View source for Tunisian campaign

{{Short description|Series of battles in Tunisia during the Second World War}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Tunisian campaign
| partof            = the [[North African campaign]] of the [[Second World War]]
| image             = File:Gromalia prisoner of war camp.jpg
| image_size        = 300px
| caption           = German and Italian [[prisoners of war]] following the fall of [[Tunis]] on 12 May 1943
| date              = [[Run for Tunis|17 November 1942]] – [[Operation Strike|13 May 1943]]<br>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days |month1=11 |day1=17 |year1=1942 |month2=05 |day2=13 |year2=1943}})
| place             = [[French protectorate of Tunisia|French Tunisia]]
| coordinates       = {{Coord|34|N|09|E|display=INLINE,TITLE}}
| territory         = Tunisia returns to French administration
| result            = Allied victory
| combatant1        = {{flag|United Kingdom}}
* {{flagcountry|British Raj}}
* {{flagcountry|Dominion of New Zealand}}
* {{flagcountry|Australia}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/E84670 | title=Tunisian Campaign }}</ref>
* {{flagcountry|Dominion of Newfoundland}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Artillery |url=https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/politics/royal-artillery.php|website=Newfoundland Heritage Web Site|last=Higgins|first=Jenny|date=2007}}</ref>
* {{flagcountry|Union of South Africa}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.salegion.org.uk/tunisian-campaign-1943/|title=Tunisian Campaign 1943 – South African Legion – United Kingdom & Europe}}</ref>
{{plainlist |   
* {{flag|United States|1912}}
* {{flag|Free France}}
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Greece|state}} [[Greek Armed Forces in the Middle East|Greece]]}}
| combatant2        = {{plainlist |
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}}
* {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
}}
| commander1        = {{plainlist |
*{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
*{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Harold Alexander]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Bernard Montgomery]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Kenneth Anderson (British Army officer)|Kenneth Anderson]]
* {{flagicon|Free France}} [[Henri Giraud]]}}
| commander2        = {{plainlist |
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} [[Vittorio Ambrosio]]
* {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Albert Kesselring]]
* {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erwin Rommel]]
* {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hans-Jürgen von Arnim|H. J. von Arnim]]{{Surrendered}}
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} [[Giovanni Messe]]{{surrendered}}}}

| strength1         = '''March:'''<br>500,000 troops<br>1,800+ tanks<br>1,200+ field guns<br>Thousands of aircraft<ref name="Mitcham78">Mitcham, p. 78</ref>
| strength2         = '''March:'''<br>350,000 troops{{#tag:ref|2/3 of the combat troops and 1/3 of the support troops were Germans<ref name="Mitcham78"/>|group=nb}}<br>200+ tanks{{#tag:ref|Operational tanks only<ref name="Mitcham78"/>| group=nb}}<br>1,000+ field guns<br>Thousands of aircraft<ref name="Mitcham78"/>
| casualties1       = 76,020<br />849 aircraft destroyed<br>340+ tanks lost{{#tag:ref|183 lost in the [[Battle of Kasserine Pass]], 6 lost in the [[Battle of Medenine]], 40 lost in the [[Battle of El Guettar]], 16 lost in Operation Oxhead ([[Operation Ochsenkopf]]), at least 51 lost in the [[Battle of the Mareth Line]], 32 lost in the [[Battle of Wadi Akarit]], 12 lost in [[Operation Vulcan]] and several more lost in minor battles.<ref name="Mitcham78"/>|group=nb}}
| casualties2       = 290,000–362,000 (238,000–300,000 captured)<br />
2,422+ aircraft destroyed<br />
600+ aircraft captured<br>450+ tanks lost{{#tag:ref|Mitcham lists the following tank losses with no upper limit and no noted losses to mechanical breakdowns. 34 (20 German, 14 Italian) lost in the [[Battle of Kasserine Pass]], 55 (40 German, 15 Italian) lost in the [[Battle of Medenine]], 45 (mostly German) lost in the [[Battle of El Guettar]], 71 (all German) lost in Operation Oxhead ([[Operation Ochsenkopf]]) and 200+ operational tanks (mostly German) lost in actions after March 9. Mitcham also notes that a very large number of tanks were not operational at the time due to previous mechanical issues; for instance, by April 22, only 45% of German tanks were operational, with the rest confined to workshops. Therefore the actual number of tanks lost after March 9 is possibly around 450 rather than 200.<ref>Mitcham, pp. 56 to 84.</ref>|group=nb}}<br>1,000+ guns captured<br>Thousands of trucks captured<ref>Churchill, Winston. "The Hinges of Fate: The Second World War, Volume IV". Houghton Mifflin Company, 1950. Page 697, quoting a telegram from General Alexander on 12 May 1943: "It appears that we have taken over 1,000 guns, of which 180 are [[8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41|88-mm]], 250 tanks and many thousands of motor vehicles, most of which are operational".</ref>
| notes             = 
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox North Africa}}
{{Campaignbox Tunisian Campaign}}
{{Campaignbox Free French}}
}}

The '''Tunisian campaign''' (also known as the '''Battle of Tunisia''') was a series of battles that took place in [[Tunisia]] during the [[North African campaign]] of the [[World War II|Second World War]], between [[Axis powers|Axis]] and [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces from 17 November 1942 to 13 May 1943. The Allies consisted of [[British Empire|British Imperial Forces]], including a [[Sacred Band (World War II)|Greek contingent]], with [[United States|American]] and [[Military history of France during World War II|French corps]]. Despite initial successes by the [[Nazi Germany|German]] and [[Kingdom of Italy|Italian]] forces brought from the mainland and which had withdrawn into and occupied Tunisia [[Western Desert campaign|after their defeat in the Western Desert]] and the success of [[Operation Torch]], massive supply interdiction efforts and Allied assaults from east and west led to the decisive defeat of the Axis. Over 260,000 [[Wehrmacht|German]] and [[Royal Italian Army during World War II|Italian]] troops were taken as [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]], including most of the [[Afrika Korps]].

==Background==

===Western Desert===
The first two years of the [[North African campaign|war in North Africa]] were characterized by chronic supply shortages and transport problems. The North African coast has few natural harbors and the British base at [[Alexandria]] on the [[Nile]] delta was some {{convert|1300|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} by road from the main Italian port at [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]] in [[Libya]]. Smaller ports at [[Benghazi]] and [[Tobruk]] were {{convert|650|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} and {{convert|400|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} west of Alexandria on the [[Litoranea Balbo]] (Via Balbia) running along a narrow corridor along the coast. Control of the central [[Mediterranean]] was contested by the British and Italian navies, which were equally matched and exerted a reciprocal constraint supply through Alexandria, Tripoli, Benghazi and Tobruk, although the British could supply Egypt via the long route through the Atlantic around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and by the [[Indian Ocean]] into the [[Red Sea]].

The chronic difficulty in the  supply of military forces in the desert led to several indecisive victories by both sides and long fruitless advances along the coast. The [[Italian invasion of Egypt]] by the [[Tenth Army (Italy)|10th Army]] in 1940, advanced {{convert|60|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} into Egypt and more than {{convert|1000|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} in a straight line from Tripoli, {{convert|370|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} from Benghazi and {{convert|200|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} from Tobruk. The [[Western Desert Force]] (WDF) fought a delaying action as it fell back to Mersa Matruh (Matruh), then began [[Operation Compass]], a raid and counter-attack into Libya. The 10th Army was destroyed and the WDF occupied El Agheila, some {{convert|600|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} from Alexandria. With the arrival of the German [[Afrika Korps]], the Axis counter-attacked in [[Operation Sonnenblume]] and in April 1941 reached the limit of their supply capacity at the Egyptian border but failed to recapture Tobruk.

In November 1941 the [[Eighth Army (United Kingdom)|British Eighth Army]] recovered, helped by the short supply distance from Alexandria to the front line and launched [[Operation Crusader]], relieving the [[Siege of Tobruk]] and again reached El Agheila. The Eighth Army was soon pushed back to Gazala west of Tobruk and at the [[Battle of Gazala]] in May 1942, the Axis pushed them all the way back to [[First Battle of El Alamein|El Alamein]], only {{convert|100|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} from Alexandria. In 1942, the [[Royal Navy]] and [[Italian Navy]] were still disputing the Mediterranean but the British hold on [[Malta]], and intelligence from [[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]], allowed the [[Royal Air Force]] to sink more Italian supply ships. Large quantities of supplies became available to the British from the United States and the supply situation of the Eighth Army eventually resolved. With the Eighth Army no longer constrained, the Axis were driven westwards from [[Egypt]] following the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]] in November 1942.

===Operation Torch===
{{Main|Operation Torch}}
[[File:Near Algiers, "Torch" troops hit the beaches behind a large American flag "Left" hoping for the French Army not fire... - NARA - 195516.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|American troops land on an Algerian beach during [[Operation Torch]].]]
In July 1942, the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] discussed relatively small-scale [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious operations]] to land in northern France during 1942 ([[Operation Sledgehammer]], which was the forerunner of [[Operation Roundup (1942)|Operation Roundup]], the main landings in 1943), but agreed that these operations were impractical and should be deferred.<ref>Playfair, p. 111.</ref> Instead it was agreed that landings would be made to secure the [[Vichy France|Vichy territories]] in North Africa ([[French Morocco|Morocco]], [[French Algeria|Algeria]] and [[French Tunisia|Tunisia]]) and then to thrust east to take the Axis forces in the Western Desert in their rear.<ref name=":0">Playfair, p. 114.</ref> An Allied occupation of the whole of the North African coast would open the Mediterranean to Allied shipping, releasing the huge capacity required to maintain supplies around the circuitous route via the Cape of Good Hope. On 8 November, [[Operation Torch]] landed Allied forces in Algeria (at Oran and Algiers) and Morocco (at Casablanca) with the intention that once Vichy forces in Algeria had capitulated, an advance would be made to Tunis some {{convert|500|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} to the east.

==Prelude==

===Allied plans===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-049-0008-31, Tunesien, Panzer VI (Tiger I).jpg|thumb|[[Tiger I|Tiger]] tank in a Tunisian village, 1943.]]
Because of the nearness of Sicily to Tunisia, the Allies expected that the Axis would move to occupy the country as soon as they heard of the Torch landings.<ref>Playfair, pp. 151–152.</ref> To forestall this, it would be necessary to occupy Tunisia as quickly as possible after the landings were made. However, there was a limit to how far east the Torch landings could be made because of the increasing proximity of Axis airfields in Sicily and Sardinia which at the end of October held 298&nbsp;German and 574&nbsp;Italian aircraft.<ref>Playfair, p. 116.</ref> Algiers was accordingly chosen for the most easterly landings. This would ensure the success of the initial landings in spite of uncertainty as to how the incumbent French forces would react. Once Algiers was secured, a small force, the Eastern Task Force, would be projected as quickly as possible into Tunisia in a race to occupy Tunis, some {{Convert|500|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} distant along poor roads in difficult terrain during the winter rainy season, before the Axis could organise.<ref>Playfair, pp. 117–118.</ref>

However, because planners had to assume the worst case regarding the extent of Vichy opposition at Algiers, the invasion convoys were assault-loaded with a preponderance of infantry to meet heavy ground opposition. This meant that at Algiers the disembarkation of mobile forces for an advance to Tunisia would necessarily be delayed.<ref>Hinsley, pp. 472–473</ref> Plans were thus a compromise, and the Allies realised that an attempt to reach Bizerte and Tunis overland before the Axis could establish themselves represented a gamble that depended on the ability of the navy and air force to delay the Axis build-up.<ref name="Playfair239">Playfair, p. 239.</ref> The Allies, although they had provided for the possibility of strong Vichy opposition to their landings both in terms of infantry and air force allocations, seriously underestimated the Axis appetite for and speed of intervention in Tunisia.<ref>Hinsley, p. 487</ref>

Once operations had commenced, despite clear intelligence reports regarding the Axis reaction, the Allies were slow to respond. It was not until nearly two weeks after the landings that air and naval plans were made to interdict Axis sea transport to Tunis.<ref>Hinsley, p. 493</ref> At the end of November, naval [[Force K]] was reformed in Malta with three cruisers and four destroyers and Force Q formed in Bône with three cruisers and two destroyers. No Axis ships sailing to Tunis were sunk in November but the Allied naval forces had some success in early December sinking seven Axis transports. However, this came too late to affect the fighting on land because the armoured elements of 10th ''Panzer'' Division had already arrived. To counter the surface threat, Axis convoys were switched to daylight when they could be protected by air cover, simultaneously denying the Allies the advantage of using radar in night surface combat. Night convoys resumed on completion of the extension of Axis minefields which severely restricted the activities of Force K and Force Q.<ref>Hinsley, pp. 495–496</ref>

===Tunisia===
[[File:Tunisia1942-1943.svg|thumb|Sketch map of Tunisia during the 1942–1943 campaign]]
Tunisia is said to be shaped like a pregnant woman, with its northern and much of its eastern boundary (the head and belly) on the Mediterranean coast. Most of the inland western border with Algeria (the back) is astride the eastern line of the [[Atlas Mountains]] which run from the Atlantic coast of Morocco, {{convert|1200|mi|km|order=flip}} east to Tunis. This portion of the border is easily defensible at the small number of passes through the two north–south lines of the mountains. In the south a lower range of mountains limit the approaches to a narrow gap, facing Libya to the east, between the Matmata Hills and the coast. The French had earlier constructed a {{convert|20|km|mi}} wide and {{convert|30|km|mi}} deep series of defensive works known as the [[Mareth Line]] along the plain, to defend against an Italian invasion from Libya.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=117}}

Only in the north was the terrain favourable to attack; here the Atlas Mountains stopped near the eastern coast, leaving a large area on the north-west coast unprotected. Defensive lines in the north could deal with approaching forces, while the Mareth Line made the south secure. In between, there were only a few easily defended passes through the Atlas Mountains.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|pp=117–119}} Tunisia has two big deep water ports at [[Tunis]] and [[Bizerte]], only a few hundred miles from Italian supply bases in [[Sicily]]. Ships could deliver supplies at night, safe from RAF patrols and return the next night, while Libya was a full-day trip, making supply operations vulnerable to daylight air attacks. In [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s view, Tunisia could be held indefinitely, upsetting Allied plans in Europe.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=171}}

==Run for Tunis==
{{Main|Run for Tunis}}
[[File:Tunisia25Novto10Dec1942.jpg|thumb|Tunisia campaign operations 25 November to 10 December 1942]]
By 10 November, French opposition to the ''Torch'' landings had ceased, creating a military vacuum in Tunisia.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=2}} The [[First Army (United Kingdom)|First Army]] (Lieutenant-General [[Kenneth Anderson (British Army officer)|Kenneth Anderson]]) was immediately ordered to send the [[36th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)|36th Infantry Brigade Group]], which had been the floating reserve for the Algiers landing, eastward by sea to occupy the Algerian ports of Bougie, Philippeville, and Bône, and the airfield at Djedjelli, preliminary to advancing into Tunisia. The Combined Chiefs of Staff had decided that with the forces available, ''Torch'' would not include landings close to Tunisia. Anderson needed to get his limited force east quickly, before the Axis could reinforce Tunisia, but the Allies had only two brigade groups and some additional armour and artillery for the attack.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=2}}{{refn|After the event, Anderson and Cunningham, the naval commander, expressed the view that without landings east of Algiers, the race for [[Tunis]] was lost before it started.<ref>Hinsley, p. 492</ref> Eisenhower, when accepting the Combined Chiefs' ruling, pointed out that the decision not to land east of Algiers removed the early capture of Tunis "from the realm of the probable to the remotely possible".<ref>Eisenhower, p. 90</ref>|group="nb"}}

The French governor in Tunisia, [[Jean-Pierre Esteva|Admiral Esteva]], was afraid to support the Allies or oppose the Axis, and did not close airfields to either side. The Germans moved first: by 9 November there were reports of 40 German aircraft arriving at Tunis and by 10 November, aerial reconnaissance reported 100&nbsp;aircraft.<ref>Playfair, p. 152.</ref> Two days later, an airlift began that carried over 15,000&nbsp;men and {{convert|581|LT|t}} of supplies, and ships brought 176 tanks, 131 artillery pieces, 1,152 vehicles and {{convert|13000|LT|t}} of supplies. By the end of the month, three German divisions, including the [[German 10th Panzer Division|10th Panzer Division]], and part of the Italian [[1st Infantry Division "Superga"]], had arrived. On January 16, [[Arturo Benigni|Gen. Arturo Benigni]], Infantry Commander of the "Superga", was the first senior Italian officer on the ground.<ref name=":1" /> [[Walther Nehring]] took command of the new XC Corps on 12 November and arrived on 17 November. The French military commander in Tunisia, General Barré, moved troops into the western mountains of Tunisia and formed a defensive line from Tebersouk through [[Majaz al Bab]] (Medjez el Bab).<ref name="Watson60">Watson (2007), p. 60</ref>

There were two roads eastwards into Tunisia from Algeria. The Allied plan was to advance along the two roads and take Bizerte and Tunis. On 11 November, the British 36th Infantry Brigade had landed unopposed at Bougie but supply shortages delayed their arrival at Djedjelli until 13 November.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=2}} Bône airfield was occupied following a parachute drop by British [[3rd Parachute Battalion]] and this was followed by [[No. 6 Commando]] seizing the port on 12 November. Advanced guards of the 36th Infantry Brigade reached Tebarka on 15 November and Djebel Abiod on 18 November, where they met Axis forces. Further south, on 15 November, a US parachute battalion made an unopposed drop at Youks-les-Bains, captured the airfield, and advanced to take the airfield at Gafsa on 17 November.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|pp=4–6}}

On 19 November Nehring demanded passage for his forces across the bridge at Medjez and was refused by Barré. The Germans attacked twice and were repulsed, but the French defensive success was costly, and, lacking armour and artillery, the French had to withdraw.<ref name="Watson60"/>{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=6}} Some Vichy French forces, such as Barré's, joined the Allies but the overall attitude of Vichy forces remained uncertain until on 22 November, when the "Darlan Deal" placed French North Africa on the Allied side. This allowed US and British forces that had been securing Algeria to go to the front. By this time, the Axis had deployed a corps in Tunisia and outnumbered the Allies there in almost all ways.

[[File:SC167334t.jpg|thumb|US crew of an [[M3 Lee]] tank at Souk el Arba, 23 November 1942]]
<!-- [[501st heavy tank battalion (Germany)]] links here, please do not change the section title without re-linking -->
Two Allied brigade groups advanced toward Djebel Abiod and Béja respectively. The ''[[Luftwaffe]]'', happy to have local air superiority while Allied planes had to fly from relatively distant bases in Algeria, harassed the two groups all the way.<ref>Ford (1999), p. 17</ref> On 17 November, the same day Nehring arrived, the leading elements of the British 36th Brigade on the northern road met a mixed force of 17 tanks and 400&nbsp;paratroops with self-propelled guns at Djebel Abiod. The [[Fallschirmjaeger|German paratroopers]], with Luftwaffe and Italian fire support from the [[1st Infantry Division "Superga"]], knocked out 11&nbsp;tanks but their advance was halted and the fight at Djebel Abiod continued for nine days.<ref>Ford (1999), pp. 19–22</ref> On 22 November, tanks from the Italian [[L Special Brigade (Italy)|L Special Brigade]] forced US paratroopers to abandon Gafsa. The two Allied columns concentrated at Djebel Abiod and Béja, preparing for an assault on 24 November. The 36th Brigade was to advance from Djebel Abiod toward Mateur and [[11th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)|11th Brigade]] was to move down the valley of the River Merjerda to take Majaz al Bab (shown on Allied maps as Medjez el Bab or just 'Medjez') and then to [[Tebourba]], [[Djedeida]] and Tunis. ''Blade Force'', an armoured regimental group made up of 37&nbsp;mm gun [[M3 Stuart]] light tanks and 75&nbsp;mm [[M3 GMC]] self-propelled anti-tank guns, was to strike across country towards Sidi Nsir on minor roads in the gap between the two infantry brigades and make flanking attacks on Tebourba and Djedeida.<ref>Ford (1999), p. 23</ref>

[[File:Crusader Mk III tanks in Tunisia, 31 December 1942. NA323.jpg|thumb|Crusader Mk III tanks in Tunisia, 31 December 1942]]
The northern attack did not take place because torrential rain had slowed the build-up. In the south, 11th Brigade were halted by stiff resistance at Medjez. Blade Force passed through Sidi Nsir to reach the Chouigui Pass, north of Tebourba. Some Stuarts from Blade Force's B Squadron infiltrated behind Axis lines to the newly activated airbase at Djedeida in the afternoon and destroyed more than 20&nbsp;Axis planes but, lacking infantry support, withdrew to Chouigui. The understrength tank squadrons and three M3 GMCs were ordered to hold the pass against a mixed Axis unit of [[Panzer III]] and [[Panzer IV]]s and a small Italian scouting Force, around 15 tanks all told. Frontal attacks by the GMCs and Stuarts were ineffective, losing 12 tanks, but allowed a rear attack by B Squadron firing into the weaker rear armour of the German tanks. The German commander, believing he had encountered a much stronger force, retreated.<ref>Ford (1999), pp. 23–25</ref> Blade Force's attack caught Nehring by surprise and he decided to withdraw from Medjez and strengthen Djedeida, only, {{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Tunis.<ref>Ford (1999), p.25</ref> The 36th Brigade's delayed attack began on 26 November but they were ambushed, with the leading battalion taking 149&nbsp;casualties.<ref>Ford (1999), p.28</ref> Further attacks were driven back from cleverly planned interlocking defences.
1 Commando landed {{convert|14|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} west of Bizerte on 30 November to outflank the Jefna position, but failed and rejoined 36th Brigade by 3 December.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=6}} The position remained in German hands until the last days of fighting in Tunisia the following spring.<ref>Ford (1999), p. 40</ref>

Early on 26 November, as the Germans withdrew, 11 Brigade were able to enter Medjez unopposed and by late in the day had taken positions in and around Tebourba, which had been evacuated by the Germans preparatory to advancing on Djedeida. However, on 27 November the Germans attacked in strength. 11th Brigade tried to regain the initiative in the early hours of 28 November, attacking toward Djedeida airfield with the help of US armour, but failed.<ref>Ford (1999), pp. 37–38</ref> On 29 November, Combat Command B of US 1st Armored Division concentrated forward for an attack in conjunction with Blade Force planned for 2 December. They were forestalled by an Axis counter-attack, led by Major-General [[Wolfgang Fischer]], whose [[10th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|10th Panzer Division]] had just arrived in Tunisia.<ref>Watson (2007), pp. 62–63</ref> By the evening of 2 December, Blade Force had been withdrawn, leaving 11th Brigade and Combat Command B to deal with the Axis attack.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=6}} The attack threatened to cut off 11th Brigade and break through into the Allied rear, but desperate fighting over four days delayed the Axis advance and permitted a controlled withdrawal to the high ground on each side of the river west of Tebourba.<ref>Ford (1999), p. 50</ref>

The Allied force initially withdrew {{convert|6|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} to the high positions of Longstop Hill (roughly, Djebel el Ahmera) and Bou Aoukaz) on each side of the river. Concern over the vulnerability to flanking attacks prompted a further withdrawal west. By the end of 10 December, Allied units held a defensive line just east of Medjez el Bab. Here, they started a build up for another attack and were ready by late December 1942. The slow build up had brought Allied force levels up to a total of 54,000&nbsp;British, 73,800&nbsp;American and 7,000&nbsp;French troops. A hasty intelligence review of Axis forces showed about 125,000&nbsp;combat and 70,000&nbsp;service troops, mostly Italian, in front of them. The main attack began the afternoon of 22 December. Despite rain and insufficient air cover, progress was made up the lower ridges of the {{convert|900 |ft|m|adj=on}} Longstop Hill that controlled the river corridor from Medjez to Tebourba and thence to Tunis. After three days of to-and-fro fighting, with ammunition running low and Axis forces now holding adjacent high ground, the Longstop position became untenable and the Allies were forced to withdraw to Medjez.<ref>Ford (1999), pp. 53–54</ref> By 26 December 1942 the Allies had withdrawn to the line they had set out from two weeks earlier, having suffered 20,743 casualties.

===Aftermath===

====French politics====
[[File:Charles de Gaulle 1943 Tunisia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|General [[Charles de Gaulle]] and General [[Charles Mast]] saluting at Tunis, Tunisia, 1943]]
While the battles wound down, factionalism among the French again erupted. On 24 December, [[François Darlan]] was assassinated by an anti-Vichy French monarchist and [[Henri Giraud]] succeeded him as High Commissioner. To the frustration of the Free French, the [[Government of the United States|US government]] had displayed considerable willingness to make a deal with Darlan and the Vichyists. Consequently, Darlan's death appeared to present an opportunity to bring together the French in North Africa and [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s Free French. De Gaulle and Giraud met in late January but little progress was made in reconciling their differences or the constituencies they represented.<ref>Playfair, p. 266.</ref> It was not until June 1943 that the [[French Committee of National Liberation]] (CFLN) was formed under the joint chairmanship of Giraud and de Gaulle. De Gaulle quickly eclipsed Giraud, who openly disliked political responsibility and more or less willingly from then on deferred to the Leader of the Free French.

====Command changes====
Nehring, considered by most to be an excellent commander, had continually infuriated his superiors with outspoken critiques. He was "replaced" when the command was renamed the [[5th Panzer Army]] and Colonel-General [[Hans-Jürgen von Arnim]] arrived, unannounced, on 8 December to assume command. The Army consisted of the composite [[Division von Broich/von Manteuffel|von Broich battlegroup]] in the Bizerte area, the 10th Panzer Division in the centre before Tunis and the 1st Infantry Division "Superga" on the southern flank, but Hitler had told Arnim that the army would grow to three mechanised and three motorised divisions.<ref>Watson (2007), p. 64</ref> The Allies had tried to prevent the Axis build up with substantial air and sea forces but Tunis and Bizerte were only {{convert|120|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} from the ports and airfields of western Sicily, {{convert|180|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} from Palermo, and {{convert|300|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} from Naples, making it very difficult to intercept Axis transports, which had the benefit of substantial air cover.<ref name="Playfair239"/> From mid-November 1942 to January 1943, 243,000&nbsp;men and {{convert|856000|LT|t}} of supplies and equipment arrived in Tunisia by sea and air.

General Eisenhower transferred further units from Morocco and Algeria eastward into Tunisia. In the north, the British First Army, over the next three months, received three more British divisions, the [[History of the British 1st Division during the World Wars|1st]], [[4th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|4th]], and [[46th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|46th Infantry Divisions]], joining the [[6th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|6th Armoured]] and [[78th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|78th Infantry Divisions]]. By late March the British [[IX Corps (United Kingdom)|IX Corps]] HQ ([[Lieutenant-general (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]] [[John Crocker]]) had arrived to join the British [[V Corps (United Kingdom)|V Corps]] (Lieutenant-General [[Charles Walter Allfrey|Charles Allfrey]]) in commanding the expanded army. On their right flank, the basis of a two-division French [[19th Army Corps (France)|XIX Corps]] (General [[Alphonse Juin]]) was assembling.<ref>Playfair, pp. 258–259.</ref>

In the south was the [[II Corps (United States)|US II Corps]] ([[Major general (United States)|Major General]] [[Lloyd Fredendall]]), consisting of the [[1st Infantry Division (United States)|1st]] and [[34th Infantry Division (United States)|34th Infantry Divisions]] and the [[1st Armored Division (United States)|1st Armored Division]] (although the 34th Division was attached to the British IX Corps to the north). Giraud refused to have the French XIX Corps under the command of the British First Army and so they, along with the US II Corps, remained under command of [[Allied Force Headquarters]] (AFHQ). New forward airfields were built to improve air support.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=7}} The Americans also began bases in Algeria and Tunisia, to form a large forward base at Maknassy, on the eastern edge of the Atlas Mountains, well placed to cut off the ''Panzerarmee'' in the south from Tunis and the Fifth Panzer Army in the north.

==Kasserine==

===Prelude===
[[File:Giovanni Messe.jpg|thumb|upright|Italian General Giovanni Messe]]

During the first half of January, Anderson had with mixed results kept constant pressure through limited attacks and reconnaissance in strength.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=8}} Arnim did the same and on 18 January, launched Operation '' Eilbote I'' ("Courier I").<ref>Watson (2007), p. 67</ref> Elements of the 10th Panzer and 334th Infantry divisions attacked from Pont du Fahs to create more space in front of the Superga and [[Arturo Benigni|Benigni]] Sectors<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=D'Adamo |first=Cristiano |title=Abschnitt Benigni - A biography of the Bersagliere General Arturo Benigni |publisher=IS Advisory Group |year=2025 |isbn=979-8-218-71378-2 |location=Napa, California |language=EN}}</ref> and forestall an Allied thrust east to the coast at Enfidaville, to cut Rommel's line of communication.<ref>Playfair, pp. 278–279.</ref> The westward thrust against the right wing of the British V Corps at Bou Arada had little success but further south his attack against French positions around the "hinge" of the Western and Eastern Dorsals succeeded, advancing {{convert|35|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} south to Ousseltia and {{convert|25|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} south-west to Robaa. The poorly equipped defenders resisted well but were overwhelmed and the equivalent of seven infantry battalions were cut off in the mountains.<ref>Playfair, p. 279</ref> Anderson sent the 36th Brigade to Robaa and requested Lloyd Fredendall to send Combat Command B from 1st Armored Division to Ousseltia, to come under Juin's orders on arrival. Fierce fighting lasted until 23 January but the front was stabilised.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=8}}

The obvious lack of Allied co-ordination led Eisenhower to change the command structure. On 21 January Anderson was made responsible for the co-ordination of the whole front, and on 24 January his responsibilities were extended to include "the employment of American troops". That night, Juin accepted the command of Anderson, confirmed by Giraud the next day but with forces spread over a {{convert|200|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} front and poor communication (Anderson motored over {{convert|1000|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} in four days to speak to the corps commanders) the practical difficulties remained. Eisenhower appointed an air support commander, Brigadier General [[Laurence S. Kuter]], for the whole front on 21 January.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=8}}

[[Erwin Rommel]] had made plans for forces retreating through Libya to dig-in in front of the defunct French fortifications of the Mareth Line. The Axis forces would control the two natural entrances into Tunisia in the north and south, with only the easily defensible mountain passes between them. In January, those parts of the German-Italian Panzer Army on the Mareth defences were renamed First Italian Army (General [[Giovanni Messe]]), separate from the units (including the remains of the ''Afrika Korps'') he had facing the Western Dorsale. On 23 January 1943, the Eighth Army took Tripoli, by which point the army retreating through Libya was already well on its way to the Mareth position. Part of the II US Corps crossed into Tunisia through passes in the Atlas Mountains from Algeria, controlling the interior of the triangle formed by the mountains. Their position raised the possibility of a thrust eastwards towards Sfax on the coast, to cut off the First Italian Army at Mareth from  Arnim's forces to the north around Tunis. Rommel could not allow this and formed a plan for a spoiling attack.

===Battle of Sidi Bou Zid===
{{Further|Battle of Sidi Bou Zid}}
[[File:Tunisia30Janto10Apr1943.jpg|thumb|upright|8th Army operations, 30 January to 10 April 1943]]
On 30 January 1943, the German 21st Panzer and three Italian divisions from the 5th Panzer Army met elements of the French forces near Faïd, the main pass from the eastern arm of the mountains into the coastal plains. Fredendall did not respond to the French request to send reinforcements in the form of tanks from 1st Armored Division and after desperate resistance, the under-equipped French defenders were overrun.<ref name="Watson68">Watson (2007), p. 68</ref> Several counterattacks were organised, including a belated attack by Combat Command B of the US 1st Armored Division but all of these were beaten off with ease by Arnim's forces which by this time had created strong defensive positions.<ref name="Watson68"/> After three days, the Allied forces had been forced to pull back and were withdrawn into the interior plains to make a new forward defensive line at the small town of [[Sbeitla]].

In Operation ''Frühlingswind'' ("spring wind"), Arnim ordered four armoured battle groups forward on 14 February in the area of Sidi Bou Zid held by 34th Infantry Division's 168th Regimental Combat Team and 1st Armored Division's Combat Command A. The defenders' dispositions were poor, with concentrations dispersed so that they were unable to be mutually supportive. By 15 February, CCA had been severely damaged leaving the infantry units isolated on hilltops. Combat Command C was ordered across country to relieve Sidi Bou Zid but were repelled with heavy losses. By the evening of 15 February, three of the Axis battlegroups were able to head toward Sbeitla, {{convert|20|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} to the northwest.<ref name="watson77">Watson (2007), p.77</ref> Pushing aside the remains of CCA and CCC, the battlegroups were confronted by Combat Command B in front of Sbeitla. With the help of air support, CCB held on through the day. However, the air support could not be sustained and the defenders of Sbeitla were obliged to withdraw and the town lay empty by midday on 17 February.<ref name="watson77"/>

To the south, in Operation ''Morgenluft'' ("morning air"), an Italian First Army battlegroup made up of the remains of the Afrika Korps under [[Karl Bülowius]] had advanced toward Gafsa at dusk on 15 February to find the town deserted, part of a withdrawal to shorten the Allied front to facilitate a reorganisation involving the withdrawal of French XIX Corps in order to re-equip. II US Corps withdrew to the line of Dernaia-Kasserine-Gap-Sbiba with XIX Corps on their left flank vacating the Eastern Dorsal to conform with them.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=9}} By the afternoon of 17 February, Rommel's troops had occupied Feriana and Thelepte (roughly {{Convert|15|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} southwest of Kasserine) forcing the evacuation on the morning of 18 February of Thelepte airfield, the main air base in British First Army's southern sector.<ref>Playfair, p. 294</ref>

===Battle of Kasserine Pass===
{{Main|Battle of Kasserine Pass}}
[[File:Americains Kasserine.jpg|thumb|American troops moving through the Kasserine Pass]]

General [[Vittorio Ambrosio]], the new Chief of the ''[[Comando Supremo]]'' plans to send 10,000 German troops to Tunis, but the decision was never made due to the lack of Italian naval resources. Aside from Kesselring's unfulfilled promises. Ambrosio knew that even with the German support, the Italian defence would be unable to sustain.<ref>H. James Burgwyn, ''Mussolini Warlord: Failed Dreams of Empire, 1940-1943'', p.277</ref> 
After further discussion, the ''Comando Supremo'' issued orders on 19 February for Rommel to attack through the Kasserine and Sbiba passes toward Thala and Le Kef to threaten First Army's flank. Rommel's original proposal was for a limited but concentrated attack through Kasserine to confront II Corps' strength at Tébessa and gain vital supplies from the US dumps there. Although he was to have 10th and 21st Panzer Divisions transferred to his command, Rommel was concerned that the new plan would dilute his force concentration and expose his flanks to threat.<ref>Watson (2007), pp. 80–81</ref>    

On 19 February 1943, Rommel, having now been given formal control of the 10th and 21st Panzer Divisions, the Afrika Korps battlegroup as well as General Messe's forces on the Mareth defences (renamed Italian First Army),<ref name="Watson 2007, p. 82">Watson (2007), p. 82</ref> launched what would become the Battle of Kasserine Pass. Hoping to take the inexperienced defenders by surprise, he sent the light armour of the 3rd Reconnaissance Battalion racing into the pass. Colonel Alexander Stark's ''Stark Force'', a brigade group made up of US and French units, was responsible for the defence of the pass.<ref name="Watson 2007, p. 82"/> It had not had time to organise properly but was able to direct heavy artillery fire from the surrounding heights which brought the  leading mechanised units of the ''Afrika Korps'' battlegroup to a halt.<ref>Watson (2007), p. 84</ref> Before they could continue, infantry had to be sent up into the high ground seeking to eliminate the artillery threat. A battlegroup under Hans-Georg Hildebrand including tanks from 21st Panzer were advancing north from Sbeitla toward the Sbiba Gap. In front of the hills east of Sbiba they were brought to a halt by 1st Guards Brigade and 18th Regimental Combat Team which had strong field and anti-tank artillery support and were joined by two infantry regiments from 34th Infantry Division.<ref>Watson (2007), pp. 86–87</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-787-0510-34A, Nordafrika, feuerndes Geschütz.jpg|thumb|Germans fire an [[88mm gun]] in Tunisia]]

By the morning of 20 February, the bitter hand-to-hand fighting in the hills above Kasserine was continuing while the ''Afrika Korps Kampfgruppe'' and a battalion from the [[131st Armored Division "Centauro"|131st Armoured Division "Centauro"]] and more artillery, prepared for another attack through the pass, once it had been joined by a 10th Panzer Division battle group from Sbeitla. The morning attack made slow progress but the intense pressure applied during the renewed attack that afternoon triggered a collapse in the Allied defences.<ref>Watson (2007), pp. 89–93</ref>

Having rolled through the Kasserine Pass on the afternoon of 20 February, units of the Centauro Division headed west toward Tébessa, meeting little or no resistance. Following them came the von Broich battlegroup from 10th Panzer, which forked right onto the road to Thala where they were slowed by a regimental armoured group from 26th Armoured Brigade (''Gore Force''). Their tanks outgunned, Gore Force sustained heavy losses but bought time for ''Nick Force'', a composite force from British 6th Armoured Division with tanks from the 2nd Lothians and Border Horse of the 26th Armoured Brigade with extra infantry and artillery (which Anderson had ordered the previous day to leave the Kesra area to bolster the Thala defences) to prepare defensive positions further up the road. Meanwhile, Fredendall had sent 1st Armored Division's CCB to meet the threat to Tébessa.<ref>Watson (2007), p. 102</ref>

By 1pm on 21 February, Battlegroup von Broich was in contact with the dug-in tanks of B Squadron 2nd Lothians and Border Horse of the 26th Armoured Brigade on the Thala road and making slow progress. Rommel took direct control of the attack and forced the defences by 4pm.<ref>Watson (2007), p. 103</ref> However, 26th Armoured Brigade were able to withdraw in reasonable order to the next, final, defensive line in front of Thala. Fighting at this position started at 7pm and continued at close quarters for three hours with neither side able to gain a decisive advantage. ''Nick Force'' had taken a heavy beating and did not expect to be able to hold out the next day. However, during the night a further 48 artillery pieces from US 9th Infantry Division arrived after a {{convert|800|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} trip from Morocco on poor roads and in bad weather. On the morning of 22 February, as Broich prepared to launch his attack, his front was hit by a devastating artillery barrage. Rommel told Broich to regroup and assume a defensive posture, so surrendering the initiative.<ref>Watson (2007), p. 104</ref>

The 21st Panzer battlegroup at Sbiba was making no progress. Further south, the ''Afrika Korps'' battlegroup on the road to Tébessa had been halted on 21 February by CCB's armour and artillery dug in on the slopes of Djebel Hamra.<ref>Watson (2007), p. 105</ref> An attempt to outflank them during the night of 21 February was a costly failure. A further attack early on 23 February was again beaten back.<ref>Watson (2007), pp. 106–107</ref> In a dispirited meeting on 22 February with Kesselring, Rommel argued that faced with stiffening defences and the news that the Eighth Army's lead elements had finally reached Medenine, only a few kilometres from the Mareth Line, he should call off the attack and withdraw to support the Mareth defences, hoping that the Kasserine attack had caused enough damage to deter any offensive action from the west. Kesselring was keen for the offensive to continue but finally agreed that evening, and ''Comando Supremo'' formally terminated the operation.<ref>Watson (2007), pp. 109–110</ref> The Axis forces from Kasserine reached the Mareth line on 25 February.

===Aftermath===
[[File:General Alexander, Deputy Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces in North Africa, discussing future operations with the Supreme Commander, General Eisenhower, in Tunisia, 26 July 1943. CNA1074.jpg|thumb|General Alexander, Deputy Commander in Chief Allied Forces in North Africa, discussing operations for Tunisia with the Supreme Commander, General Eisenhower]]

Action then abated for a time and both sides studied the results of recent battles. Rommel remained convinced that US forces posed little threat, while the British and Commonwealth troops were his equal. He held this opinion for far too long, and it would prove very costly. The Americans likewise studied the battle and relieved several senior commanders while issuing several "lessons learned" publications to improve future performance. Most important, on 6 March 1943 command of the II US Corps passed from Fredendall to [[George S. Patton]], with [[Omar Bradley]] as assistant Corps Commander. Commanders were reminded that large units should be kept concentrated to ensure mass on the battlefield, rather than widely dispersed as Fredendall had deployed them. This had the intended side effect of improving the fire control of the already-strong US artillery. Close air support had also been weak (although this had been hampered by the generally poor weather conditions).

At the [[Casablanca Conference]], it had been decided to appoint [[General (United Kingdom)|General]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Sir Harold Alexander]] as Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Allied forces in French North Africa. This came into effect on 20 February and at the same time, in order better to co-ordinate the activities of his two armies in Tunisia, Eisenhower at AFHQ brought First and Eighth Armies under a new headquarters, [[18th Army Group]], which Alexander was to command.<ref>Playfair, p. 303</ref> Shortly after taking up his new appointment, Alexander reported to London,

{{Blockquote|...I am frankly shocked at the whole situation as I have found it...Real fault has been the lack of direction from above from [the] very beginning resulting in no policy and no plan.<ref name="Playfair304">Playfair, p. 304</ref>}}

and was critical of Anderson although this was later felt to be a little unfair. Once he had been given control of the whole front at the end of January, Anderson's aim had been to reorganise the front into consolidated national sectors and create reserves with which to regain the initiative, the same priorities articulated in Alexander's orders dated 20 February.<ref name="Playfair304"/><ref name="Playfair305">Playfair, p. 305.</ref> On 21 February, Alexander declared his objective to destroy all enemy forces in Tunisia by first advancing Eighth Army north of Gabès, while the First Army mounted attacks to draw off reserves which would otherwise be used against the Eighth Army. The armies would gain airfields for the Allied air forces. The co-ordinated land, sea and air power of the Allies would draw a net round the Axis forces in Tunisia by 30 April, to meet the timetable set at the Casablanca Conference to allow Sicily to be invaded during the favourable weather of August.<ref>Playfair, pp. 315–316</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-787-0502-34A, Generaloberst von Arnim und General von Vaerst.jpg|thumb|Hans-Jürgen von Arnim (right) Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Africa]]
The Casablanca Conference had agreed to reorganise the air forces in the Mediterranean to integrate them more closely; Air Chief Marshal Sir [[Arthur Tedder]] was made commander of Mediterranean Air Command, responsible for all Allied air activity in the Mediterranean and Major General [[Carl Andrew Spaatz|Carl Spaatz]] became commander of the [[Northwest African Air Forces]] under Tedder, with responsibility for all air operations in Tunisia.<ref>Playfair, p. 271</ref> By 23 February, Air Marshal Sir [[Arthur Coningham (RAF officer)|Arthur Coningham]] had succeeded Kuter at the Allied Air Support Command, which became Northwest African Tactical Air Force under Spaatz, with the [[Desert Air Force]] supporting Eighth Army, under its operational control.

Coningham found that the air organisation in Tunisia was that of the Western Desert in 1941 when he had first assumed command of the Desert Air Force. The lessons of the Desert Campaign had not been used in planning for Torch, which constrained the ability of the air arm, already short of aircraft and supplies, to provide tactical support to the army during the Run for Tunis. Coningham unified the British and American operational commands and trained them in new operational practices.<ref>Playfair, pp. 307–311</ref>

The Axis also created a combined command for their two armies. Hitler and the German General Staff (OKH) believed that Arnim should assume command but Kesselring argued for Rommel. Rommel was appointed to command the new [[Army Group Africa]] on 23 February.<ref>Watson (2007), pp. 110–111</ref>

==Southern front==

===Battle of Medenine===
{{Main|Battle of Medenine}}
The Eighth Army had been consolidating in front of the Mareth defences since 17 February, and launched probes westward on 26 February. On 6 March 1943, three German armoured divisions, two light divisions and nine Italian divisions launched [[Battle of Medenine|Operation Capri]], an attack southward in the direction of Medenine, the northernmost British strong point. The Axis attack was repulsed with massed artillery fire; 55 Axis tanks were knocked out. With the failure of Capri, Rommel decided that the only way to save the Axis armies would be to abandon the campaign, and on 9 March he travelled to Italy for discussions with ''Comando Supremo'' in Rome. Finding no support for his ideas, he travelled on 10 March to see [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] at his headquarters in [[Ukraine]], to try to convince him to abandon Tunisia and return the Axis armies to Europe. Hitler refused and Rommel was placed, in strict secrecy, on sick leave. Arnim became commander of Army Group Africa.<ref>Watson (2007), pp. 121, 123</ref>

===Battle of the Mareth Line===
{{Main|Battle of the Mareth Line}}

[[File:Italian troops in a cactus field in Tunisia.jpg|thumb|Italian troops in a cactus field in the Mareth Line, 31 March 1943]] 
Montgomery launched [[Battle of the Mareth Line|Operation Pugilist]] against the Mareth Line on the night of 19/20 March 1943. [[XXX Corps (United Kingdom)|XXX Corps]] of the Eighth Army commenced Operation ''Pugilist'' along with the [[50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division]]. They penetrated the [[136th Armored Division "Giovani Fascisti"|136th Armoured Division "Giovani Fascisti"]]-held line{{citation needed|date=April 2022}} and established a small bridgehead west of Zarat on 20/21 March. The terrain and rain however prevented the deployment of tanks, aircraft and anti-tank guns, which left the infantry isolated. A determined counter-attack by [[33rd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|15th Panzer Division]] and the Giovani Fascisti Division on 22 March, recaptured much of the [[bridgehead]]. XXX Corps prepared a new attack towards Tallouf, in which the [[4th Infantry Division (India)|4th Indian Infantry Division]] (Major-General [[Francis Tuker]]) was to make a night attack on {{nowrap|23/24 March,}} around the inland end of the line. This would coincide with the wide left hook manoeuvre Montgomery was planning with a new operation called "Supercharge II".{{sfn|Playfair|2004|pp=337–342}}

On 26 March, [[X Corps (United Kingdom)|X Corps]] (Lieutenant-General [[Brian Horrocks]]) drove around the Matmata Hills, capturing the Tebaga Gap and the town of El Hamma at the northern extreme of the line in "Operation Supercharge II", making the Mareth Line untenable. The following day anti-tank guns from German and Italian units checked the advance of X Corps, to gain time for a withdrawal. In the next 48&nbsp;hours the Axis defenders pulled out of the Mareth Line, establishing a new defensive position {{convert|60|km|mi}} to the north-west at Wadi Akarit near Gabès.

===Gabès===
{{Further|Battle of El Guettar|Battle of Wadi Akarit}}

The reorganised US II Corps advanced from the passes again and got behind the Axis lines; the 10th Panzer Division counter-attacked at the [[Battle of El Guettar]] on 23 March. The German tanks rolling up lead units of the US forces ran into a minefield, and US artillery and anti-tank units opened fire. The 10th Panzer Division rapidly lost 30 tanks and retreated out of the minefield. A second attack supported by infantry in the late afternoon was also repulsed, and the 10th Panzer Division retired to Gabès. The US II Corps was unable to exploit the German failure and each attack was stopped by the 10th Panzer Division or 21st Panzer Division counter-attacks up the road from Gabès; co-ordination of Allied air and ground forces remained unsatisfactory. The Eighth Army and the US II Corps attacked for the next week and on 28 March, the Eighth Army captured El Hamma, forcing the Axis to abandon Gabès and retreat north towards the Fifth Panzer Army. The hills in front of the US forces were abandoned, allowing them to join the British forces in Gabès later that day. The [[2nd New Zealand Division]] and [[1st Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|1st Armoured Division]] pursued the Germans {{convert|140|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on|0}} northwards into defensive positions in the hills west of [[Enfidaville]], which were held until the end of the campaign.

==Northern sector==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-049-0008-33, Nordafrika, Panzer III bei Fluss-Überquerung.jpg|thumb|German [[Panzer III]] tanks advance through a Tunisian town]]
On 26 February, Arnim, in the mistaken belief that the Kasserine battles had forced the Allies to weaken the north to reinforce the south, launched Operation ''Ochsenkopf'' ("Ox Head") against V Corps, across a wide front and commanded by General Weber.<ref name="Playfair326">Playfair, p. 326.</ref> The main attacks were by Corps Weber which had the [[334th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|334th Infantry Division]], newly arrived elements of the [[Hermann Göring Division]] and the part of the 10th Panzer Division not involved in Operation ''Frühlingswind'' ("Spring Wind"). Weber's force was to advance in three groups: a central group moving west toward Medjez el Bab; a second to the north advancing south-west, on the route from [[Mateur]] to [[Béja]] (which was some {{convert|25|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} west of Medjez) and the third group pushing west {{convert|25|mi|km}} south of Medjez. The northern flank of Weber's corps was to be protected by the Manteuffel Division{{refn|Previously von Broich battlegroup, renamed after a change of command|group="nb"}} advancing west (Operation '' Ausladung'') and forcing the Allies out of their advanced positions opposite Green Hill and the Axis-held Jefna Station.<ref>Playfair, p. 306.</ref>

The aim of Operation ''Ausladung'' ("Outward thrust") was to gain control of the vital town of [[Djebel Abiod]]. This attack by the Manteuffel Division made good progress across the French-held, lightly defended hills between [[Cap Serrat]] and the railway town of [[Sedjenane]]. Costly counter-attacks on February 27 and 2 March by part of the [[139th (Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire) Brigade|139th Infantry Brigade]], 46th Infantry Division, [[No. 1 Commando]] and supporting artillery delayed the Axis advance.<ref name="Playfair327"/> Withdrawals of French battalions in the Medjez area to join XIX Corps, left little opposition to the German occupation of the high ground dominating the town, which was left in a dangerous salient.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=10}} As a result, Sedjenane was abandoned by the British on 4 March and the 139th Infantry Brigade was pushed slowly back over the next three weeks some {{convert|15|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} toward Djebel Abiod.

===Operation Ochsenkopf===
{{Further|Operation Ochsenkopf}}
[[File:British 4.5 inch gun and crew Tunisia 1943 IWM TR 1004.jpg|thumb|left|A British [[BL 4.5-inch Medium Field Gun|4.5 inch medium gun]] firing on targets spotted by the [[RAF]]]]
The main offensive, ''Ochsenkopf'' led to fierce fighting - ''Kampfgruppe'' Lang attacking in the northern sector were held up by a small force of artillery and a battalion of the [[Royal Hampshire Regiment|Hampshire Regiment]] for a whole day at [[Sidi Nsir]] and ''Hampshire Farm'' before they could be overcome. This delay was critical and as a result the British force was able to prepare a significant killing field at Hunts Gap (an area between Medjez and about {{convert|15|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} north-east of Béja).<ref name="Perrett139">Perrett (2012) pp 139-40</ref> In the Southern attack ''Kampfgruppe'' Audorff made some progress west toward Medjez el Bab but a British [[ad hoc]] force, Y Division was able to repel the Southern attack; particularly after two [[Churchill tank]]s shot up an entire German transport column at a place called 'Steamroller' Farm.<ref name="Rolf152">Rolf (2001) pp 152-53</ref> The final attack by Lang's battered force was stopped at Hunt's Gap by the [[128th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)|128th Infantry Brigade]] of the 46th Infantry Division with substantial artillery, RAF air cover and two squadrons of Churchill tanks from the [[North Irish Horse]] under command.<ref name="Playfair327">Playfair, p. 327.</ref>

Fighting lasted until 5 March and in terrible weather conditions the operation was called off by Arnim.<ref>Watson p 113</ref> The failure had cost the Axis grievous losses in infantry as well as tanks, particularly the loss of many of the heavy Tiger Tanks.<ref name="Rolf152"/> Ochsenkopf was to be the last major Axis offensive by the 5th Panzer Army.<ref name="Windrow">Windrow p 23</ref> On 25 March, Alexander ordered a counter-attack on the V Corps front and on 28 March, Anderson attacked with the 46th Infantry Division, with the [[138th (Lincoln and Leicester) Brigade|138th Infantry Brigade]], 128th Infantry Brigade in reserve and reinforced by the 36th Infantry Brigade, [[1st Parachute Brigade (United Kingdom)|1st Parachute Brigade]] and French units including a [[tabor (Morocco)|tabor]] of specialist mountain [[Goumier]]s, the artillery of two divisions plus more from army resources. In four days, it succeeded in recapturing all lost ground and took 850&nbsp;German and Italian prisoners.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=10}} On 7 April, Anderson tasked the 78th Infantry Division with clearing the Béja-Medjez road. Supported by artillery and close air support, they methodically advanced {{convert|10|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} through difficult mountain terrain over the next ten days, clearing a front {{convert|10|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} wide. The 4th Infantry Division joined the fighting, taking position on the left of the 78th Division and pushing toward Sidi Nsir.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=11}}

==Allied victory==
===Allied plans===
{{See also|British First Army order of battle, 20 April 1943}}
[[File:Tunisia20Aprto13May1943.jpg|thumb|Tunisia Campaign operations, 20 April to 13 May 1943]]
The salient at Medjez had been relieved and lateral roads in the V Corps area cleared so that Anderson was able to turn his full attention to the orders he had received on 12 April from Alexander to prepare the large-scale attack, scheduled for 22 April, to gain Tunis.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=11}} By this stage, Allied aircraft had been moved forward to airfields in Tunisia to prevent the aerial supply of Axis troops in North Africa ([[Operation Flax]]) and large numbers of German transport aircraft were shot down between Sicily and Tunis. British destroyers operating from Malta prevented marine supply, reinforcement or evacuation of Tunisia by sea ([[Operation Retribution (1943)|Operation Retribution]]). Admiral [[Andrew Cunningham, 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope|Cunningham]], Eisenhower's Naval Task Force commander, issued Nelsonian orders to his ships: ''"Sink, burn, capture, destroy. Let nothing pass"'' but very few Axis ships even attempted passage. By 18 April, after attacks by Eighth Army from the south and flanking attacks by IX Corps and French XIX Corps, the Axis forces had been pushed into a defensive line on the north-east coast of Tunis, attempting to protect their supply lines but with little hope of continuing the battle for long.

Alexander planned that while II US Corps would attack on the north towards Bizerte, First Army would attack towards Tunis while Eighth Army attacked north from Enfidaville. Anderson would co-ordinate the actions of First Army and II US Corps, issuing the appropriate orders to achieve this.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=11}} Anderson's plan was for the main attack to be in the centre of the V Corps front at Medjez, confronting main Axis defences. However, IX Corps on the right would first attack north-east with, by speed of movement, the intention of getting in behind the Medjez position and disrupting their armoured reserves. II US Corps would make a double thrust: one to capture the high ground on V Corps' left flank and a second toward Bizerte. French XIX Corps would be held back until IX Corps and Eighth Army had drawn in the opposition and then advance toward Pont du Fahs.

===Operation Vulcan===
{{further|Operation Vulcan}}
The Allied forces had reorganised and during the night of 19/20 April, the Eighth Army captured Enfidaville against the Italian [[16th Motorized Division "Pistoia"]], which counter-attacked several times over the next three days and was repulsed and the action at [[Takrouna]] also took place. The northward advance of Eighth Army had "pinched out" US II Corps' eastward facing front line, allowing the corps to be withdrawn and switched to the northern end of the Allied front. Arnim knew that an Allied offensive was imminent and launched a spoiling attack on the night of 20/21 April, between Medjez and Goubellat on the IX Corps front. The Hermann Göring Division supported by tanks from 10th Panzer Division penetrated up to {{convert|5|mi|km}} at some points but could not force a general withdrawal and eventually returned to their lines. No serious disruption was caused to Allied plans, except that the first attack of the offensive, by IX Corps, was delayed by four hours from 4:00&nbsp;a.m. on 22 April.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=12}}

On the morning of 22 April, the 46th Division attacked on the IX Corps front, creating a gap for the 6th Armoured Division to pass through by nightfall, followed by 1st Armoured Division, striking east for the next two days but not quick enough to forestall the creation of a strong anti-tank screen which halted their progress. The battle had drawn the Axis reserves of armour south, away from the central front. Seeing that no further progress was likely, Anderson withdrew the 6th Armoured Division and most of the 46th Infantry Division into army reserve.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=12}} The V Corps attack began on the evening of 22 April and the US II Corps launched their offensive in the early hours of 23 April in the [[Battle of Hill 609]], in which the hill was captured, which opened the way to Bizerte. In grim hand-to hand fighting against the Hermann Göring Division, 334th Infantry and 15th Panzer Divisions, it took V Corps with the 1st, 4th and 78th Infantry Divisions, supported by army tanks and heavy artillery concentrations, eight days to penetrate {{convert|6|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} and capture most of the Axis defensive positions.

The fighting was mutually costly but in the [[Battle of Longstop Hill (1943)|Battle of Longstop Hill]], Longstop was captured, which opened the way to Tunis and Anderson felt a breakthrough was imminent.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=12}} On 30 April, after a failed attempt by the [[169th (3rd London) Brigade|169th Infantry Brigade]] of the recently arrived [[56th (London) Infantry Division]], which had just arrived over 3,300 miles from [[Syria]], it had become clear to both Montgomery and Alexander that an Eighth Army attack north from Enfidaville, into strongly-held and difficult terrain, would not succeed. General Alexander gave Montgomery a holding task and transferred the British [[7th Armoured Division (United Kingdom)|7th Armoured Division]], the [[4th Infantry Division (India)|4th Indian Infantry Division]] and the [[22nd Guards Brigade|201st Guards Motor Brigade]] from the Eighth Army to the First Army, joining the British 1st Armoured Division which had been transferred before the main offensive Operation Strike.<ref>Mead, p. 44</ref>

=== Axis evacuation plans === 
Large-scale evacuations were no longer undertaken by the Germans and Italians, despite pleas from [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel]] and [[Hans-Jürgen von Arnim|von Arnim]] as early as March 1943.<ref>I. S. O. Playfair et al., ''The Mediterranean and Middle East'', Vol. IV: ''The Destruction of the Axis Forces in Africa'' (London: HMSO, 1966), pp. 370–372.</ref> The Allied blockade operations, [[Operation Flax|Flax]] and [[Operation Retribution|Retribution]], had made such attempts virtually impossible, except perhaps at the cost of enormous losses.

The Abwicklungsstab Tunis, responsible for administratively and logistically managing German losses after the capitulation in North Africa, nevertheless reported in September 1944 that 25,000 troops had allegedly been evacuated.<ref>Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, ''Abwicklungsstab Tunis Report'', BA‑MA RH 6/565, 30 September 1944; summarized at WW2Stats.com – German Casualty Variants, Abwicklungsstab Tunis.</ref>

The situation in April and May 1943 was confusing. Transport missions from Sicily to Tunisia (by ship and air) usually returned loaded with wounded and sometimes unwounded troops. How desperate the situation had become is illustrated by the events of the evening of 18 April: only six transports made it back to Sicily out of 65 that had left Tunis. Flying at sea level, half of them were shot down and the remainder turned back damaged.<ref>John Weal, ''Jagdgeschwader 27 “Afrika”'', Aviation Elite Units, Vol. 12 (London: Osprey Publishing, 2003), p. 72.</ref>

Yet the Germans and Italians continued, with all remaining aircraft and ships, to desperately evacuate troops. On 7 May 1943, the Italian hospital ships ''[[SS Aquileia|Aquileia]]'' and ''Virgilio'' managed to transport several hundred wounded troops to [[Trapani]] in [[Sardinia]], despite Allied attacks.<ref>''Kriegstagebuch der Seekriegsleitung'', May 1943; see also: SS Aquileia, Wikipedia.</ref> After 7 May, any further evacuation was virtually impossible.

Despite the impossibility of larger operations, the Germans nevertheless managed to fly several senior officers out of the pocket. At the end of April and in early May, some fell ill and were sent out of Tunisia, thus escaping capture. These included [[Friedrich Weber (general)|Weber]] (334th Division), [[Hasso von Manteuffel|von Manteuffel]] (Manteuffel Division), and [[Fritz Bayerlein|Bayerlein]], [[Giovanni Messe|Messe]]’s German Chief of Staff. They were replaced by Major-General Krause, Major-General Buelowius, and Oberst Markert, respectively. [[Friedrich-Wilhelm Gause|Gause]] was summoned to a conference in Italy on 4 May, and [[Joseph Schmid|Schmid]] (Hermann Göring Division) was ordered by [[Hermann Göring|Göring]] himself to fly out on 9 May.<ref>I. S. O. Playfair et al., ''The Mediterranean and Middle East'', Vol. IV: ''The Destruction of the Axis Forces in Africa'' (London: HMSO, 1966), pp. 444–445.</ref>

As for Italian officers, only [[Umberto Sozzani|Sozzani]] and [[Filippo Calvi di Bergolo|Calvi di Bergolo]] are known to have been evacuated.

===Operation Strike===
{{Further|Operation Strike}}
{{See also|British First Army order of battle, 4 May 1943}}
[[File:The British Army in Tunisia 1943 NA2514.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|German troops surrender to British crew of a [[Stuart tank]] near [[Frendj]], 6 May 1943.]]

Allied redeployments were complete by the night of 5 May; Anderson had arranged for a dummy concentration of tanks near Bou Arada on the IX Corps front, to deflect attention from the arrival of the 7th Armoured Division in the Medjez sector and achieved a considerable measure of surprise as to the size of the armoured force when the attack began.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=13}} The final assault was launched at 3:30&nbsp;a.m. on 6 May by IX Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General [[Brian Horrocks]] who had taken over from Lieutenant-General John Crocker, who had been wounded. V Corps, under Lieutenant-General [[Charles Walter Allfrey]], had made a preliminary attack on 5 May, to capture high ground and secure the left flank of IX Corps. The 4th British and 4th Indian Divisions, concentrated on a narrow front and supported by heavy artillery concentrations, broke a hole in the defences for the 6th and 7th Armoured divisions to pass through. On 7 May, British armour entered Tunis and American infantry from II Corps, which had continued its advance in the north, entered Bizerte.{{sfn|Anderson|1946|p=14}}

=== Axis surrender ===
Six days after the fall of Tunis and Bizerte, the last Axis resistance in Africa ended with the surrender of over 170,000 Germans and Italians who became [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] (POWs).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Facchini |first=Pierivo |title=La Campagna di Tunisia 1942-1943 |publisher=Edizioni Nuova Cultura |year=2010 |isbn=978-8861344471 |location=Rome |language=IT}}</ref> Major General [[Lucian Truscott]], commander of the [[3rd Infantry Division (United States)|US 3rd Infantry Division]] and Major General [[Ernest N. Harmon]], commander of the [[1st Armored Division (United States)|US 1st Armored Division]], reported that German resistance in the American sector ceased on 6 May and German troops started surrendering en masse.{{sfn|Heefner|2010|p=101}} On 8 May, the [[334th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|334th Division]] surrendered to the British forces between Mateur and Tebourba.{{sfn|Williamson|2012}} At 10:00&nbsp;a.m. on 9 May, the US II Corps, under Major General [[Omar Bradley]], cornered Major-General [[Gustav von Vaerst]] and what remained of the 5th Panzer Army, which surrendered before noon. At least 12,000 Germans surrendered in Major-General Fritz Krause's sector (of the initial batch of 25,000 prisoners, fewer than 400 were Italian). Around 22,000 Germans in the mountainous Zaghouan sector also ceased fighting on 11 May and surrendered with their equipment to the Free French.

British and Commonwealth forces reported 150,000 Axis POWs taken in the German-held sector from 5 May – 12 June. Major-General Count [[Theodor Graf von Sponeck|Theodor von Sponeck]], commander of the [[90th Light Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)|90th Light Division]], had surrendered unconditionally to the 2nd New Zealand Division, after threatening to fight till the last round. Arnim surrendered to the [[Royal Sussex Regiment]].<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090106044122/http://www.thewarillustrated.info/156/i-was-there-how-von-arnim-surrendered-at-last.asp I Was There! - How Von Arnim Surrendered at Last]}}, [[The War Illustrated]], June 11, 1943.</ref> Messe, commander of the [[First Army (Italy)|1st Army]], held the line north of Takrouna and on 12 May, cabled ''Comando Supremo'' vowing to fight on; at 7:55&nbsp;p.m. that evening, after the German collapse, Mussolini ordered Messe to surrender.  Next day, the 1st Army was still holding opposite Enfidaville but the remaining 80,000 men were surrounded; the RAF and artillery continued their bombardment and around noon, the 1st Army surrendered to the Eighth Army.{{sfn|Delaforce|2008|p=133}} Messe along with [[Kurt Freiherr von Liebenstein]] formally surrendered to British and New Zealand forces under General [[Bernard Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg|Bernard Freyberg]].

==Aftermath==

===Analysis===

[[File:A Churchill tank and other vehicles parade through Tunis, 8 May 1943. NA2880.jpg|thumb|Churchill tank moves through Tunis during the liberation, 8 May 1943]]

Most historians agree that the Germans suffered exceptionally heavy losses in both manpower and materiel. A five-to-one loss ratio was unprecedented for the Germans at that stage of the war (for example, Soviet losses at Stalingrad had been even higher than the German losses) and—except for the final weeks of the war—would not be seen again on such a scale.

In 1966, the British Official Historian [[I. S. O. Playfair]] wrote that

{{Blockquote|Had the Allies been able to get a tighter stranglehold on the Axis communications immediately after the 'Torch' landings, they might have won the gamble of the Tunisian Campaign by the end of 1942 and victory in Africa as a whole might have been close. Conversely, the Axis might have staved off for a long time their defeat in May 1943 had their forces received the supplies they needed.|Playfair<ref>Playfair, p. 419</ref>}}

In 1995 American historian [[Williamson Murray]] was more critical of the Axis' strategical decisions:
{{Blockquote|The decision to reinforce North Africa was one of the worst of Hitler's blunders: admittedly, it kept the Mediterranean closed for six more months, with a negative impact on the Allied shipping situation but it placed some of Germany's best troops in an indefensible position from which, like Stalingrad, there would be no escape. Moreover, Hitler committed the ''Luftwaffe'' to fight a battle of attrition under unfavourable conditions and it suffered losses that it could not afford.|Williamson Murray{{sfn|Murray|1995|p=322}}}}

However, not all historians agree with this assessment. British historian [[John Grigg]] offered a contrasting interpretation:
{{Blockquote|
At first sight this seems a persuasive comment, but surely there is another side to the question. It can very well be argued that, since the Allies chose to treat reduction of the Tunisian bridgehead as their top priority task, from which no forces could be deflected, the German sacrifice there was economical in relation to the much larger peril that it helped to avert. Without the check before Tunis, and without the unanimous view at Casablanca that Tunis must be stormed before any other operation could be started, it would surely have been very much harder for Brooke to get his way about postponing cross-Channel action until 1944. The Germans certainly lost a big battle in Tunisia, but the alternative might have been to lose the war a year earlier.
|John Grigg{{sfn|Grigg|1980|p=95}}}}

Although many historians conclude that the Axis gamble ultimately failed, others note that the stand in Tunisia had strategic effects that went beyond its final collapse. The Axis commitment, despite its heavy losses in men and materiel, managed to slow the Allied timetable and briefly complicate their planning. The Allied gains were nonetheless substantial: control of the North African littoral and the reopening of the Mediterranean to Allied shipping. Even the American setback at Kasserine Pass may have had paradoxical benefits; Rommel and the Axis were encouraged to underestimate U.S. capabilities, while the Americans absorbed important lessons and introduced significant improvements in command and tactics.<ref>Westrate (1944), pp. 91–92</ref> With North Africa secured, Allied attention quickly shifted to the invasion of Sicily and the subsequent campaign in Italy. Joseph Goebbels compared the defeat to the catastrophe at Stalingrad, coining the term “Tunisgrad”.{{sfn|Atkinson|2004|p=537}} Historian Gerhard Schreiber similarly judges that “it seems no exaggeration to say that—in purely quantitative terms—Tunisia was a second Stalingrad for the invaders”.{{sfn|Schreiber|2017|p=1109}}

A Victory March was held in Tunis on May 20, 1943, in which units of the First and Eighth Armies and representative detachments of the American and French forces marched past, with bands playing and generals Eisenhower, Alexander and Giraud taking the salute.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=461}}

===Casualties===
====Allied====
Allied casualties of 76,020 include the losses incurred by the First Army from 8 November 1942 and the Eighth Army from 9 February 1943. British and Commonwealth casualties amounted to 38,360 men; 6,233 were killed, 21,528 were wounded and 10,599 reported missing. The Free French suffered 19,439 casualties; 2,156 killed, 10,276 wounded and 7,007 missing. American casualties amounted to 18,221 men; 2,715 killed, 8,978 wounded and 6,528 missing.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=460}}{{sfn|Atkinson|2004|p=536}}

From 22 to 30 November 1942, the RAF flew 1,710 [[sorties]] and lost at least 45 aircraft. The USAAF flew 180 sorties and lost at least 7 aeroplanes.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=179}} From 1 to 12 December, the RAF flew 2,225 sorties and lost a minimum of 37 aircraft. The USAAF flew 523 sorties and lost another 17 aircraft.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=186}} From 13 to 26 December, the RAF flew 1,940 sorties for a loss of at least 20 aeroplanes while the USAAF conducted 720 sorties for a loss of 16 aircraft.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=189}} From 27 December 1942 to 17 January 1943 the RAF flew 3,160 sorties and lost 38 aircraft while the USAAF flew an estimated 3,200 sorties and lost 36 aeroplanes.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=278}} From 18 January to 13 February the RAF flew 5,000 sorties, excluding those against shipping, for the loss of 34 aircraft while the USAAF flew an estimated 6,250 sorties for the loss of 85.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=284}} During the remainder of February to 28 March, 156 allied planes were lost.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=355}} Between 29 March and 21 April, 203 Allied aircraft were destroyed.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=401}} From 22 April to the end of the campaign, 45 bombers and 110 fighters were lost; 12 bombers and 47 fighters of the RAF, the USAAF losing 32 bombers and 63 fighters, while the French lost 1 bomber.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|pp=460–461}}

====Axis====
[[File:German M3 wreck2 Tunis May1943.jpg|thumb|US troops with abandoned German equipment including a captured American [[M3 half-track]] May 1943]]

The Axis armies suffered casualties of 170,000 to 180,000 men;<ref name=":0" /> the losses are uncertain but it is estimated that the German army suffered 8,500 men killed during the campaign and the Italians 3,700 men killed; another 40,000 to 50,000 Axis soldiers were wounded.{{sfn|Atkinson|2004|p=537}} In the British official history, Playfair wrote that the Allies took 238,243 unwounded prisoners; 101,784 German, 89,442 Italian and 47,017 others.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=460}} In 2004, Rick Atkinson wrote that a quarter of a million prisoners is a reasonable estimate.{{sfn|Atkinson|2004|p=537}} Playfair wrote that G. F. Howe, the American official historian, recorded the capture of 275,000 Axis soldiers, an 18th Army Group calculation of 244,500 prisoners (including 157,000 Germans), that Rommel estimated 130,000 Germans were taken prisoner and Arnim estimated 100,000 German and 200,000 Italian prisoners of war.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=460}} There seems to be a distinction between the entire campaign and the last few weeks when the majority of the Axis forces were captured. Contemporary press reports from London also stated that the number of Axis prisoners captured in Tunisia totalled 291,000, with an estimated 50,000 killed, giving total Axis losses of 341,000. The same reports clarified that Churchill’s lower figure of 248,000 prisoners referred only to those captured after 5 May 1943.<ref>{{cite news |title=Axis Prisoners in Tunisia |newspaper=The Canberra Times |date=10 June 1943 |page=3 |quote=The number of Axis prisoners captured in Tunisia totalled 291,000 which, with the estimate of 50,000 killed, brings the enemy casualties to 341,000. It is explained that Mr. Churchill’s estimate of 248,000 represented only those taken prisoner since May 5.}}</ref> This distinction is broadly consistent with the figures given by Playfair. Churchill’s statement that 248,000 prisoners had been taken after 5 May 1943 implies that approximately 43,000 Axis troops were captured before that date, a number that aligns with the course of operations earlier in the Tunisian campaign. Significant groups of prisoners had already been taken during the fighting at the Mareth Line (20–28 March 1943), the Wadi Akarit battle (6 April 1943), and the capture of Enfidaville and associated operations in late April. These engagements together plausibly account for a pre-5 May total in the order of 40,000–45,000 Axis prisoners, matching the difference between the contemporary press reports of 291,000 total prisoners and Churchill’s estimate for the final phase of the campaign.

The German figures were somewhat lower than Allied estimates. According to a final administrative report by the Abwicklungsstab Group B (Tunis), dated 30 September 1944, specifically regarding the German forces in Tunisia, 95,943 German soldiers were registered as prisoners of war, along with 3,238 dead, 3,293 missing, 2,435 still unclarified cases, and 25,152 who returned out of a total of 130,061 German troops recorded as of 1 April 1943.<ref>[[Bundesarchiv]] (German Federal Archives), Abwicklungsstab Tunis report, BA‑MA RH 6/565, 30 September 1944. Data also summarized at https://ww2stats.com/cas_ger_var_abwb.html.</ref> This appears to be an accurate assessment for ground forces. However, losses of the Luftwaffe (Flak units) and the Kriegsmarine are not included in these figures.

The ''Luftwaffe'' lost 2,422+ aircraft in the Mediterranean theatre from November 1942 – May 1943 (41 per cent of the {{lang|de|Luftwaffe}}).{{sfn|Glantz|1995|loc=ch 10}} At least 1,045 aircraft were destroyed; from  22 to 30 November 1942, the {{lang|de|Luftwaffe}} flew 1,084 sorties losing 63 aircraft, including 21 destroyed on the ground. The {{lang|it|Regia Aeronautica}} recorded the loss of four.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=179}} From 1 to 12 December, the {{lang|de|Luftwaffe}} flew 1,000 sorties and lost 37 aircraft, including nine on the ground, while the Italians recorded the loss of ten more.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=186}} From 13 to 26 December, the {{lang|de|Luftwaffe}} flew 1,030 sorties and lost 17 aircraft, while the Italians lost three.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=189}} From 27 December 1942 to 17 January 1943, the {{lang|de|Luftwaffe}} lost 47 aeroplanes; {{lang|it|Regia Aeronautica}} losses are unknown.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=278}} From 18 January to 13 February, the {{lang|de|Luftwaffe}} lost another 100 aircraft but Italian losses are unknown.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=284}} From 14 February to 28 March, 136 German aeroplanes were lost and the {{lang|it|Regia Aeronautica}} lost 22 more.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=355}} From 29 March to 21 April, 270 {{lang|de|Luftwaffe}} aeroplanes were destroyed and 46 "operational aircraft and almost their entire remaining air transport fleet" was lost.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|p=401}} From 22 April until the end, the {{lang|de|Luftwaffe}} lost 273 aircraft; 42 bombers, 166 fighters, 52 transport aircraft, 13 {{lang|de|Storch}} observation aircraft and the Italians recorded the loss of 17 aeroplanes; 600+ aircraft were captured by the Allies.{{sfn|Playfair|2004|pp=460–461}}

==See also==

* [[List of British military equipment of World War II]]
* [[List of equipment of the United States Army during World War II]]
* [[List of French military equipment of World War II]]
* [[List of German military equipment of World War II]]
* [[List of Italian Army equipment in World War II]]
* [[Tunisian Victory]]
* [[List of World War II Battles]]
* [[Military history of Italy during World War II]]
* [[Panzer Army Africa]]
* [[Italian Service Units]]
* [[US Naval Bases North Africa]]

==Notes==
===Footnotes===
{{Reflist| group=nb}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}}

==References==
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* {{cite book |last=Watson |first=Bruce Allen |title=Exit Rommel: The Tunisian Campaign, 1942–43 |series=Stackpole Military History |location=Mechanicsburg, PA |publisher=Stackpole Books |year=2007 |orig-year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8117-3381-6}}
* {{cite book |title=Afrikakorps 1941–43 |series=Elite |first=Gordon |last=Williamson |publisher=Osprey |year=2012 |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-78096-982-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Windrow |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Windrow |title=Luftwaffe Airborne and Field Units |date=1972 |publisher=Osprey |isbn=9780850451146}}
* {{cite book |last=D'Adamo |first=Cristiano  |title=Abschnitt Benigni - A biography of the Bersagliere General Arturo Benigni |date=2025 |publisher=IS Advisory Group |isbn=979-8-218-71378-2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Tunisia in World War II}}
* {{YouTube|id=SNgqgZKLbU8|title=The last phases of the Tunisian campaign in an Italian newsreel}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071117092602/http://www.greenhowards.org.uk/bill-cheall/cheall10.htm The Green Howards Regimental History, – Bill Cheall's Story]
* [http://www.irishbrigade.co.uk The Irish Brigade: 38th (Irish) Brigade at Bou Arada and Medjez el-Bab, January–April 1943]
* {{Internet Archive |id=gov.archives.arc.38951|description=Allies win sea, air battle in fight for Africa [etc] (1943)}}
* [https://www.heritage.nf.ca/articles/politics/royal-artillery.php The 166th (Newfoundland) Field Artillery Regiment]
{{World War II}}
{{Occupation of France}}
{{Liberation of France}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Campaigns, operations and battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Tunisia in World War II]]
[[Category:North African campaign]]
[[Category:Tunisian campaign|*]]
[[Category:Military history of Italy during World War II]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Military campaigns involving Germany]]