heroes also act in accordance with individuality, but in ancient tragedy such individuality is necessarily... a self-contained ethical pathos...  In modern tragedy, however, the character in its peculiarity decides in accordance with subjective desires... such that congruity of character with outward ethical aim no longer constitutes an essential basis of tragic beauty...{{Sfn | Hegel | 1927 | pp = 567–8}}}}

Hegel's comments on a particular play may better elucidate his theory: "Viewed externally, Hamlet's death may be seen to have been brought about accidentally... but in Hamlet's soul, we understand that death has lurked from the beginning: the sandbank of finitude cannot suffice his sorrow and tenderness, such grief and nausea at all conditions of life... we feel he is a man whom inner disgust has almost consumed well before death comes upon him from outside."{{Sfn | Hegel | 1927 | p = 572}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Theatre}}
* [[Classicism]]
* [[Tragédies en musique]]
* [[She-tragedy]]
* [[Revenge tragedy]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist | group = "lower-alpha"}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin |30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Aristotle |title=Aristotle in 23 Volumes |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1932 |volume=23 |publication-place=Cambridge, MA |translator-last=Fyfe |translator-first=W.H. |chapter=Poetics |translator-link=William Hamilton Fyfe |chapter-url=http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg034.perseus-eng1 |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=8 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131108135501/http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0086.tlg034.perseus-eng1 |url-status=live }}
* {{Citation |last=Aristotle |title=Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski |pages=31–55 |year=1974 |editor-last=Dukore |author-mask=3 |contribution=Poetics |author-link=Aristotle |translator-last=Butcher |translator-first=SH |mode=cs1}}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary|tragedy}}
* {{In Our Time|Tragedy|p005464v|Tragedy}}
* [[Alberto Toscano|Toscano, Alberto]]. [https://oxfordre.com/literature/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.001.0001/acrefore-9780190201098-e-1100 Tragedy]. ''[[Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Literature]]''.
* {{Cite web |last1=Taplin |first1=Oliver |last2=Billings |first2=Joshua |title=What is Tragedy? |url=http://rss.oucs.ox.ac.uk/oxitems/generatersstwo2.php?channel_name=humdiv/tragedy-audio&destination=poau |publisher=Oxford University |type=podcast |place=UK}}
* {{Cite web |last=Aristotle |title=Poetics |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Aristot.+Poet. |publisher=Tufts |edition=online}}

{{aesthetics}}
{{Roman theatre}}
{{Theatre}}
{{Death and mortality in art}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1st-millennium BC introductions]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek theatre]]
[[Category:Ancient inventions]]
[[Category:Drama genres]]
[[Category:History of theatre]]
[[Category:Humanities]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[Category:Theatrical genres]]
[[Category:Tragedy| ]]
[[Category:Greek inventions]]