View source for Troy

{{short description|Ancient Homeric-era city in northwest Asia Minor}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox ancient site
 | name                 = '''Troy'''
 | native_name          = {{lang|hit|{{cuneiform|ana|𒌷𒃾𒇻𒊭}}<br />{{lang|grc|Ἴλιον}}}} ({{transliteration|hit|[[Wiluša]]}})
 | alternate_name       = 
 | image                = {{Photomontage|position=
   | photo1a = Walls of Troy (2).jpg
   | photo2a = 
   | size = 250
   | spacing = 2 
   | color = #FFFFFF
   | border = 0
   | foot_montage = }}
 | caption              = Walls of [[Late Bronze Age Troy]]{{pb}}
 | map_type             = Turkey Marmara#Turkey#Greece 
 | map_alt              = 
 | map_size             = 280
 | relief               = yes
 | coordinates          = {{coord |39|57|27|N|26|14|20|E|display=inline,title}}
 | location             = Hisarlık, [[Çanakkale Province]], [[Turkey]]
 | region               = [[Troad]]
 | type                 = 
 | part_of              = Historical National Park of Troia
 | length               = 
 | width                = 
 | builder              = 
 | built                = 
 | abandoned            = 
 | epochs               = 
 | cultures             = 
 | dependency_of        = 
 | occupants            = 
 | event                = 
 | excavations          = 
 | archaeologists       = [[Frank Calvert]], [[Heinrich Schliemann]] [https://www.livescience.com/38191-ancient-troy.html#:~:text=Troy%20was%20abandoned%20around%201000,the%20reoccupied%20city%20%22Ilion.%22]
 | condition            = 
 | ownership            = 
 | management           = 
 | public_access        = 
 | website              = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849/
 | notes                = 
 | designation1_type    = Cultural
 | designation1_date    = 1998 (22nd session)
 | designation1_number  = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849 849]
 | designation1         = WHS
 | designation1_free1name = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/?search=&search_by_country=&type=&media=&region=&order=region UNESCO Region]
 | designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|Europe and North America]]
}}

{{Contains special characters|cuneiform}}

'''Troy''' ({{langx|engvar=gb|hit|𒆳𒌷𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭|translit=Truwiša}}/{{translit|hit|Taruiša}}; {{langx|engvar=gb|grc|Τροία|translit=Troíā}}; {{langx|engvar=gb|la|Troia}}) or '''Ilion''' ({{langx|engvar=gb|hit|𒌷𒃾𒇻𒊭|translit=Wiluša}}; {{langx|engvar=gb|grc|Ἴλιον|translit=Ī́lion}})<ref name=Korfmann-2007-Winkler>{{cite book |last=Korfmann |first=Manfred O. |author-link=Manfred Korfmann |year=2007 |editor-last=Winkler |editor-first= Martin M |title=Troy: From Homer's Iliad to Hollywood epic |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited |location=Oxford, England |isbn= 978-1-4051-3183-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/troyfromhomersil0000unse/page/25 25] |url=https://archive.org/details/troyfromhomersil0000unse/page/25|quote="''Troy'' or ''Ilios'' (or ''Wilios'') is most probably identical with ''Wilusa'' or ''Truwisa''...&nbsp;mentioned in the Hittite sources}}</ref><ref name="Burney2004">{{cite book |last= Burney |first=Charles |title=Historical dictionary of the Hittites |year= 2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Metuchen, NJ |isbn= 978-0-8108-4936-5 |page=311 |chapter=Wilusa}}</ref><ref name= "auto1">{{cite book |author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes |first=R.S.P. |last=Beekes |year=2009 |title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek |publisher=Brill |page=588}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book |first1= Suzanne |last1=Said |first2=Ruth |last2=Webb |title=Homer and the Odyssey |page =77 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date= 2011}}</ref> was an ancient city located in present-day Hisarlik, [[Turkey]]. It is best known as the setting for the [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] of the [[Trojan War]]. The [[archaeological site]] is open to the public as a tourist destination, and was added to the [[List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey|UNESCO World Heritage]] list in 1998.

Troy was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt during its 4000 years of occupation. As a result, the site is divided into nine [[Stratigraphy (archaeology)|archaeological layers]], each corresponding to a city built on the ruins of the previous. Archaeologists refer to these layers using Roman numerals, Troy I being the earliest and Troy IX being the latest. 

Troy was first settled around 3600 BC and grew into a small fortified city around 3000 BC (Troy I). Among the early layers, [[#Troy II|Troy II]] is notable for its wealth and imposing architecture. During the [[Late Bronze Age]], Troy was called [[Wilusa]] and was a vassal of the [[Hittites|Hittite]] Empire. The final layers (Troy VIII–IX) were [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] cities which served as tourist attractions and religious centers because of their link to mythic tradition.

The site was excavated by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] and [[Frank Calvert]] starting in 1871. Under the ruins of the classical city, they found the remains of numerous earlier settlements. Several of these layers resemble literary depictions of Troy, leading some scholars to conclude that there is a [[Historicity of the Iliad|kernel of truth underlying the legends]]. Subsequent excavations by others have added to the modern understanding of the site, though the exact relationship between myth and reality remains unclear and there is no definitive evidence for a Greek attack on the city.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jablonka |first=Peter |date=2011 |editor-last1=Steadman |editor-first1=Sharon |editor-last2=McMahon |editor-first2= Gregory |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia |title=Troy in regional and international context |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0032 |page=725 |quote=Since neither inscriptions confirming the Iliad nor definite proof for a violent destruction by invaders from Greece have been discovered at Troy... }}</ref><ref name="Bryce-2005" />{{Rp|style=ama|pp=xiv, 180–812 |quote= I do believe we have reached the stage where nothing more can usefully be said about a possible historical basis for Homer's tale – at least until fresh evidence comes to light}}

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Name==
In [[Classical Greek]], the city was referred to as both ''Troia'' ({{lang|grc|Τροία}}) and ''Ilion'' ({{lang|grc|Ἴλιον}}) or ''Ilios'' ({{lang|grc|Ἴλιος}}). [[metre (poetry)|Metrical]] evidence from the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'' suggests that the latter was originally pronounced ''Wilios''. These names seem to date back to the Bronze Age, as suggested by [[Hittites|Hittite]] records which refer to a city in northwest Anatolia called {{transliteration|hit|[[Wilusa]]}} ({{lang|hit|𒌷𒃾𒇻𒊭}}) or {{transliteration|hit|Truwisa}} ({{lang|hit|𒆳𒌷𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭}}) which is generally identified with the site of Hisarlık, near [[Tevfikiye, Çanakkale|Tevfikiye]].<ref name=Korfmann-2007-Winkler/>{{efn|"''Troy'' or ''Ilios'' (or ''Wilios'') is most probably identical with ''Wilusa'' or ''Truwisa'' ... mentioned in the Hittite sources<ref name=Korfmann-2007-Winkler/>}}<ref name="Burney2004" /><ref name="auto1" /><ref name="auto" /> In Greek myth, these names were held to originate from the names of the kingdom's founders, [[Tros (mythology)|Tros]] and his son [[Ilus (son of Tros)|Ilus]].<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Diodorus Siculus]] |title=[[Bibliotheca historica]] |at=[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4D*.html#75.3 4.75.3] }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[Virgil]] |title=[[Aeneid]] |at=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D6%3Acard%3D637 6.637-678] }}</ref>

In [[Latin language|Latin]], the city was referred to as ''{{lang|la|Troia}}'' or ''{{lang|la|Ilium}}''. In [[Turkish language|Turkish]], it is generally known as ''{{lang|tr|Troya}}'' or ''{{lang|tr|Truva}}''.

== Archaeological site ==
[[File:Plan Troy-Hisarlik-en.svg|thumb|Schematic of the site<ref>This "Archeological plan of the Hisarlik citadel" was created by user Bibi Saint-Pol and contributed to Commons in 2007.</ref>{{efn|1: Gate
2: City Wall
3: Megarons
4: FN Gate
5: FO Gate
6: FM Gate and Ramp
7: FJ Gate
8: City Wall
9: Megarons
10: City Wall
11: VI. S Gate
12: VI. H Tower
13: VI. R Gate
14: VI. G Tower
15: Well-Cistern
16: VI. T Dardanos Gate
17: VI. I Tower
18: VI. U Gate
19: VI. A House
20: VI. M Palace-Storage House
21: Pillar House
22: VI. F House with columns
23: VI. C House
24: VI. E House
25: VII. Storage
26: Temple of Athena
27: [[Propylaeum]]
28: Outer Court Wall
29: Inner Court Wall
30: Holy Place
31: Water Work
32: [[Bouleuterion]]
33: Odeon
34: Bath}}]]

The archaeological site of Troy consists of the hill of Hisarlık and the fields below it to the south. The hill is a [[tell (archaeology)|tell]], composed of [[Stratigraphy (archaeology)|strata]] containing the remains left behind by more than three millennia of human occupation.

The primary divisions among layers are designated with [[Roman numeral]]s, Troy&nbsp;I representing the oldest layer and Troy&nbsp;IX representing the most recent. Sublayers are distinguished with lowercase letters (e.g. VIIa and VIIb) and further subdivisions with numbers (e.g. VIIb1 and VIIb2). An additional major layer known as Troy&nbsp;0 predates the layers which were initially given Roman numeral designations.

The layers have been given [[relative dating|relative dates]] by comparing artefacts found in them to those found at other sites. However, precise [[absolute dating|absolute dates]] are not always possible due to limitations in the accuracy of [[radiocarbon dating]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Jak |last=Yakar |year=1979 |title=Troy and Anatolia early Bronze Age chronology |journal=Anatolian Studies |volume=29 |page=52 |doi=10.2307/3642730 |jstor=3642730 |s2cid=162340023 }}</ref>

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"
|-
! Layer || Dates || Period{{efn|The periodization of the Western Anatolian Bronze Age differs from divisions used in other areas.}}
|-
| Troy 0 || 3600–3000 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| [[Neolithic]] and [[Early Bronze Age]]
|-
| Troy I || 3000–2550 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| Early Bronze Age
|-
| Troy II || 2500–2300 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| Early Bronze Age
|-
| Troy III || 2300–2200 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| Early Bronze Age
|-
| Troy IV || 2200–2000 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| Early Bronze Age
|-
| Troy V || 2000–1750 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| Early Bronze Age
|-
| Troy VI || 1750–1300 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| [[Middle Bronze Age]] and [[Late Bronze Age]]
|-
| [[Troy VII]]a || 1300–1180 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| Late Bronze Age
|-
| Troy VIIb || 1180–950 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| Late Bronze Age and [[Greek Dark Ages|Dark Age]]
|-
| Troy VIII || 950–85 BC 
|style="text-align:left;"| [[Classical Greece|Classical]] and [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]]
|-
| Troy IX || 85 BC–500 AD 
|style="text-align:left;"| [[Roman Empire|Roman]]
|}

=== Troy 0 ===

Troy&nbsp;0 is a pre-Bronze Age layer known from limited finds of pottery shards and wooden beams. It is tentatively dated to {{circa|3600–3500 BC}} but little is known about it.<ref>{{cite web | title=Ancient city of Troy likely founded 600&nbsp;years earlier than thought | website=Daily Sabah History | location=Istanbul | date=9 January 2019 | url=https://www.dailysabah.com/history/2019/08/21/ancient-city-of-troy-likely-founded-600-years-earlier-than-thought | access-date=23 January 2020 | archive-date=16 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216032454/https://www.dailysabah.com/history/2019/08/21/ancient-city-of-troy-likely-founded-600-years-earlier-than-thought | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=In Search of Troy| website=Smithsonian Magazine| date=March 2022| url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-search-of-troy-180979553/| author=Joshua Hammer| access-date=26 February 2023| archive-date=26 February 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226224045/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-search-of-troy-180979553/| url-status=live}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=These are good media sources, but scholarly sources would be better.|date=February 2023}}

=== Troy I ===
[[File:Turkey-2941_(2216425111).jpg|thumb|left|Troy&nbsp;I's fortifications were the most elaborate in northwestern Anatolia at the time.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.troyexcavations.com/savunma-duvari/?l=en |title=The Fortification Wall |date=2023 |website=Troy Excavations |access-date=27 February 2023 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228021939/https://www.troyexcavations.com/savunma-duvari/?l=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Rose-2013 />{{Rp|style=ama|pp=9–12}}]]

Troy I was founded around 3000 BC on what was then the eastern shore of a shallow lagoon. It was significantly smaller than later settlements at the site, with a citadel covering less than 1 [[hectare|ha]]. However, it stood out from its neighbours in particular for its massive limestone fortifications which were regularly renovated and strengthened. Defensive architecture would continue to be a distinctive characteristic in later periods, reflecting perennial security concerns at the vulnerable coastal site.<ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jablonka |first=Peter |year=2012 |title=Troy |editor-last=Cline |editor-first=Eric |encyclopedia=The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze Age Aegean |pages=849–861 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199873609.013.0063|isbn=978-0199873609 }}</ref><ref name=Rose-2013>{{cite book |last=Rose |first=Charles Brian |date=2013 |title=The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Troy |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-76207-6}}</ref>{{Rp|style=ama|pp=9–12}}

Residents lived in attached houses made of stone and mudbrick. Some houses had a [[megaron]] layout, among which one room is notably larger than the others. Although the city plan is not entirely clear from its limited remains, the houses appear to have been oriented in parallel to the southern walls. Artifacts from this era include dark coloured handmade pottery, objects made of copper, as well as a monumental stone [[stele]] with a relief depicting an armed warrior.<ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Rose-2013/>

Troy I was founded as part of a consolidation of settlement in the area. Its founders came from nearby towns such as [[Kumtepe]] and [[Gülpınar, Ayvacık|Gülpınar]], which had been part of an earlier network that had cultural and economic ties to the eastern Aegean and southeastern Europe. Troy itself appears to have maintained these connections, showing similarities to sites in [[Thessaly]] and southeastern Europe, as well as Aegean sites such as [[Poliochni]] in [[Lemnos]] and [[Loutropoli Thermis|Thermi]] in [[Lesbos]]. Despite some connections to Anatolian sites including [[Bademağacı]], it did not yet have the close ties with central Anatolia seen later.<ref name="Jablonka-2012-Cline" /><ref name="Rose-2013" />

Troy I was destroyed by fire around 2550 BC.<ref name="Jablonka-2012-Cline" /><ref name="Rose-2013" />

=== Troy II ===
Troy&nbsp;II was built around 2550&nbsp;BC. Although there is no evidence of a cultural break after the previous settlement, the new city had a very different character. It was twice the size of the preceding city, featuring a lower town as well as an expanded citadel divided into two precincts. These precincts, divided by [[colonnade]]s, suggest growing [[social stratification|socio-political stratification]] in Trojan society. At the center were large [[Megaron|megaron-style]] buildings around a [[courtyard]] which was likely used for public events. One of these buildings, Megaron IIA, is the biggest known building of its kind in the Aegean-Anatolian region.<ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Rose-2013/>{{Rp|style=ama|pp=11–19}}

The citadel was protected by massive stone walls and towers topped with mudbrick superstructures. It was accessed through two ramps, one of which is well preserved and attracts attention from modern day tourists. Because the city was not large enough to require two gates for practical purposes, some archaeologists have speculated that one of the gates was intended for ceremonial processions. The lower city was protected by a wooden [[palisade]] unlike any other known in that era. It was a complex structure nearly 3 metres wide, with interior [[buttress]]es and columns and beams secured in notches cut into the bedrock.<ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Rose-2013/>{{Rp|style=ama|pp=11–19}}

[[Potter's wheel|Wheel-made pottery]] appears at the site for the first time, along with caches of treasures that attest to Trojan participation in networks of aristocratic competition. These items were made from [[amber]] imported from the [[Baltic region]], [[carnelian]] imported from [[India]], and [[lapis]] imported from [[Afghanistan]]. Some of these items are strikingly similar to those found at sites such as Poliochni and [[Ur]], leading some scholars to speculate that they may have been made by itinerant jewellers who worked routes covering much of the Ancient Near East.<ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Rose-2013/>{{rp|style=ama|pp=11–19}}

Troy&nbsp;II was destroyed twice. After the first destruction, the citadel was rebuilt with a dense cluster of small houses on an irregular plan. The final destruction took place around 2300&nbsp;BC. While some scholars have linked this destruction to a broader crisis that affected other Near Eastern sites, there is no definitive evidence for the city having been destroyed by an attack.<ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Neer-2012>{{cite book |title=Greek Art and Archaeology |last=Neer |first=Richard T. |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2012 |isbn=9780500288771 |place=New York |page=21}}</ref><ref name=Rose-2013/>

Troy&nbsp;II is notable for having been misidentified as Homeric Troy, during initial excavations, because of its massive architecture, treasure hoards, and catastrophic destruction. In particular Schliemann saw Homer's description of Troy's Scaean Gate reflected in Troy&nbsp;II's imposing western gate. However, later excavations demonstrated that the site was a thousand years too old to have coexisted with [[Mycenaean Greek]]s.<ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Neer-2012/><ref>{{harvnb|Schliemann|1881|pp=75, 277}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schliemann |first=Heinrich |year=1968 |title=Troy and its Remains |publisher=Benjamin Blom}}</ref>

{{Gallery
| title        = Troy&nbsp;II
| align        = center
| state        = collapsed
| mode         = packed
| File:Troy_II.jpg
 | alt1=
 | Southwest ramp of Troy&nbsp;II
| File:Troya_3.jpg
 | alt2=
 | Side view of southwest ramp
| File:Troy_(Ilion),_Turkey_(7446526244).jpg
 | alt3=
 | Troy&nbsp;II walls with modern reconstructed mudbrick<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.troyexcavations.com/kale-duvari/?l=en |title=Citadel Wall |date=2023 |website=Troy Excavations |access-date=27 February 2023 |archive-date=28 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228021936/https://www.troyexcavations.com/kale-duvari/?l=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
| File:Turkey-2937_(2217216354).jpg
 | alt4=
 | Troy&nbsp;II fortifications with modern reconstructed mudbrick
}}
{{clear}}

=== Troy III–V===
[[File:Layers of Troy.JPG|thumb|"[[Schliemann's Trench]]". Layers are marked with Roman numerals.]]

Troy continued to be occupied between 2300&nbsp;BC and 1750&nbsp;BC. However, little is known about these several layers due to [[Schliemann]]'s careless excavation practices. In order to fully excavate the citadel of Troy&nbsp;II, he destroyed most remains from this period without first [[Archaeological excavation#Recording|documenting]] them. These settlements appear to have been smaller and poorer than previous ones, though this interpretation could be merely the result of gaps in the surviving evidence. The settlements included a dense residential neighbourhood in the citadel. Walls from Troy&nbsp;II may have been reused as part of Troy&nbsp;III (c. 2350/2300-2200/2150 BC). 

====Middle Bronze Age====
Troy&nbsp;IV (c. 2000-1820 BC) sees the introduction of domed ovens. By the period of Troy&nbsp;V (c. 1820-1750 BC), the city had once again expanded outside the citadel to the west. In Troy&nbsp;V, artefacts include Anatolian-style "red-cross bowls" as well as imported [[Minoan]] objects.<ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/> They would trade with other cities around them.

=== Troy VI–VII ===
{{Main|Late Bronze Age Troy}}

Troy&nbsp;VI–VII was a major [[Late Bronze Age]] city consisting of a steep fortified citadel and a sprawling lower town below it. It was a thriving coastal city with a considerable population, equal in size to second-tier [[Hittites|Hittite]] settlements. It had a distinct Northwest Anatolian culture and extensive foreign contacts, including with [[Mycenaean Greece]], and its position at the mouth of the [[Dardanelles]] has been argued to have given it the function of regional capital, its status protected by treaties.<ref>{{harvnb| Latacz |2004|p=48}}</ref> Aspects of its architecture are consistent with the ''Iliad''<nowiki/>'s description of mythic Troy, and several of its sublayers (VIh and VIIa) show potential signs of violent destruction. Thus, these sublayers are among the candidates for a potential historical setting of those myths.<ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|p=59}}

Troy&nbsp;VI and VII were given separate labels by early excavators, but current research has shown that the first several sublayers of Troy&nbsp;VII were in fact continuations of the earlier city. Although some scholars have proposed revising the nomenclature to reflect this consensus, the original terms are typically used to avoid confusion.<ref>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2013|p=60}}</ref><ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|p=198}}

==== Troy VI ====
[[File:Troy (Ilion), Turkey (7446656654).jpg|thumb|Artist's representation of House VI M, part of the palatial complex]]

Troy&nbsp;VI existed from around 1750&nbsp;BC to 1300&nbsp;BC. Its citadel was divided into a series of rising terraces, of which only the outermost is reasonably well-preserved. On this terrace, archaeologists have found the remains of freestanding multistory houses where Trojan elites would have lived. These houses lacked ground-floor windows, and their stone exterior walls mirrored the architecture of the citadel fortifications. However, they otherwise display an eclectic mix of architectural styles, some following the classic [[megaron]] design, others even having irregular floorplans. Some of these houses show potential Aegean influence, one in particular resembling the megaron at [[Midea (Argolid)|Midea]] in the [[Argolid]]. Archaeologists believe there may have been a royal palace on the highest terrace, but most Bronze Age remains from the top of the hill were cleared away by classical era building projects.<ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 58–59}}<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Rose-2013/>{{rp|style=ama|pp=20, 24}}

The citadel was enclosed by a massive wall whose limestone base is visible to modern day visitors. These walls were periodically renovated, expanding from an initial width of {{convert|1.2|to|5|m|ft}} around 1400 BC. During the Bronze Age they would have been overlaid with wood and mudbrick superstructures, reaching a height over {{convert|9|m|ft}}. The walls were built in a "sawtooth" style made of {{convert|7|-|10|m|ft}} segments which joined at shallow angles. This characteristic is common in the walls of [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] citadels, though at Troy it is also found in other buildings, suggesting that it may have been decorative. The walls also have a notable slope, similar to those at other sites including [[Hattusa]]. However, the walls differ from contemporary Aegean and Anatolian sites both in their lack of figural sculpture and in their [[masonry]]. While Troy VI's walls were made entirely of close-fitting [[ashlar]]s, contemporary sites typically used ashlars around a [[rubble masonry|rubble core]].<ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 58–59}}<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name="Jablonka-2012-Cline" /><ref name=Rose-2013/>{{rp|style=ama|pp=20–21}}

Troy VI's walls were overlooked by several rectangular watchtowers, which would also have provided a clear view of Trojan plain and the sea beyond it. The citadel was accessed by five gates, which led into paved and drained cobblestone streets. Some of these gates featured enormous pillars which serve no structural purpose and have been interpreted as religious symbols. The halls were built in ''[[megaron]]'' style, resembling [[Mycenaean architecture]].<ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 58–59}}<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Knight |first=W.F.J. |date=1934|title=The pillars at the south gate of Troy&nbsp;VI |journal=The Journal of Hellenic Studies |volume=54 |issue=2 |page=210 |doi=10.2307/626868 |issn=0075-4269 |jstor=626868|s2cid=162416526 }}</ref><ref name="Jablonka-2012-Cline" /><ref name=Rose-2013/>{{rp|style=ama|pp=20–21, 24}}

The lower town was built to the south of the citadel, covering an area of roughly 30&nbsp;hectares. Remains of a dense neighbourhood have been found just outside the citadel walls, and traces of Bronze Age occupation have been found further away. These include huts, stone paving, threshing floors, pithoi, and waste left behind by Bronze Age industry such as [[murex]] shells associated with the manufacture of purple dye. The extent of the lower town is evidenced by a defensive ditch cut 1-2 into the bedrock. A wall or palisade may have stood several meters behind the ditch, as in the outer defences of other cities such as [[Kadesh (Syria)|Qadesh]] and [[Carchemish]]. However, material evidence for such a wall is limited to postholes and cuts in the bedrock.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Korfmann-2003>{{harvnb|Korfmann|2003|pp=29–30}}</ref><ref name=Rose-2013/>{{rp|style=ama|pp=22–23}}

The lower city was only discovered in the late 1980s, earlier excavators having assumed that Troy&nbsp;VI occupied only the hill of Hisarlık. Its discovery led to a dramatic reassessment of Troy&nbsp;VI, showing that it was over 16&nbsp;times larger than had been assumed, and thus a major city with a large population rather than a mere aristocratic residence. However, only 2–3% of the lower city had been excavated as of 2013, and few architectural features are likely to exist. Almost 2m of the surface has eroded, likely removing much of the evidence that hadn't already decomposed, been built over, or [[spolia|reused in later construction]].<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Korfmann-2003/><ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 61–64}}<ref name=Rose-2013/>{{rp|style=ama|pp=22–23}}

The material culture of Troy&nbsp;VI appears to belong to a distinct Northwest Anatolian cultural group, with influences from the Aegean and the Balkans. The primary local pottery styles were wheel-made Tan Ware and Anatolian Gray Ware. Both styles were offshoots of an earlier [[Middle Helladic]] tradition related to [[Minyan ware|Minyan Ware]]. The earliest grey ware at Troy was made in Aegean shapes, though by 1700 BC it had been replaced by Anatolian shapes. Foreign pottery found at the site includes Minoan, Mycenaean, Cypriot, and Levantine items. Local potters also made their own imitations of foreign styles, including Gray Ware and Tan Ware pots made in Mycenaean-style shapes, particularly after 1500 BC. Although the city appears to have been within the Hittite sphere of influence, no Hittite artefacts have been found in Troy&nbsp;VI. Also notably absent are sculptures and wall paintings, otherwise common features of Bronze Age cities. Troy&nbsp;VI is also notable for its architectural innovations as well as its cultural developments, which included the first evidence of horses at the site.<ref>Pavúk, Peter (2005). "[https://www.academia.edu/9645702/Aegeans_and_Anatolians_A_Trojan_Perspective_FULLTEXT Aegeans and Anatolians: A Trojan Perspective]" ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227213727/https://www.academia.edu/9645702/Aegeans_and_Anatolians_A_Trojan_Perspective_FULLTEXT |date=27 February 2023 }}). In: Laffineur, Robert; Greco, Emanuele. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=s2R2PgAACAAJ Emporia: Aegeans in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean]'' ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318155305/https://books.google.com/books?id=s2R2PgAACAAJ |date=18 March 2023 }}), Peeters Publishers & Booksellers. pp. 269–279.</ref><ref name="Jablonka-2012-Cline" /><ref name=Rose-2013/>{{rp|style=ama|pp=25}}<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Korfmann-2003/>

The [[Trojan language|language spoken in Troy&nbsp;VI]] is unknown. One candidate is [[Luwian language|Luwian]], an [[Anatolian language]] believed to have been spoken in the general area. Potential evidence comes from a biconvex seal inscribed with the name of a person using [[Luwian hieroglyph|Anatolian hieroglyph]]s often used to write Luwian. However, available evidence is not sufficient to establish that Luwian was actually spoken by the city's population, and a number of alternatives, such as [[Trojan language#Greek|Greek]] and [[Trojan language#Lemnian-Etruscan|Lemnian-Etruscan]], have been proposed. Hittite documents found at [[Hattusa]] suggest that literacy existed at Troy and that the city may have had a written archive. The ''Alaksandu Treaty'' required King [[Alaksandu]] to read its text publicly three times a year, while the ''[[Milawata letter]]'' mentions that the deposed King [[Walmu]] was still in possession of wooden investiture tablets. The archive would likely have been housed in the citadel's innermost precinct, whose remains were pushed over the northern side of the hill during 3rd century construction. Despite attempts to sift through the rubble, no documents have been found.<ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 117–122}}<ref name = "watkins">{{cite conference |first=C. |last=Watkins |author-link=Calvert Watkins |orig-date=October 1984 |publication-date=1986 |title=The language of the Trojans |book-title=Troy and the Trojan War |conference=Troy and the Trojan War: A symposium held at Bryn Mawr College |editor-first=Machteld J. |editor-last=Mellink |series=Bryn Mawr Commentaries |place=Bryn Mawr, PA |publisher=[[Bryn Mawr College]] |url=https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=bmc_books}}</ref><ref name ="Yakubovich">{{cite thesis |last=Yakubovich |first=Ilya |year=2008 |title=Sociolinguistics of the Luvian language |degree=PhD |at=section&nbsp;3.6 |publisher=[[University of Chicago]] |url=https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/yakubovich_diss_2008.pdf |access-date=19 September 2021 |archive-date=11 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811025841/https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/yakubovich_diss_2008.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Rose-2013/>{{rp|style=ama|pp=34–35}}

Troy&nbsp;VI was destroyed around 1300&nbsp;BC, corresponding with the sublayer known as Troy&nbsp;VIh. Damage in the Troy&nbsp;VIh layer includes extensive collapsed masonry and [[subsidence]] in the southeast of the citadel, indicative of an [[earthquake]]. Alternative hypotheses include an internal uprising as well as a foreign attack, though the city was not burned and no victims were found in the debris.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 64–66}}<ref name=Rose-2013/>{{rp|style=ama|p=30}}

{{Gallery
| title        =Troy&nbsp;VI–VII citadel walls
| align        =left
| state        = collapsed
| mode         = packed
| File:Troja-an-Stadtmauer.jpg
 | alt1=
 | Troy&nbsp;VI East Gate and Troy VI houses on the terrace immediately above
| File:Troya_9.jpg
 | alt2=
 | Tower at the East Gate Complex
| File:Troy walls VII and IX.jpg
 | alt3= 
 | East Gate cul de sac (Troy&nbsp;IX walls on the right)
| File:Troy_(Ilion),_Turkey_(7446473680).jpg
 | alt4= 
 |Wall segment near the East Gate
| File:Troya_6.jpg
 | alt5= 
 | Side view of wall
| File:Turkey-2956_(2217219986).jpg
 | alt6= 
 | South Gate
| File:troy6 pillar.jpg
 | alt7= 
 | Non-structural pillar at the South Gate
}}
{{clear}}

==== Troy VIIa ====

Troy&nbsp;VIIa was the final layer of the Late Bronze Age city. It was built soon after the destruction of Troy&nbsp;VI, seemingly by its previous inhabitants. The builders reused many of the earlier city's surviving structures, notably its citadel wall, which they renovated with additional stone towers and mudbrick breastworks. Numerous small houses were added inside the citadel, filling in formerly open areas. New houses were also built in the lower city, whose area appears to have been greater in Troy&nbsp;VIIa than in Troy&nbsp;VI. In many of these houses, archaeologists found enormous storage jars called [[Pithos|pithoi]] buried in the ground. Troy&nbsp;VIIa seems to have been built by survivors of Troy&nbsp;VI's destruction, as evidenced by continuity in material culture. However, the character of the city appears to have changed, the citadel growing crowded and foreign imports declining.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{Rp|style=ama|p= 59}}

The city was destroyed around 1180&nbsp;BC, roughly contemporary with the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]] but subsequent to the [[Mycenaean Greece#Collapse or Postpalatial Bronze Age (c. 1200–1050 BC)|destruction of the Mycenaean palaces]]. The [[destruction layer]] shows evidence of enemy attack, including scorch marks.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name="Bryce-2005" />{{Rp|style=ama|p= 59}}

==== Troy VIIb ====
[[File:Troy (Ilion), Turkey (7446237818).jpg|thumb|Anatolian Grey Ware]]

After the destruction of Troy&nbsp;VIIa around 1180 BC, the city was rebuilt as Troy&nbsp;VIIb. Older structures were again reused, including Troy&nbsp;VI's citadel walls. Its first phase, Troy&nbsp;VIIb1, appears to be largely a continuation of Troy&nbsp;VIIa. Residents continued using wheel-made Grey Ware pottery alongside a new handmade style sometimes known as "barbarian ware". Imported Mycenaean-style pottery attests to some continuing foreign trade. However, the city's population appears to have dropped, and rebuilding seems to be confined to the citadel.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 66–67}}

One of the most striking finds from Troy&nbsp;VIIb1 is a bronze biconvex  [[hieroglyphic Luwian]] seal giving the name of a woman on one side and the name of a man who worked as a scribe on the other.<ref>J. D. Hawkins/D. F. Easton, "A Hieroglyphic Seal from Troy", Studia Troica 6, pp. 111–118, 1996</ref> The seal is important since it is the only example of preclassical writing found at the site, and provides potential evidence that Troy&nbsp;VIIb1 had a [[Luwian language|Luwian]]-speaking population. However, the find is puzzling since palace bureaucracies had largely disappeared by this era. Proposed explanations include the possibility that it belonged to an itinerant freelance scribe and alternatively that it dates from an earlier era than its find context would suggest.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|p= 118}}

Troy&nbsp;VIIb2 is marked by dramatic cultural changes including walls made of upright stones and a handmade knobbed pottery style known as ''Buckelkeramik''. These practices, which existed alongside older local traditions, have been argued to reflect immigrant populations arriving from southwest Europe. These newcomers may have shared an origin with the [[Phrygians]] who initiated similar cultural shifts at sites such as [[Gordion]]. This layer was destroyed around 1050 BC after an apparent earthquake.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 66–67}}<ref name=Rose-2013 />{{rp|style=ama|pp=38–40}}

Troy&nbsp;VIIb3 dates from the [[Protogeometric]] era. No new builds were constructed, so its existence is known primarily from artefacts found in the West Sanctuary and terraces on south side of mound. These areas were excavated in the 1990s, surprising the archaeologists who had assumed that the site was abandoned until the Archaic Era. Locally made neck-handled [[amphora]]s shows that Troy still had a pottery industry, possibly associated with a wine or oil industry. The style of these pots shows stylistic similarities to other North Aegean sites, suggesting cultural contact. (Because other artefacts do not show these links, archaeologists believe that Greek settlement of Troy did not begin until later.) Both the Troy VI walls and the Troy VIIa Terrace House were reused for worship and communal feasting, as evidenced by animal bones, pottery assemblages, and traces of burned incense. Strikingly, the Terrace House was not renovated when it was adopted as a cult center and thus must have been used in a ruined state, potentially suggesting that the occupants of Troy VIIb3 were deliberately re-engaging with their past.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/><ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 66–67}}<ref name=Rose-2013 />{{rp|style=ama|pp=45–50}}

Troy&nbsp;VIIb was destroyed by fire around 950&nbsp;BC. However, some houses in the citadel were left intact and the site continued to be occupied, if only sparsely.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/>

=== Troy VIII–IX ===
Troy&nbsp;VIII was founded during the [[Greek Dark Ages]] and lasted until the [[Roman Greece|Roman era]]. Though the site had never been entirely abandoned, its redevelopment as a major city was spurred by Greek immigrants who began building around 700&nbsp;BC. During the [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]], the city's defences once again included the reused citadel wall of Troy&nbsp;VI. Later on, the walls became tourist attractions and sites of worship. Other remains of the Bronze Age city were destroyed by the Greeks' building projects, notably the peak of the citadel where the Troy&nbsp;VI palace is likely to have stood. By the [[classical Greece|classical era]], the city had numerous temples, a theatre, among other public buildings, and was once again expanding to the south of the citadel. Troy&nbsp;VIII was destroyed in 85&nbsp;BC, and subsequently rebuilt as Troy&nbsp;IX. A series of earthquakes devastated the city around 500&nbsp;AD, though finds from the Late Byzantine era attest to continued habitation at a small scale.<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Jablonka-2012-Cline/>

{{Gallery
| title        = Troy&nbsp;VIII–IX
| align        = center
| state        = collapsed
| mode         = packed
| File:Troy_%28Ilion%29%2C_Turkey_%287446501008%29.jpg
 | alt1=
 | Troy&nbsp;VIII Temple of Athena, built over the ruins of the Bronze Age palatial complex
| File:Hadrianic_Odeon_in_Troy_IX_(Ilion),_Turkey.jpg
 | alt2=
 | Troy&nbsp;IX [[Odeon (building)|Odeon]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.troyexcavations.com/kucuk-tiyatro-ve-meclis-binasi/?l=en |title=The Odeion And The Bouleuterion |date=2023 |website=Troy Excavations |access-date=15 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326025338/https://www.troyexcavations.com/kucuk-tiyatro-ve-meclis-binasi/?l=en |url-status=live }}</ref> 
| File:Troy_(Ilion),_Turkey_(7446699076).jpg
 | alt3=
 | Troy&nbsp;IX [[Roman bath]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.troyexcavations.com/hamam/?l=en |title=The Bath |date=2023 |website=Troy Excavations |access-date=15 March 2023 |archive-date=15 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315190512/https://www.troyexcavations.com/hamam/?l=en |url-status=live }}</ref>  
}}

== Excavation history ==

=== Early modern era ===
[[File:Alexandria Troas Thermen.JPG|thumb|left|Alexandria Troas]]

Early modern travellers in the 16th and 17th centuries, including [[Pierre Belon]] and [[Pietro Della Valle]], had mistakenly identified Troy with [[Alexandria Troas]], a ruined Hellenistic town approximately {{convert|20|km|mi}} south of Hisarlık.{{sfn|Schliemann|1881|p=184}} In the late 18th century, [[Jean Baptiste LeChevalier]] identified a location near the village of [[Pınarbaşı, Ezine]], a mound approximately {{convert|5|km|mi}} south of the currently accepted location. Published in his ''Voyage de la Troade'', it was the most commonly proposed location for almost a century.{{sfn|Schliemann|1881|pp=184–191}}

In 1822, the Scottish journalist [[Charles Maclaren]] was the first to identify with confidence the position of the city as it is now known.<ref>{{cite book |last=MacLaren |first=Charles |year=1822 |title=A Dissertation On the Topography of the Plain of Troy |quote=Including an examination of the opinions of Demetrius, Chevalier, Dr.&nbsp;Clarke, and Major Rennell. |publisher=Bibliobazaar |isbn=978-1-146-73161-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkkMAAAAYAAJ |access-date=28 December 2014 }}</ref>{{sfn|Schliemann|1881|p=189}} The first excavations at the site were trenches by British civil engineer John Brunton in 1855.<ref>[https://ub01.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/85937/StTr19_Pavel.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316163112/https://ub01.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/85937/StTr19_Pavel.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|date=16 March 2023}}Pavel, Cătălin, "Recording the Excavations in Troy, 1855–2010", Studia Troica, 19, pp. 255–283, 2011</ref>

=== Frank Calvert ===
The next excavation at Hisarlık was conducted in 1865 by [[Frank Calvert]], a [[Turkish Levantine]] man of English descent who owned a farm nearby. Calvert made extensive surveys of the site and correctly identified it with classical-era Ilion.<ref>{{harvnb|Wood|1985|pp=42–44}}</ref> This identification convinced Heinrich Schliemann that Homeric Troy should be sought beneath the classical-era remains and led to their subsequent partnership.{{efn|
"...&nbsp;by his generosity and constant assistance to Schliemann, enabled him to transform himself with such spectacular success from a businessman into an archaeologist."<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|1994|p=153}}</ref>
}}<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=380}}</ref>

=== Heinrich Schliemann ===
[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1878) b 713.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Heinrich Schliemann]]

In 1868, German businessman [[Heinrich Schliemann]] visited Calvert, and secured permission to excavate Hisarlık. At this point in time, the mound was about 200 meters long and somewhat less than 150 meters wide. It rose 31.2 meters above the plain and 38.5 meters above sea level.

As with Calvert and others, in April 1870 Schliemann began by excavating a trench across the mound of Hisarlık to the depth of the settlements, today called "[[Schliemann's Trench]]".<ref name="Schuchhardt">Schuchhardt (1889)</ref> In 1871–1873 and 1878–1879, 1882 and 1890 (the later two joined by Wilhelm Dörpfeld), he discovered the ruins of a series of ancient cities dating from the [[Bronze Age]] to the Roman period.<ref>Schliemann, Henry, "Recent Discoveries at Troy", The North American Review, vol. 135, no. 311, pp. 339–62, 1882</ref><ref>Luce, J.. "FOUR. TROY, HOMER, AND THE ARCHAEOLOGISTS". Celebrating Homer's Landscapes: Troy and Ithaca Revisited, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2022, pp. 81–110</ref> Schliemann was planning for another excavation season in 1891 when he died in December 1890. He proposed that the second layer, Troy&nbsp;II, corresponded to the city of legend, though later research has shown that it predated the Mycenaean era by several hundred years. Significant finds included many "owl-headed idols" and stone axes from the lower levels.<ref>Yılmaz, Derya, "Some Thoughts on the Troy Type Owl-Headed Idols of Western Anatolia", Praehistorische Zeitschrift 91.2, pp. 369–378, 2016</ref><ref>[http://www.aegeussociety.org/images/uploads/publications/schliemann/Schliemann_2012_65-69_Sugaya.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329071304/http://www.aegeussociety.org/images/uploads/publications/schliemann/Schliemann_2012_65-69_Sugaya.pdf|date=29 March 2023}}Sugaya, Chikako, "The stone axes of Troy", pp. 65–69 in Αρχαιολογία και Ερρίκος Σλήμαν. Archaeology and Heinrich Schliemann, 2012</ref>

[[File:Golden bottle and goblets.jpg|thumb|upright|Golden bottle and goblets from [[Priam's Treasure]], [[Pushkin Museum]]]]

Some of the most notable artefacts found by Schliemann are known as [[Priam's Treasure]], after [[Priam of Troy|the legendary Trojan king]]. Many of these ended up in the [[Istanbul Archaeology Museum]]. Almost all the precious metal objects that went to Berlin were confiscated by the Soviet Union in 1945 and are now in [[Pushkin Museum]] in [[Moscow]].<ref>Akimova, Ludmila, and Vladimir Tolstikov, "The Troy treasures in Russia", ANTIQUITY 69, pp. 11–14, 1995</ref> Even in his own time Schliemann's legacy was controversial because of his excavation methods which included removing features he considered insignificant without first studying and documenting them.<ref name="Schuchhardt" />

[[File:Priam's treasure (r).jpg|thumb|upright|Artifacts which Schliemann dubbed ''[[Priam's Treasure]]'']]
[[File:Ilios - the city and country of the Trojans - the results of researches and discoveries on the site of Troy and throughout the Troad in the years 1871-72-73-78-79, including an autobiography of the (14597820599).jpg|thumb|Hisarlık, pictured in 1880. The notch at the top is "Schliemann's Trench".]]

=== Wilhelm Dörpfeld ===
[[Wilhelm Dörpfeld]] {{nowrap|(1893–1894)}} began working the site alongside Schliemann and later inherited excavation at the site and published his own independent work.<ref>{{cite book | first=Wilhelm | last=Dörpfeld | title=Troja und Ilion: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen in den vorhistorischen und historischen Schichten von Ilion, 1870-1894 | publisher=Beck & Barth | year=1902}}</ref> His chief contributions were to the study of Troy&nbsp;VI and VII, which Schliemann had overlooked due to his focus on Troy&nbsp;II. Dörpfeld's interest in these layers was triggered by the need to close a hole in the initial excavators' chronology known as "Calvert's Thousand Year Gap".<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=142}}.</ref> During his excavation, Dörpfeld came across a section of the Troy&nbsp;VI wall which was weaker than the rest. Since the mythic city had likewise had a weak section of its walls, Dörpfeld became convinced that this layer corresponded to Homeric Troy.<ref>[https://archive.org/download/mycenaeantroybas00tolmuoft/mycenaeantroybas00tolmuoft.pdf] Tolman, Herbert Cushing, and Gilbert Campbell Scoggin, "Mycenaean Troy: Based on Dörpfeld's Excavations in the Sixth of the Nine Buried Cities at Hissarlik", American Book Company, 1903</ref> Schliemann himself privately agreed that Troy&nbsp;VI was more likely to be the Homeric city, but he never published anything stating so.<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=143}}</ref>

=== Carl Blegen ===
[[Carl Blegen]], professor at the [[University of Cincinnati]], managed the site 1932–38. Wilhelm Dörpfeld collaborated with Blegen.<ref>Blegen, Carl W., "Excavations at Troy 1932", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 431–51, 1932; Blegen, Carl W., "Excavations at Troy 1933", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 223–48, 1934; Blegen, Carl W., "Excavations at Troy 1934", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 6–34, 1935; Blegen, Carl W., "Excavations at Troy, 1935", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 550–87, 1935; Blegen, Carl W., "Excavations at Troy, 1936", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 17–51, 1937; Blegen, Carl W., "Excavations at Troy, 1937", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 41, no. 4, pp. 553–97, 1937; Blegen, Carl W., "Excavations at Troy, 1938", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 204–28, 1939</ref> These archaeologists, though following Schliemann's lead, added a professional approach not available to Schliemann. He showed that there were at least nine cities. In his research, Blegen came to a conclusion that Troy's nine levels could be further divided into forty-six sublevels,<ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1995|p=259}}</ref> which he published in his main report.<ref>{{cite book | first=Carl W. | last=Blegen | title=Troy: Excavations conducted by the University of Cincinnati, 1932–1938 | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1950 | url=https://ia801709.us.archive.org/32/items/in.gov.ignca.18601/18601.pdf}}</ref> A post hoc Correspondence Analysis of Blegen's pottery sequence showed a 100-year gap between Troy III and Troy IV. Combined with a similar analysis of the pottery sequences of Korfmann and Schliemann this suggests that for a time in the late Early Bronze Age occupation contracted to the western end of the citadel mound.<ref>Easton, Donald, and Bernhard Weninger, "A Possible New Bronze Age Period at Troy", Anatolian Studies, vol. 68, pp. 33–73, 2018</ref>

=== Manfred Korfmann ===
From 1988 to 2005, excavations were conducted by a team from the [[University of Tübingen]] and the [[University of Cincinnati]] under the direction of Professor [[Manfred Korfmann]], with Professor [[C. Brian Rose|Brian Rose]] overseeing Post-Bronze Age (Greek, Roman, Byzantine) excavation along the coast of the Aegean Sea at the Bay of Troy. Possible evidence of a battle was found in the form of bronze arrowheads and fire-damaged human remains buried in layers dated to the early 12th century BC. The question of Troy VI's status in the Bronze-Age world was the subject of a sometimes acerbic debate between Korfmann and the Tübingen historian [[Frank Kolb]] in 2001–2002.<ref>[https://scholar.archive.org/work/ijsq7in5dnd7joonlmwa5dt4ny/access/wayback/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/4974BD1EC7BF9BFAD2E7E63B9D44C5A9/S0066154600008358a.pdf/div-class-title-troy-in-clearer-perspective-div.pdf] Hertel, Dieter, and Frank Kolb, "Troy in clearer perspective", Anatolian studies 53, pp. 71–88, 2003</ref><ref>[https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.3764/aja.108.4.577] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318155032/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.3764/aja.108.4.577|date=18 March 2023}}Kolb, Frank, "Troy VI: A trading center and commercial city?", American Journal of Archaeology 108.4, pp. 577–613, 2004</ref><ref>[https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.3764/aja.108.4.615] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318233929/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.3764/aja.108.4.615|date=18 March 2023}}Jablonka, Peter, and C. Brian Rose, "Late Bronze Age Troy: A Response to Frank Kolb", American Journal of Archaeology 108.4, pp. 615–630, 2004</ref>

One of the major discoveries of these excavations was the Troy&nbsp;VI–VII lower city. This lower town had a wide anti-chariot defensive ditch backed by a wooden palisade. Added to the citadel this lower town would have brought Troy up to an area of around 200,000 square meters. This discovery led to a major reinterpretation of the site, which had previously been regarded as a small aristocratic residence rather than a major settlement.<ref>Korfmann, Manfred, "Troia, an Ancient Anatolian Palatial and Trading Center: Archaeological Evidence for the Period of Troia VI/VII", The Classical World, vol. 91, no. 5, pp. 369–85, 1998</ref>

A number of radiocarbon dates, from charcoal samples, were obtained from various phases of the Troy I level.<ref>[https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/viewFile/1692/1696] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318231707/https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/viewFile/1692/1696|date=18 March 2023}}Weninger, Bernhard, "Stratified 14C dates and ceramic chronologies: case studies for the Early Bronze Age at Troy (Turkey) and Ezero (Bulgaria)", Radiocarbon 37.2, pp. 443–456, 1995</ref>

From 2006 until 2012, these excavations continued under the direction of Korfmann's colleague Ernst Pernicka, with a new digging permit.<ref>E. Pernicka, Ch. B. Rose, P. Jablonka (eds), "Troia 1987–2012: Grabungen und Forschungen I", Studia Troica Monographien 5, Bonn, 2014</ref><ref>Pernicka, Ernst, Magda Pieniążek, Peter Pavúk, and Diane Thumm-Doğrayan, "Troia 1987–2012: Grabungen und Forschungen III. Troia VI bis Troia VII: Ausgehende mittlere und späte Bronzezeit", Bonn, Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, 2020</ref>

=== Recent developments ===
In 2013, an international team made up of cross-disciplinary experts led by William Aylward, an archaeologist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, was to carry out new excavations. This activity was to be conducted under the auspices of [[Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University]] and was to use the new technique of "molecular archaeology".<ref>{{cite press release |first=Terry |last=Devitt |date=15 October 2012|title=UW-Madison archaeologists to mount new expedition to Troy |website=news.wisc.edu |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin]] |place=Madison, WI |url=https://news.wisc.edu/uw-madison-archaeologists-to-mount-new-expedition-to-troy/ }}</ref> A few days before the Wisconsin team was to leave, the Turkish government cancelled about 100&nbsp;excavation permits throughout Turkey, including Wisconsin's.<ref>{{cite news |last=Simmons |first=Dan |date=22 July 2013 |title=UW-Madison archaeology trip to Troy postponed until next summer |newspaper=Wisconsin State Journal |url=http://host.madison.com/news/local/education/university/uw-madison-archaeology-trip-to-troy-postponed-until-next-summer/article_2bf073da-cee6-53c9-9bc1-15fdc2905712.html |access-date=6 May 2014 |archive-date=24 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824190242/http://host.madison.com/news/local/education/university/uw-madison-archaeology-trip-to-troy-postponed-until-next-summer/article_2bf073da-cee6-53c9-9bc1-15fdc2905712.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since 2014 excavations have been conducted by a Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University team led by Rüstem Aslan.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-search-of-troy-180979553/ |title=In Search of Troy - Smithsonian Magazine - March 2022 |access-date=26 February 2023 |archive-date=26 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226224045/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/in-search-of-troy-180979553/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The excavators claim to have found a "Level 0" at Troy near the entrance of Troy-II with the new level pushing the city's history back 600 years.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/discovery-takes-troys-history-back-600-years-145976 |title=Discovery takes Troy's history back 600 years - Hurriyet Daily News - August 23 2019 |date=23 August 2019 |access-date=15 March 2023 |archive-date=15 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315233706/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/discovery-takes-troys-history-back-600-years-145976 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://arkeonews.net/a-tiny-2300-year-old-votive-vessel-presented-to-the-gods-by-the-poor-was-found-in-the-ancient-city-of-troy/ |title=A tiny 2,300-year-old votive vessel presented to the gods by the poor was found in the Ancient City of Troy - Arkeonews - 16 March 2023 |date=26 August 2022 |access-date=16 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326230838/https://arkeonews.net/a-tiny-2300-year-old-votive-vessel-presented-to-the-gods-by-the-poor-was-found-in-the-ancient-city-of-troy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Since 2016 the University of Amsterdam has conducted a project to examine the 150-year history of excavation at the site.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.uva.nl/en/discipline/archaeology/research/troy/troy.html |title=Archaeology of archaeology at Troy - University of Amsterdam |date=7 December 2020 |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=18 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318160340/https://www.uva.nl/en/discipline/archaeology/research/troy/troy.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Historical Troy ==
Troy&nbsp;I–V predate [[writing]] and thus are known entirely from their archaeological remains. However, written records about the city appear starting with the Late Bronze Age Troy VI and continuing into the Greek and Roman era Troy VIII-IX.

=== Troy VI–VII in Hittite records ===
{{Further|Wilusa|Ahhiyawa}}

Troy&nbsp;VI–VII is believed to be the city referred to as ''Wilusa'' and ''Taruisa'' in [[Hittite language|Hittite]] records. These correspondences were first proposed in 1924 by [[Emil Forrer|E.&nbsp;Forrer]] on the basis of linguistic similarities, since "''Taruisa''" is a plausible correspondent of the [[Greek language|Greek]] name "''Troia''" and "''Wilusa''" likewise for the Greek "''Wilios''" (later "''Ilios''"). Subsequent research on Hittite geography has made these identifications more secure, though not all scholars regard them as firmly established. Texts concerning Wilusa are of particular relevance to later legends since they suggest that Wilusa was within the sphere of influence of Mycenaean Greece, which the Hittites referred to as ''[[Ahhiyawa]]''.<ref name=Beckman-Bryce-Cline-2012>{{cite book |last1=Beckman |first1=Gary |last2=Bryce |first2=Trevor |last3=Cline |first3=Eric |year=2012 |title=The Ahhiyawa Texts |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-1589832688}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 1–6}}<ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 86, 181–182}}

Wilusa first appears in [[Hittites|Hittite]] records around 1400&nbsp;BC, when it was one of the twenty-two states of the [[Assuwa|Assuwa Confederation]] which unsuccessfully attempted to oppose the [[Hittite Empire]]. Circumstantial evidence raises the possibility that the rebellion was supported by the Ahhiyawa.<ref name= Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/><ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|p= 59}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Cline |first=Eric |author-link=Eric H. Cline |year=2014 |title=1177 BC: The Year Civilization Collapsed |location= |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=33–35 |isbn=978-0691168388}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beckman |first1=Gary |last2=Bryce |first2=Trevor |last3=Cline |first3=Eric |year=2012 |title=The Ahhiyawa Texts |publisher=Brill |chapter=Epilogue: Mycenaean-Hittite Interconnections in the Late Bronze Age Revisited |isbn=978-1589832688}}</ref> By the late 1300s BC, Wilusa had become politically aligned with the Hittites. Texts from this period mention two kings named [[Kukkunni]] and [[Alaksandu]] who maintained peaceful relations with the Hittites even as other states in the area did not. Wilusan soldiers may have served in the Hittite army during the [[Battle of Kadesh]]. A bit later, Wilusa seems to have experienced the political turmoil suffered by many of its neighbours. References in the [[Manapa-Tarhunta letter]] and [[Tawagalawa letter]] suggest that a Wilusan king either rebelled or was deposed. This turmoil may have been related to the exploits of [[Piyamaradu]], a Western Anatolian warlord who toppled other pro-Hittite rulers while acting on behalf the Ahhiyawa. However, Piyamaradu is never explicitly identified as the culprit and certain features of the text suggest that he was not.<ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 107–111, 182–185}}<ref name=Beckman-Bryce-Cline-2012/>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 133–134, 174–177}} The final reference to Wilusa in the historical record appears in the [[Milawata letter]], in which the Hittite king [[Tudhaliya IV]] expresses his intention to reinstall a deposed Wilusan king named [[Walmu]].<ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{Rp|style=ama|pp= 112, 183}}<ref name="Beckman-Bryce-Cline-2012" />{{Rp|style=ama|pp= 278–279, 123, 131–133}}

In popular writing, these anecdotes have been interpreted as evidence for a historical kernel in myths of the Trojan War. However, scholars have not found historical evidence for any particular event from the legends, and the Hittite documents do not suggest that Wilusa-Troy was ever attacked by Greeks-Ahhiyawa themselves. Noted Hittiteologist [[Trevor Bryce]] cautions that our current understanding of Wilusa's history does not provide evidence for there having been an actual Trojan War since "the less material one has, the more easily it can be manipulated to fit whatever conclusion one wishes to come up with".<ref name="Bryce-2005" />{{Rp|style=ama|pp= 183–184, 186}}

=== Classical and Hellenistic Troy (Troy&nbsp;VIII) ===
{{Primary sources section|date=June 2024}}

According to Herodotus, the Persian king [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]] sacrificed 1,000&nbsp;cattle at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias while marching towards Greece.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Herodotus]] |title=[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]] |at=7.43 }}</ref> Following the Persian defeat in 480–479, Ilion and its territory became part of the continental possessions of [[Mytilene]] and remained under Mytilenaean control until the unsuccessful [[Mytilenean revolt]] in 428–427. Athens liberated the so-called Actaean cities (called 'Actaean' cities because they were located on the ἀκτή (aktē) or promontory of the mainland north of Lesbos.<ref>Thucydides, book IV, section 52, Loeb Classic Library, Vol 2, p. 300, note 1</ref>) including Ilion and enrolled these communities in the [[Delian League]]. Athenian influence in the Hellespont waned following the oligarchic coup of 411, and in that year the Spartan general Mindaros emulated Xerxes by likewise sacrificing to Athena Ilias. From c.&nbsp;410–399, Ilion was within the sphere of influence of the local dynasts at [[Lampsacus]] (Zenis, his wife Mania, and the usurper Meidias) who administered the region on behalf of the Persian satrap [[Pharnabazos II, Satrap of Phrygia|Pharnabazus]].

In 399, the Spartan general [[Dercylidas]] expelled the Greek garrison at Ilion who were controlling the city on behalf of the Lampsacene dynasts during a campaign which rolled back Persian influence throughout the [[Troad]]. Ilion remained outside the control of the Persian satrapal administration at [[Dascylium]] until the [[Peace of Antalcidas]] in 387–386. In this period of renewed Persian control c.&nbsp;387–367, a statue of [[Ariobarzanes of Phrygia|Ariobarzanes]], the satrap of [[Hellespontine Phrygia]], was erected in front of the temple of Athena Ilias.<ref>{{cite book |last=Siculus |first=Diodorus |author-link=Diodorus Siculus |title=[[Bibliotheca historica]] |at=17.17.6 }}</ref> In 360–359 the city was briefly controlled by [[Charidemus]] of [[Oreus]], a Euboean mercenary leader who occasionally worked for the Athenians.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Demosthenes]] |title={{grey|[no title cited]}} |at=23.154–157 |postscript=; }}<br />{{cite book |author=[[Aeneas Tacticus]] |title=Περὶ τοῦ πῶς χρὴ πολιορκουμένους ἀντέχειν |language=el |trans-title=How to Survive a Siege |at=24.3–14}}</ref> In 359, he was expelled by the Athenian Menelaos son of Arrabaios, whom the Ilians honoured with a grant of [[proxeny]]—this is recorded in the earliest civic decree to survive from Ilion.<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 23.</ref> In May 334 [[Alexander the Great]] crossed the Hellespont and came to the city, where he visited the temple of Athena Ilias, made sacrifices at the tombs of the Homeric heroes, and made the city free and exempt from taxes.<ref>{{cite book |author=Arrian |title=Anabasis |at=1.11–12 }}<br />{{cite book |last=Siculus |first=Diodorus |author-link=Diodorus Siculus |title=[[Bibliotheca historica]] |at=17.17–18 }}<br />{{cite book |author=[[Plutarch]] |title=Life of Alexander |at=15 }}<br />{{cite book |author-link=Justin (historian) |author=Marcus Junianus Justinus Frontinus |title-link=Historia Philippicae et Totius Mundi Origines et Terrae Situs |title=Historia Philippicae (et Totius Mundi) |at=9.5.12 }}<br />{{cite book |author=[[Strabo]] |title=[[Geographica]] |at=13.1.26, 32}}</ref> According to the so-called 'Last Plans' of Alexander which became known after his death in June 323, he had planned to rebuild the temple of Athena Ilias on a scale that would have surpassed every other temple in the known world.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Diodorus Siculus]] |title=[[Bibliotheca historica]] |at=18.4.5 }}</ref>

[[Antigonus Monophthalmus]] took control of the Troad in 311 and created the new city of [[Alexandria Troas|Antigoneia Troas]] which was a [[synoikism]] of the cities of [[Skepsis]], [[Cebren|Kebren]], [[Neandreia]], [[Hamaxitus|Hamaxitos]], [[Larisa (Troad)|Larisa]], and [[Kolonai]]. In c.&nbsp;311–306 the ''[[koinon]]'' of Athena Ilias was founded from the remaining cities in the Troad and along the Asian coast of the [[Dardanelles]] and soon after succeeded in securing a guarantee from Antigonus that he would respect their autonomy and freedom (he had not respected the autonomy of the cities which were synoikised to create Antigoneia).<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 1.</ref> The ''koinon'' continued to function until at least the 1st century AD and primarily consisted of cities from the Troad, although for a time in the second half of the 3rd century it also included [[Myrlea]] and [[Chalcedon]] from the eastern [[Propontis]].<ref>Regarding Myrlea and Calchedon: ''Inschriften von Ilion'' 5–6.</ref> The governing body of the ''koinon'' was the ''synedrion'' on which each city was represented by two delegates. The day-to-day running of the ''synedrion'', especially in relation to its finances, was left to a college of five ''agonothetai'', on which no city ever had more than one representative. This system of equal (rather than proportional) representation ensured that no one city could politically dominate the ''koinon''.<ref>{{cite journal |first=D. |last=Knoepfler |year=2010 |title=Les agonothètes de la Confédération d'Athéna Ilias: une interpretation nouvelle des données épigraphiques et ses conséquences pour la chronologie des émissions monétaires du Koinon |language=fr |journal=Studi Ellenistici |volume=24 |pages=33–62}}</ref> The primary purpose of the ''koinon'' was to organise the annual Panathenaia festival which was held at the sanctuary of Athena Ilias. The festival brought huge numbers of pilgrims to Ilion for the duration of the festival as well as creating an enormous market (the ''panegyris'') which attracted traders from across the region.<ref>{{cite book |title=Panegyris |first=L. |last=Robert |series=Monnaies antiques en Troade |place=Paris |date=1966 |pages=18–46}}</ref> In addition, the ''koinon ''financed new building projects at Ilion, for example a new theatre c.&nbsp;306 and the expansion of the sanctuary and temple of Athena Ilias in the 3rd century, in order to make the city a suitable venue for such a large festival.<ref>''Re. theatre'':
* ''Inschriften von Ilion'' 1.
''Re. temple'':
* {{cite journal |first=C.B. |last=Rose |title=The temple of Athena at Ilion |journal=Studia Troica |volume=13 |year=2003 |pages=27–88}}
''See contra'':
* {{cite journal |first=D. |last=Hertel |title=Zum Heiligtum der Athena Ilias von Troia&nbsp;IX und zur frühhellenistischen Stadtanlage von Ilion |language=de |journal=Arch. Anz. |year=2004 |pages=177–205}}</ref>

In the period 302–281, Ilion and the Troad were part of the kingdom of [[Lysimachus]], who during this time helped Ilion synoikise several nearby communities, thus expanding the city's population and territory.{{efn|In a description of the region, [[Strabo]] reports that
: "[Lysimachus] adds to this circle the cities of antiquity already destroyed".
: [Λυσίμαχος] συνῴκισέ τε εἰς αὐτὴν τὰς κύκλῳ πόλεις ἀρχαίας ἤδη κεκακωμένας.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Strabo]] |title=[[Geographica]] |at=13.1.26 }}</ref>
These probably included [[Birytis]], [[Gentinos]], and Sigeion.<ref>{{cite book |first=J.M. |last=Cook |title=The Troad |publisher=Oxford |date=1973 |page=364 }}</ref><br />Birytis and Gentinos are not securely located, but recent excavations at Sigeion appear to independently confirm Strabo's account by indicating an abandonment date soon after c.&nbsp;300.<ref>{{cite book |first=Th. |last=Schäfer |title=Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı |at=32.2: 410–412 |date=2009 |postscript=;}}<br />{{cite book |first=Th. |last=Schäfer |title=Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı |date=2012 |at=33.2: 248–249 }}</ref> This may have been punishment for Sigeion resisting Lysimachus in 302.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Diodorus Siculus]] |title=[[Bibliotheca historica]] |at=20.107.4 }}</ref>
}}
Lysimachus was defeated at the [[Battle of Corupedium]] in February&nbsp;281 by [[Seleucus I Nikator]], thus handing the Seleucid kingdom control of [[Asia Minor]], and in August or September 281 when Seleucus passed through the Troad on his way to [[Lysimachia (Thrace)|Lysimachia]] in the nearby Thracian Chersonese Ilion passed a decree in honour of him, indicating the city's new loyalties.<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 31.</ref> In September Seleucus was assassinated at Lysimachia by [[Ptolemy Keraunos]], making his successor, [[Antiochus I Soter]], the new king. In 280 or soon after Ilion passed a long decree lavishly honouring Antiochus in order to cement their relationship with him.{{efn|
A minority of scholars instead attempt to date this inscription to the reign of Antiochus&nbsp;III (222–187&nbsp;BC).<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 32.</ref>
}}
During this period Ilion still lacked proper city walls except for the crumbling Troy&nbsp;VI fortifications around the citadel, and in 278 during the [[Gallic invasion of the Balkans|Gallic invasion]] the city was easily sacked.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Strabo]] |title=[[Geographica]] |at=13.1.27 }}</ref> Ilion enjoyed a close relationship with Antiochus for the rest of his reign: for example, in 274 Antiochus granted land to his friend Aristodikides of Assos which for tax purposes was to be attached to the territory of Ilion, and c.&nbsp;275–269 Ilion passed a decree in honour of Metrodoros of Amphipolis who had successfully treated the king for a wound he received in battle.<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 33 (Aristodikides), 34 (Metrodoros).</ref>

=== Roman Troy (Troy&nbsp;IX) ===
{{Primary sources section|date=June 2024}}

The city was destroyed by [[Sulla]]'s rival, the Roman general [[Gaius Flavius Fimbria (cavalry prefect)|Fimbria]], in 85&nbsp;BC following an eleven-day siege.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Strabo]] |title=[[Geographica]] |at=13.1.27 }}<br />{{cite book |author=[[Livy]] |title=[[Periochae]] |at=83}}</ref> Later that year when Sulla had defeated Fimbria, he bestowed benefactions on Ilion for its loyalty which helped rebuilding the city. Ilion reciprocated this act of generosity by instituting a new civic calendar which took 85&nbsp;BC as its first year.<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 10.2–3.</ref> However, the city remained in financial distress for several decades despite its favoured status with Rome. In the 80s BC, Roman ''publicani'' illegally levied taxes on the sacred estates of Athena Ilias, and the city was required to call on [[Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 64 BC)|L. Julius Caesar]] for restitution; while in 80&nbsp;BC, the city suffered an attack by pirates.<ref>''Inchriften von Ilion'' 71 (''publicani''), 73 (pirates).</ref> In 77&nbsp;BC the costs of running the annual festival of the ''koinon'' of Athena Ilias became too pressing for both Ilion and the other members of the ''koinon'' and L.&nbsp;Julius Caesar was once again required to arbitrate, this time reforming the festival so that it would be less of a financial burden.<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 10.</ref> In 74&nbsp;BC the Ilians once again demonstrated their loyalty to Rome by siding with the Roman general [[Lucullus]] against Mithridates&nbsp;VI.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Plutarch]] |title=Lucullus |at=10.3, 12.2}}</ref> Following the final defeat of Mithridates in 63–62, [[Pompey]] rewarded the city's loyalty by becoming the benefactor of Ilion and patron of Athena Ilias.<ref>''Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum'' 46.1565.</ref>

In 48&nbsp;BC, [[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]] likewise bestowed benefactions on the city, recalling the city's loyalty during the Mithridatic Wars, the city's connection with his cousin [[Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 64 BC)|Lucius]], and the family's claim that they were ultimately descended from [[Venus]] through the Trojan prince [[Aeneas]] and therefore shared kinship with the Ilians.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Lucan]] |title=Pharsalia |at=9.964–999}}<br />{{cite book |author=[[Suetonius]] |title=Divus Julius |at=79.3 }}</ref> In 20&nbsp;BC, the [[emperor]] [[Augustus]] ([[Augustus|Gaius Octavian Julius Caesar Augustus]]) visited Ilion and stayed in the house of a leading citizen, Melanippides son of Euthydikos.<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Dio Cassius]] |title=Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἱστορία |language=el |trans-title=Roman History |at=54.7}}<br />''Inschriften von Ilion'' 83.</ref> As a result of his visit, he also financed the restoration and rebuilding of the sanctuary of Athena Ilias, the [[bouleuterion]] (council house) and the theatre. Soon after work on the theatre was completed in 12–11&nbsp;BC, Melanippides dedicated a statue of [[Augustus]] in the theatre to record this benefaction.<ref>''Inschriften von Ilion'' 83.</ref>

A new city called '''Ilium''' (from Greek Ilion) was founded on the site in the reign of the [[Roman emperor]] [[Augustus]]. It flourished until the establishment of [[Constantinople]]. It fell within the [[Roman province]] [[Hellespontus (province)|Hellespontus]] in the civil [[Diocese of Asia]].

Archaeological excavations have identified one church building in the lower city. Its size—{{convert|30|×|18|m|ft}}—and the quality of its [[mosaic]] floor suggests that it may have been the main church.<ref>{{harvnb|Rose|2014|p=269}}, with a photograph of the mosaic floor.</ref> It was constructed around 400. No temples seem to have been converted into churches and no church has been found on the [[acropolis]].{{sfn|Rose|2014|p=269}}

Towards the end of the reign of [[Gallienus]], probably in 267, Ilium was sacked by the [[Goths]] returning from the [[Sack of Athens (267 AD)|sack of Athens]]. "After the depredations of the Goths, the city entered the twilight zone."{{sfn|Vermeule|1995|pp=476–477}}

=== Christian bishopric ===
{{Main|Diocese of Ilion}}

From the 4th century AD until the Byzantine era, perhaps as late as the 10th century, Ilion was the seat of a Christian bishop.

== Troy in legend ==
{{Further|Homeric Question|Historicity of the Iliad}}
[[File:J G Trautmann Das brennende Troja.jpg|thumb|left|An 18th-century depiction of the legendary sack of Troy]]

The main literary work set at Troy is the ''[[Iliad]]'', an [[Archaic Greece|Archaic-era]] [[epic poem]] which tells the story of the final year of the Trojan War. The ''Iliad'' portrays Troy as the capital of a rich and powerful kingdom. In the poem, the city appears to be a major regional power capable of summoning numerous allies to defend it.{{efn|"And Troy prevails by armies not her own".<ref name=Pope-Illiad-II>{{cite book |title=[[Iliad]] |translator=[[Alexander Pope|Pope, A.]] |section=Book&nbsp;II}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|at=line 160}}<br />"Assemble all the united bands of Troy; / In just array let every leader call / The foreign troops: this day demands them all."<ref name=Pope-Illiad-II/>{{rp|style=ama|at=lines 974–976}} }} The city itself is described as sitting on a steep hill, protected by enormous sloping stone walls, rectangular towers, and massive gates whose wooden doors can be bolted shut. According to [[Dares Phrygius]], there were 6 of such gates – the Antenorean, the Dardanian, the Ilian, the Scaean, the Thymbraean, and the Trojan.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Phrygius |first=Dares |title=4 |url=https://www.theoi.com/Text/DaresPhrygius.html |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=www.theoi.com |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407120900/https://www.theoi.com/Text/DaresPhrygius.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The city's streets are broad and well-planned. At the top of the hill is the Temple of Athena as well as King Priam's palace, an enormous structure with numerous rooms around an inner courtyard.<ref name=Bryce-2005>{{cite book |author=Bryce, T. |author-link=Trevor Bryce |year=2005 |title=The Trojans and their Neighbours |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-415-34959-8}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|pp= 59–61}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ilium |editor=Smith, William |year=2020 |orig-year=1854 |encyclopedia=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography |publisher=Perseus Digital Library |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0064%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DI%3Aentry+group%3D3%3Aentry%3Dilium-geo}}</ref>

In the ''Iliad'', the [[Achaeans (Homer)|Achaeans]] set up their camp near the mouth of the [[Karamenderes River|Scamander]] river,<ref name="ShopesHamilton2008">{{cite book |last1=Cenker |first1=Işil Cerem |last2=Thys-Şenocak |first2=Lucienne |year=2008 |editor=Shopes, Linda |editor2=Hamilton, Paula |title=Oral History and Public Memories |publisher=Temple University Press |location=Philadelphia, PA |isbn=978-1-59213-141-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oralhistorypubli00hami/page/n94 76] |url=https://archive.org/details/oralhistorypubli00hami |url-access=limited }}</ref> where they beached their ships. The city itself stood on a hill across the plain of Scamander, where much of the fighting takes place.

Besides the ''Iliad'', there are references to Troy in the other major work attributed to Homer, the ''[[Odyssey]]'', as well as in other ancient Greek literature, such as [[Aeschylus]]'s [[The Oresteia|''Oresteia'']]. The Homeric legend of Troy was elaborated by the Roman poet [[Virgil]] in his ''[[Aeneid]]''. The fall of Troy with the story of the [[Trojan Horse]] and the sacrifice of [[Polyxena]], Priam's youngest daughter, is the subject of a later Greek epic by [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]] ("Quintus of Smyrna").

The Greeks and Romans took for a fact the [[Historicity of the Iliad|historicity of the Trojan War]] and the identity of Homeric Troy with a site in Anatolia on a peninsula called the [[Troad]] ([[Biga Peninsula]]). [[Alexander the Great]], for example, visited the site in 334&nbsp;BC and there made sacrifices at tombs associated with the Homeric heroes [[Achilles]] and [[Patroclus]].<ref name=Bryce-2005/>{{rp|style=ama|pp=158,191}}<ref name=Jablonka-2011-Steadman-McMahon/>{{rp|style=ama|p=724}}

== Current status ==
The Turkish government created the Historical National Park at Troy on 30 September 1996. It contains {{convert|136|km2|sqmi}} to include Troy and its vicinity, centered on Troy.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Historical National Park of Troy | work=Troy Excavations | date=3 August 2019 | url=https://www.troyexcavations.com/troia-tarihi-milli-parki/?l=en | publisher=Ministry of Culture and Tourism | access-date=1 February 2020 | archive-date=9 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809120847/https://www.troyexcavations.com/troia-tarihi-milli-parki/?l=en | url-status=live }}</ref> The purpose of the park is to protect the historical sites and monuments within it, as well as the environment of the region. In 1998 the park was accepted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Public access to the ancient site is along the road from the vicinity of the museum in [[Tevfikiye, Çanakkale|Tevfikiye]] to the east side of Hisarlık. In its square is a large wooden horse monument, with a ladder and internal chambers for use of the public. Bordering the square is the gate to the site. The public passes through turnstiles. Admission is usually not free. Within the site, the visitors tour the features on dirt roads or for access to more precipitous features on railed boardwalks. There are many overlooks with multilingual boards explaining the feature. Most are outdoors, but a permanent canopy covers the site of an early [[megaron]] and wall.

In 2018 the [[Troy Museum]] (Turkish: Troya Müzesi) was opened at Tevfikiye village {{convert|800|m|yards}} east of the excavation. A design contest for the architecture had been won by Yalin Mimarlik in 2011. The cube-shaped building with extensive underground galleries holds more than 40,000 portable artefacts, 2000 of which are on display. Artifacts were moved here from a few other former museums in the region. The range is the entire prehistoric Troad.

<gallery heights=160 widths=200 class="center">
File:Troy composite.jpg|The west side of Troy Ridge. The road from Tevfikiye enters from the right.
File:Troy (and a trojan horse) (8709942456).jpg|Wooden Trojan Horse monument in the plaza before the modern gate to the ancient city
File:Troy Museum_9919.jpg|Troy Museum subterranean interior
File:Troy Museum 9913.jpg|Troy Museum aboveground. Most of the entire field in which it sits roofs the underground galleries, work, and storage spaces. These are accessed via ramps not shown. There are also outdoor display spaces.
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Ancient settlements in Turkey]]
* [[Cities of the ancient Near East]]
* [[Dardanians (Trojan)]]
* [[The Golden Bough (mythology)]]
* {{Annotated link|Luwians}}
* {{Annotated link|Seha River Land}}
* {{Annotated link|Stratigraphy}}
* [[Trojan War in popular culture]]

== Footnotes ==
{{Notelist}}

{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|25em}}

== References ==
* {{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Susan Heuck |title="Finding the Walls of Troy": Frank Calvert, Excavator |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |date=1995 |volume=99 |issue=3 |pages=379–407 |doi=10.2307/506941 |jstor=506941 |issn=0002-9114}}
* {{cite book |first=Manfred |last=Korfmann |title=Troia in Light of New Research |series=Reden an Der Universität Trier, Dies academicus 2003 | location=Tübingen | publisher=Institute for Pre- and Protohistory and Archaeology of the Middle Ages, Tübingen University |date=2003 |url=https://www.uni-trier.de/fileadmin/organisation/Presse/andere_Publikationen/rede_troia_korfmann-english.pdf | archive-date=17 April 2021 | access-date=21 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417212845/https://www.uni-trier.de/fileadmin/organisation/Presse/andere_Publikationen/rede_troia_korfmann-english.pdf | url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |first=Manfred |last=Korfmann |title=Troia/Wilusa Guidebook |  location=Istanbul | publisher=Biltur Basim Yayin ve Hizmet A.Ș |date=2013 | edition=Enlarged and revised | series=Çanakkale-Tübingen Troia Vakh (Foundation) Publication Series 1}}
* {{cite book |last=Latacz |first=Joachim |title=Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery |publisher=Oxford |date=2004 |isbn=960-16-1557-1}}
* {{cite journal |first=Marcelle |last=Robinson |title=Pioneer, Scholar, and Victim: An Appreciation of Frank Calvert (1828-1908) |journal=Anatolian Studies |volume=44 |date=1994 |pages=153–168 |doi=10.2307/3642989 |jstor=3642989 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0066154600006025 |url-access=subscription }}
*{{cite book |first=Charles Brian |last=Rose |title=The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Troy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014}}
* {{cite book |last1=Schliemann |first1=Heinrich |title=Ilios: The City and Country of the Trojans. The Results of Researches and Discoveries on the Site of Troy and Throughout the Troad in the Years 1871-'79 |date=1881 |publisher=Harper & Brothers |location=New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7QAdAAAAYAAJ }}
* {{cite book |first=Cornelius |last=Vermeule |year=1995 |chapter=Neon Ilion and Ilium Novum: Kings, Soldiers, Citizens, and Tourists at Classical Troy |editor1=J. Carter |editor2=S. Morris |title=The Ages of Homer: A Tribute to Emily Townsend Vermeule |pages=467–482 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/agesofhomertribu00jane/page/467/mode/1up |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-71208-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wood |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Wood (historian) |title=In Search of the Trojan War |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |location=London |date=1985 |isbn=978-0-563-20161-8 }}

==Further reading==

===General===
{{div col | colwidth=25em | small=yes}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Easton |first1=D.F. |last2=Hawkins |first2=J.D. |last3=Sherratt |first3=A.G. |last4=Sherratt |first4=E.S. |title=Troy in Recent Perspective |journal=Anatolian Studies |volume=52 |year=2002 |pages=75–109 |doi=10.2307/3643078|jstor=3643078 |s2cid=162226134 |doi-access= }}
{{div col end}}

===Archaeological===
{{div col | colwidth=25em | small=yes}}
* {{cite web |title=Reconstructions |author=Troia Project |year=2004 |website=Troia VR |publisher=University of Tübingen |url=https://uni-tuebingen.de/troia/vr/vr0201_en.html |access-date=8 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130830115303/http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/troia/vr/vr0201_en.html |archive-date=30 August 2013  }}
* {{cite web |editor-first1=Sebastian |editor-last1=Heath |editor-first2=Billur |editor-last2=Tekkök |date=2007–2009 |title=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine pottery at Ilion (Troia) |series=Classics Department |publisher=[[University of Cincinnati]] |url=http://classics.uc.edu/troy/grbpottery/ |access-date=10 August 2013}}
* {{cite web |first1=Sebastian |last1=Heath |first2=Dietrich |last2=Mannsperger |first3=C. Brian |last3=Rose |first4=John |last4=Wallrodt |year=2013 |title=Coins from Ilion (Troia) |series=Classics Department |publisher=[[University of Cincinnati]] |url=http://classics.uc.edu/troy/coins/ |access-date=10 August 2013}}
{{div col end}}

===Ecclesiastical history===
{{div col | colwidth=25em | small=yes}}
* {{cite book |author=Pius Bonifacius Gams |year=1931 |title=Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae |language=la |place=Leipzig |page=445}}
* {{cite book |first=Michel |last=Lequien |year=1740 |title=Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus |language=la |place=Paris, FR |volume=I |at=coll. 775–778}}
{{div col end}}

===Mythology and literature===
{{div col | colwidth=25em | small=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Hertel |first=Dieter |chapter=The Myth of History: The Case of Troy |title=A Companion to Greek Mythology |editor-last=Dowden |editor-first=Ken |editor-last2=Livingstone |editor-first2=Niall |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4051-1178-2 |pages=425–442 }}
* {{cite book |editor-first1=Alan |editor-last1=Shepard |editor-first2=Stephen D. |editor-last2=Powell |year=2004 |title=Fantasies of Troy: Classical tales and the social imaginary in Medieval and early modern Europe |place=Toronto, Canada |publisher=Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies }}
{{div col end}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links | wikt=Troy | commons=Category:Troy | b=no | n=no | q=no | s=The Iliad | v=no | voy=Troy (Turkey) | species=no | d=Q22647 | mw=no}}
* {{cite web | title=Uncovering Troy | publisher=Archaeological Institute of America | url=https://www.archaeology.org/travel/interactivemap-troy/ | access-date=24 January 2020}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.cerhas.uc.edu/troy/ |title=Welcome to Troy |author=Troia Projekt and CERHAS |year=2013 |website=Troy |publisher=University of Cincinnati |access-date=8 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514131308/http://cerhas.uc.edu/troy/ |archive-date=14 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=Troia and the Troad – Archaeology of a Region: The new excavations at Troy |author1=Institut für Ur, Frühgeschichte und Archäologie des Mittelalters, [[Universität Tübingen]] |author2=Department of Classics, [[University of Cincinnati]] |year=2010 |website=Project Troia |publisher=Institut für Ur – u. Frühgeschichte |url=https://uni-tuebingen.de/troia/eng/index.html |access-date=8 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050519022321/http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/troia/eng/index.html |archive-date=19 May 2005 }}
* {{cite web |last=Miszczak |first=Izabela |date=23 March 2016 |title=Troy |publisher=Turkish Archaeological News |url=https://turkisharchaeonews.net/site/troy }}
* {{cite web |last=Miszczak |first=Izabela |date=13 December 2019 |title=Troy Museum |publisher=Turkish Archaeological News |url=https://turkisharchaeonews.net/museum/troy-museum }}
* {{cite web |first=Jeremy B. |last=Rutter |year=2013 |title=Welcome |website=Aegean Prehistoric Archaeology |publisher=[[Dartmouth College]] |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/ |access-date=10 August 2013 |archive-date=12 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112062124/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/ |url-status=dead }}
** {{cite web |title=Lesson&nbsp;23: Troy&nbsp;VI |publisher=[[Dartmouth College]] |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/?page_id=737 |access-date=10 August 2013 |archive-date=17 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817062747/http://www.dartmouth.edu/%7Eprehistory/aegean/?page_id=737 |url-status=dead }}
** {{cite web |title=Lesson&nbsp;27: Troy&nbsp;VII and the historicity of the Trojan War |publisher=[[Dartmouth College]] |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/?page_id=630 |access-date=10 August 2013 |archive-date=7 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407192643/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/?page_id=630 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web | title=Hellenistic inscriptions of Ilion, in English translation | access-date=3 September 2022 | publisher=attalus.org | url=http://attalus.org/docs/search.html#Ilion}}
* "[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/the-many-myths-of-the-man-who-discoveredand-nearly-destroyedtroy-180980102/ The Many Myths of the Man Who 'Discovered' – and Nearly Destroyed – Troy]", ''Smithsonian Magazine'', Meilan Solly, 17 May 2022

{{History of Anatolia}}
{{Ancient Near East}}
{{Epic Cycle}}
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Turkey}}
{{National parks of Turkey}}
{{Ancient kingdoms in Anatolia}}
{{Former settlements in Turkey}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Troy| ]]
[[Category:30th-century BC establishments]]
[[Category:Geography of ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in the Marmara region]]
[[Category:Destroyed populated places]]
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[[Category:History of Çanakkale Province]]
[[Category:Late Bronze Age collapse]]
[[Category:National parks of Turkey]]
[[Category:Places in Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 3rd millennium BC]]
[[Category:Razed cities]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Çanakkale Province]]
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