View source for Umar

{{Short description|2nd Rashidun caliph from 634 to 644}}
{{Redirect|Omar|other people with the name|Omar (name)||Omar (disambiguation)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Umar ibn al-Khattab<br />{{lang|ar|عُمَر بْن ٱلْخَطَّاب}}
| title        = [[Amir al-Mu'minin]]<br> [[Islamic honorifics#Muhammad's companions|Raḍiya Ilāhu ʿAnhū]]
| succession   = 2nd [[Caliph]] of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
| reign        = 23 August 634 – {{circa|6 November 644}}<br />({{age in years and days|634|8|23|644|11|3|duration=yes}})
| image        = Hagia Sopia 6163502494 (cropped).jpg
| image_size   = 280
| caption      = Calligraphic seal featuring Umar's name, on display in the [[Hagia Sophia]], Istanbul
| predecessor  = [[Abu Bakr]]
| successor    = [[Uthman]]
| birth_date   = {{circa|584}}
| birth_place  = [[Mecca]], [[Hejaz]], [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Arabia]]
| death_date   = {{circa|6 November 644}}<!-- This is the date according to the Gregorian calendar. The date of 3 November sometimes given by sources is according to the Julian calendar. See the discussion in the Umar#Assassination section. --> (c. 26 Dhu al-Hijjah 23 [[Islamic calendar|AH]]) ({{Nowrap|aged 60–61}})
| death_place  = [[Medina]], [[Rashidun Caliphate]]
| burial_place = [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi|Prophet's Mosque]], Medina
| spouse       = {{plainlist|
*[[Zaynab bint Maz'un]]
*[[Umm Kulthum bint Jarwal]]
*[[Qurayba bint Abi Umayya]]
*[[Jamila bint Thabit]]
*[[Atiqa bint Zayd]]
*[[Umm Hakim bint al-Harith ibn Hisham|Umm Hakim bint Harith]]
*[[Umm Kulthum bint Ali]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Majlisi |first=Muhammad Baqir |title=Mir'at ul-Oqool |volume=21 |page=199}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Tusi |first=Nasir Al-Din |title=Al-Mabsoot |volume=4 |page=272}}</ref>}}
| issue        = {{plainlist|
*[[Hafsa bint Umar|Hafsa]]
*[[Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab|Abdullah]]
*[[Ubayd Allah ibn Umar|Ubaydullah]]
*[[Asim ibn Umar|Asim]]
*[[Zayd ibn Umar|Zayd]]}}
| issue-link   = Family tree of Umar#Descendants
| issue-pipe   = (among others)
| house        = [[Quraysh]] ([[Banu Adi]])
| house-type   = Tribe
| father       = [[Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl]]
| mother       = [[Hantamah bint Hisham]]
| religion     = [[Islam]]
| module       = {{Infobox Arabic name
| embed        = yes
| ism          = ʿUmar
| ism-ar = {{Script|Arab|عُمَرٌ}}
| nasab        = Ibn [[Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl|al-Khaṭṭāb]] ibn Nufayl ibn ʿAbd al-ʿUzzā ibn Rāz ibn [[Banu Adi|ʿAdiyy]] ibn [[Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy|Ka'b]] ibn [[Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib|Lu'ayy]] ibn [[Ghalib ibn Fihr|Ghālib]] ibn [[Fihr ibn Malik|Fihr]] ibn [[Malik ibn al-Nadr|Mālik]]
| nasab-ar = {{Script|Arab| ٱبْنُ ٱلْخَطَّابِ ٱبْنُ نُفَيْلٍ ٱبْنِ عَبْدِ ٱلْعُزَّىٰ ٱبْنِ رَازٍ ٱبْنِ عَدِيٍّ ٱبْنِ كَعْبٍ ٱبْنِ لُؤَيٍّ ٱبْنِ غَالِبٍ ٱبْنِ فِهْرٍ ٱبْنِ مَالِكٍ}}
| kunya        = Abū Ḥafṣ
| kunya-ar = {{Script|Arab|أَبُو حَفْصٍ}}
| laqab        = Al-Fārūq ("The Distinguisher between right and wrong")
| laqab-ar = {{Script|Arab|ٱلْفَارُوقٌ}}}}
}}

{{Umar}}
{{Sunni Islam|Rightly-Guided Caliphs}}

'''Umar ibn al-Khattab'''{{efn|Umar had many titles and epithets, including '''[[Amir al-Mu'minin]]''', as the first holder of the title, and '''al-Faruq''' ("the one who distinguishes [between right and wrong]"), for his reputation as a jurist.}} ({{langx|ar|عُمَر بْن ٱلْخَطَّاب|ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb}}; {{circa|584 – 644}}), also spelled '''Omar''', was the second [[Rashidun caliph]], ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded [[Abu Bakr]] ({{reign|632|634}}) and is regarded as a senior [[Companions of the Prophet|companion]] and father-in-law of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]].

Initially, Umar opposed Muhammad, who was his distant [[Quraysh]]ite kinsman. However, after converting to Islam in 616, he became the first [[Muslims|Muslim]] to openly pray at the [[Kaaba]]. He participated in nearly all of [[List of expeditions of Muhammad|Muhammad’s battles and expeditions]], and Muhammad conferred upon him the title ''al-Fārūq'' ("the Distinguisher") for his sound judgement. After Muhammad’s death in June 632, Umar pledged allegiance to [[Abu Bakr]] as the first caliph and served as his chief adviser. In 634, shortly before his death, Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor.

During Umar’s reign, the [[caliphate]] expanded at an unprecedented rate, conquering the [[Sasanian Empire]] and more than two-thirds of the [[Byzantine Empire]].{{sfnp|Hourani|1991|p=23}} His campaigns against the [[Sasanians]] resulted in the [[Muslim conquest of Persia#Conquest of Persia (642–651)|conquest of Persia]] within two years (642–644). According to Jewish tradition, Umar lifted the [[Christianity|Christian]] ban on [[Jews]] entering [[Jerusalem]] and permitted them to worship there.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dubnow|first=Simon|title=History of the Jews: From the Roman Empire to the Early Medieval Period|year=1968|publisher=Cornwall Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MZ2MwNzB69IC&pg=PA326|volume=2|page=326|isbn=978-0-8453-6659-2}}</ref> Umar was [[Assassination|assassinated]] by the Persian slave [[Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz]] in 644.

Umar is widely credited with expanding the [[Islamic world]] beyond [[Arabia]] and introducing the [[Islamic calendar|Hijri Calendar]].{{sfn|Vaglieri|1970|p=64}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Islamic calendar {{!}} Months, Definition, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-calendar |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Historians generally regard him as one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliphs in history.<ref>Ahmed, Nazeer; ''Islam in Global History - From the Death of Prophet Muhammad to the First World War'', American Institute of Islamic History and Cul, 2001, p. 34 {{ISBN|0-7388-5963-X}}.</ref> In [[Sunni view of Umar|Sunni Islamic tradition]], he is revered as a just ruler and a paragon of Islamic virtues,<ref name=EI2>{{Cite encyclopedia |author=Bonner, M. |author2=Levi Della Vida, G.| title=Umar (I) b. al-K̲h̲aṭṭāb |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |editor=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs |volume=10 |page=820}}</ref> with some [[hadith]]s identifying him as the second greatest of the [[Companions of the Prophet|Sahabah]] after Abu Bakr.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sunnah.com/bukhari/62/21 |title=Hadith – Book of Companions of the Prophet – Sahih al-Bukhari – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |website=sunnah.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://sunnah.com/bukhari/62/14|title=Hadith – Book of Companions of the Prophet – Sahih al-Bukhari – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |website=sunnah.com}}</ref> In [[Twelver Shi'ism|Twelver]] [[Shia Islam|Shia]] tradition, however, he is viewed negatively.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author=Bonner, M. |author2=Levi Della Vida, G. |title=Umar (I) b. al-K̲h̲aṭṭāb |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam |edition=Second |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |editor=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs |volume=10 |page=820 |quote=Shi'i tradition has never concealed its antipathy to Umar for having thwarted the claims of Ali and the House of the Prophet.}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Umar was born in [[Mecca]] to the [[Banu Adi]] clan, which was responsible for arbitration among the tribes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/UmarIbnAl-KhattabHisLifeAndTimesVolume1/100714724-Umar-Ibn-Al-Khattab-Vol-1#page/n37/mode/2up |title=Umar Ibn Al-Khattab - His Life and Times, Volume 1 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> His father was [[Khattab ibn Nufayl]], and his mother was [[Hantamah bint Hisham]] of the [[Banu Makhzum]] tribe. In his youth, Umar tended his father's [[camel]]s in the plains near Mecca. His father, a merchant, was renowned for his intelligence among his tribe.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hkgfCgAAQBAJ |title=Umar Al Farooq - Man and Caliph |last=Qazi |first=Moin |publisher=Notion Press |isbn=9789352061716 |language=en}}</ref> Umar later recalled: "My father, al-Khattab, was a ruthless man. He used to make me work hard; if I didn't work, he used to beat me and he used to work me to exhaustion".<ref>[[Muhammad Husayn Haykal]] (1944), ''Al Farooq, Umar'', Chapter 1, p. 45.</ref>

Although [[literacy]] was uncommon in pre-Islamic [[Arab world|Arabia]], Umar learned to read and write during his youth. While not a [[poet]] himself, he developed a love for poetry and literature.<ref name="haykal-ch1">Haykal, 1944, Chapter 1.</ref> In accordance with the traditions of the Quraysh, he was trained in [[martial arts]], [[horse riding]], and [[wrestling]] during his adolescence. He was tall, physically powerful and a renowned wrestler.<ref name="haykal-ch1" /><ref>[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]], ''[[History of the Prophets and Kings]]''</ref> He was also recognized as a gifted orator and succeeded his father as an arbitrator among the tribes.<ref>Haykal, 1944, Chapter 1, pp. 40–41.</ref>

Umar became a [[merchant]] and made several journeys to [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sassanid Empire|Sasanian]] territories, where he is said to have met various [[scholar]]s and analyzed Byzantine and Sasanian societies. As a merchant, he was unsuccessful.<ref name="haykal-ch1"/><ref>Tabqat ibn Sa'ad, Chapter - Umar ibn Khattab.</ref> Like others around him, Umar was fond of [[Alcoholic drink|drinking]] in his pre-Islamic days.<ref>Haykal, 1944, Chapter 1, p. 47.</ref>

== Early military career ==
=== Opposition to Islam ===
In 610, [[Muhammad]] started preaching the message of Islam. However, like many others in Mecca, Umar opposed Islam and even threatened to kill Muhammad. He resolved to defend the traditional polytheistic religion of [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]]. He was adamant and cruel in opposing Muhammad and very prominent in [[Persecution|persecuting]] Muslims.<ref name="haykal-p51">Haykal, 1944, Chapter 1, p. 51.</ref> He recommended Muhammad's death.{{sfnp|Armstrong|p=128}} He firmly believed in the unity of the Quraysh and saw the new faith of Islam as a cause of division and discord.<ref name="haykal-p51"/>

Due to persecution, Muhammad ordered some of his followers to [[Migration to Abyssinia|migrate to Abyssinia]]. When a small group of Muslims migrated, Umar became worried about the future unity of the Quraysh and decided to have Muhammad [[Assassination|assassinated]].<ref>Haykal, 1944, Chapter 1, p. 53.</ref>

=== Conversion to Islam and service under Muhammad ===
Umar [[converted to Islam]] in 616, one year after the Migration to Abyssinia. The story was recounted in [[Ibn Ishaq]]'s ''Sīrah''. On his way to murder Muhammad, Umar met his best friend Nu'aym ibn Abd Allah, who had secretly converted to Islam but had not told Umar. When Umar informed him that he had set out to kill Muhammad, Nu'aym said, "By God, you have deceived yourself, O Umar? Do you think that Banu Abd al-Manaf would let you run around alive once you had killed their son Muhammad? Why don't you return to your own house and at least set it straight?"<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.al-islam.org/restatement-history-islam-and-muslims-sayyid-ali-ashgar-razwy/umars-conversion-islam |title=Umar's Conversion to Islam |website=al-islam.org |date=10 November 2013 |access-date=4 August 2016}}</ref>

Nu'aym then told him to inquire about his own house, where his sister, [[Fatima bint al-Khattab]], and his brother-in-law had converted to Islam and were taking lessons from [[Khabbab ibn al-Aratt]]. Upon arriving at her house, Umar found Fatima and her husband [[Saeed bin Zaid]] (Umar's cousin) reciting the verses of the [[Quran]] from [[Ta-Ha|Surat Ta-Ha]].<ref>as-Suyuti, ''The History of Khalifahs Who Took The Right Way'', London, 1995, pp. 107–108.</ref> He started quarreling with Saeed and physically attacking him. When his sister came to rescue her husband, he also started arguing with her. Yet still they kept on saying "you may kill us but we will not give up Islam". Sources differ on what happened next: While some say that upon hearing these words, Umar slapped his sister so hard that she fell to the ground, others claim Fatima was merely hit by accident and lost balance when trying to pull Umar off of Saeed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 January 2023 |title=New Hope - Prophet Muhammad's Uncle & Umar Convert to Islam |url=https://aboutislam.net/reading-islam/about-muhammad/new-hope-prophet-muhammads-uncle-umar-convert-islam/ |access-date=15 November 2024 |website=aboutislam.net |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Omar Ibn Al Khattab (ra) – The Convert Who Changed The World {{!}} The Firsts |url=https://yaqeeninstitute.org/watch/series/omar-ibn-al-khattab-the-convert-who-changed-the-world-the-firsts |access-date=15 November 2024 |publisher=Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research |language=en}}</ref> In both cases, however, his sister began to bleed from her mouth. Seeing what he had done, Umar calmed down out of guilt and asked Fatima to give him what she was reciting. She replied in the negative and said, "You are unclean, and no unclean person can touch the Scripture". He insisted, but his sister was not prepared to allow him to touch the pages unless he washed his body. Umar at last gave in. He [[Ghusl|washed his body]] and then began to read the verses that were: ''Verily, I am Allah: there is no God but Me; so serve Me (only), and establish regular prayer for My remembrance'' (Quran 20:14). He wept and declared, "Surely this is the word of Allah. I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah". On hearing this, Khabbab came out from where he was hiding inside and said: "O, Umar! Glad tidings for you. Yesterday Muhammad prayed to Allah, "O, Allah! Strengthen Islam with either Umar or [[Amr ibn Hishām|Abu Jahl]], whomsoever Thou likest". It seems that his prayer has been answered in your favour."<ref>{{cite book |last=Al Mubarakpury |first=Safi ur Rahman |title=Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) |date=2002 |publisher=[[Darussalam Publishers]] |isbn=9960-899-55-1 |pages=130–131 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA130}}</ref>

Umar then went to Muhammad with the same sword he intended to kill him with and accepted Islam in front of him and his companions. Umar was 39 years old when he accepted Islam.<ref name="Tahthib 2002 page 170">Tartib wa Tahthib Kitab [[Al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya]] by [[ibn Kathir]], published by Dar al-Wathan publications, Riyadh Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1422 [[Islamic calendar|Anno hegiræ]] (2002), compiled by Muhammad ibn Shamil as-Sulami, p. 170 {{ISBN|978-9960-28-117-9}}</ref>

According to one account, after his conversion to Islam, Umar openly prayed at the [[Kaaba]] as the Quraysh chiefs, Abu Jahl and [[Abu Sufyan ibn Harb|Abu Sufyan]], reportedly watched in anger.{{sfnp|Armstrong|p=35}} This further helped the Muslims to gain confidence in practicing Islam openly. At this stage, Umar even challenged anyone who dared to stop the Muslims from praying, although no one dared to interfere with Umar when he was openly praying.

Umar's conversion to Islam granted power to the Muslims and to the Islamic faith in Mecca. It was after this event that Muslims offered prayers openly in [[Masjid al-Haram]] for the first time. [[Abdullah ibn Masud]] said,

{{blockquote|Umar's embracing Islam was our victory, his migration to Medina was our success, and his reign a blessing from Allah. We didn't offer prayers in al-Haram Mosque until Umar had accepted Islam. When he accepted Islam, the Quraysh were compelled to let us pray in the Mosque.<ref>''Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq'', Mohammad Allias Aadil, p. 30</ref>}}

==== Migration to Medina ====
In 622, due to the safety offered by Yathrib (later renamed Medīnat an-Nabī, or simply [[Medina]]), Muhammad ordered his followers to migrate to Medina. Most Muslims migrated at night fearing Quraysh resistance, but Umar is reported to have left openly during the day saying:<ref>''Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq'', Mohammad Allias Aadil, p. 119</ref><ref name=":0" />

{{Cquote
| quote = "Any one who wants to make his wife a widow and his children orphans should come and meet me there behind that cliff".
}}

Umar migrated to Medina accompanied by his cousin and brother-in-law Saeed ibn Zaid.<ref name="Tahthib 2002 page 170" />

==== Life in Medina ====
{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Caliph Umar}}

Muslims remained in peace in Medina for approximately a year before the Quraysh raised an army to attack them. In 624, Umar participated in the first battle between Muslims and Quraysh of Mecca i.e., the [[Battle of Badr]]. In 625, he took part in the [[Battle of Uhud]]. In the second phase of the battle, when [[Khalid ibn Walid]]'s cavalry attacked the Muslim rear, turning the tide of battle, rumours of Muhammad's death were spread and many Muslim warriors were routed from the battlefield, Umar among them. However, hearing that Muhammad was still alive, he went to Muhammad at the mountain of Uhud and prepared for the defence of the hill.<ref>''Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq'', Mohammad Allias Aadil, pp. 40–41</ref> Later in the year Umar was a part of a campaign against the Jewish tribe of [[Banu Nadir]]. In 625, Umar's daughter [[Hafsa bint Umar|Hafsah]] was married to Muhammad.<ref>''Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq'', Mohammad Allias Aadil, p. 42, Sahih al Bukhari</ref>

Later in 627, he participated in the [[Battle of the Trench]] and also in the [[Banu Qurayza|Battle of Banu Qurayza]].<ref name="Maghazi">Tabqat ibn al-Saad book of Maghazi, p. 62</ref> In 628, Umar witnessed the [[Treaty of Hudaybiyyah]].<ref name="Maghazi"/> In 628, he fought in the [[Battle of Khaybar]]. In 629, Muhammad sent [[Amr ibn al-As]] to [[Battle of Chains|Zaat-ul-Sallasal]], after which Muhammad sent [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]] with reinforcements, including Abu Bakr and Umar, whereupon they attacked and defeated the enemy.<ref>Sahih-al-Bhukari book of Maghazi, Ghazwa Zaat-ul-Sallasal</ref>

In 630, when Muslim armies rushed for the [[conquest of Mecca]], he was part of that army. Later in 630, he fought in the [[Battle of Hunayn]] and the [[Siege of Ta'if]]. He was part of the Muslim army that contested the [[Battle of Tabouk]] under Muhammad's command and he was reported to have given half of his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. He also participated in the farewell [[Hajj]] of Muhammad in 632.<ref>''Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq'', Mohammad Allias Aadil, p. 56</ref>

==== Death of Muhammad ====
When Muhammad died on 8 June 632, Umar initially disbelieved that he was dead.<ref name="Suyuti54-61">as-Suyuti, ''The History of Khalifahs Who Took The Right Way'', London, 1995, pp. 54–61.</ref> It is said that Umar promised to strike the head of any man who would say that Muhammad died. Umar said: "He has not died but rather he has gone to his lord just as [[Moses in Islam|Moses]] went, remaining absent from his people for forty nights after which he has returned to them. By Allah, the messenger of Allah will indeed return just as Moses returned (to his people) and he will cut off the hands and legs of those men who claimed he has died."<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheBiographyOfAbuBakrAsSiddeeq/TheBiographyOfAbuBakrAs-siddeeq#page/n199/mode/2up |title=The Biography of Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq |via=Internet Archive |date=2007}}</ref> [[Abu Bakr]] then publicly spoke to the community in the mosque, saying:

{{blockquote|"Whoever worshiped Muhammad, let them know that Muhammad has died, and whoever worshiped Allah, let them know that Allah is alive and never dies".}}<ref name="http://sunnah.com/bukhari/62/19">{{cite web |url=http://sunnah.com/bukhari/62/19 |title=Hadith – Book of Companions of the Prophet – Sahih al-Bukhari – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |website=sunnah.com |date=26 April 2012 |access-date=29 January 2019}}</ref> Abū Bakr then recited these verses from the Qur'an {{Cite Quran|3|144|b=n|style=ref}}:

{{blockquote|"''Muhammad is but a messenger; messengers (the like of whom) have passed away before him. If, then, he dies or is killed, will you turn back on your heel?''"}}<ref name="http://sunnah.com/bukhari/62/19"/> Hearing this, Umar fell on his knees in sorrow and acceptance. Sunni Muslims say that this denial of Muhammad's death was occasioned by his deep love for him.<ref name="Suyuti54-61" />

== Foundation of the caliphate ==
{{Wikisource|Letter to Usama bin Zaid}}
Umar's political capacity first manifested as the architect of the caliphate after Muhammad died on 8 June 632.{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p={{page needed|date=June 2022}}}} While the funeral of Muhammad was being arranged, a group of Muhammad's followers who were natives of Medina, the ''[[Ansar (Islam)|Ansar]]'' (helpers), organised a meeting on the outskirts of the city, effectively locking out those companions known as ''[[Muhajirun|Muhajireen]]'' (The Emigrants) including Umar.{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p={{page needed|date=June 2022}}}} Umar found out about this meeting at [[Saqifa|Saqifah Bani Saadah]], and, taking with him two other Muhajireen, Abu Bakr and [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah|Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]], proceeded to the meeting, presumably to head off the Ansars' plans for political separation. Arriving at the meeting, Umar was faced with a unified community of tribes from the Ansar who refused to accept the leadership of the Muhajireen.{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p={{page needed|date=June 2022}}}} However, Umar was undeterred in his belief the caliphate should be under the control of the Muhajireen.<ref name="history">{{cite book |title=The History of al-Tabari |publisher=[[SUNY Press|State University of New York Press]] |date=1990}}</ref> Though the [[Khazraj]] were in disagreement, Umar, after strained negotiations lasting one or two days, brilliantly divided the Ansar into their old warring factions of [[Banu Aws]] and Khazraj tribes. Umar resolved the divisions by placing his hand on that of Abu Bakr as a unity candidate for those gathered in the Saqifah. Others at the Saqifah followed suit, with the exception of the Khazraj tribe and their leader, [[Saʽd ibn ʽUbadah]], who were ostracised as a result. The Khazraj tribe is said to have posed no significant threat as there were sufficient men of war from the Medinese tribes such as the Banu Aws to immediately organise them into a military bodyguard for Abu Bakr.{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p={{page needed|date=June 2022}}}}
[[File:Signature Believed To Be Of ʿUmar B. Al-Khaṭṭāb.png|thumb|upright=1|Transcription of a undated rock inscription found in Saudi Arabia in 2012, without definitions such as [[Caliph]] or [[Amir al-Mu'minin]], claimed to be [[autograph|Umar's signature]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Imbert |first1=Frédéric |date=2019 |chapter=Espaces de liberté et contraintes graphiques dans les graffiti du début de l'islam |title=Savants, amants, poètes et fous - Séances offertes à Katia Zakharia |pages=161–174 |location=Beirut |publisher=Presses de l'Ifpo |chapter-url=http://books.openedition.org/ifpo/13413|isbn=9782351595503 |doi=10.4000/books.ifpo.13413 |s2cid=213324606}}</ref> (See:[[Islamic archaeology]]]]
[[File:First_Islamic_coins_by_caliph_Uthman-mohammad_adil_rais.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Sasanian Empire|Sasanid style]] coins during the Rashidun period,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|author1-last=Album|author1-first=Stephen|author2-last=Bates|author2-first=Michael L.|author3-last=Floor|author3-first=Willem|author3-link=Willem Floor|title=COINS AND COINAGE|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-|volume=VI/1|pages=14–41|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|location=[[New York City|New York]]|date=30 December 2012|orig-date=15 December 1992|doi=10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7783|doi-access=free|issn=2330-4804|access-date=23 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517020427/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-|archive-date=17 May 2015|url-status=live|quote=As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the ''drahms'' of the Sasanian emperors, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic inscriptions like ''besmellāh'' in the margins. [...] In the year 79/698 reformed Islamic dirhams with inscriptions and no images replaced the Sasanian types at nearly all mints. During this transitional period in the 690s specifically Muslim inscriptions appeared on the coins for the first time; previously Allāh (God) had been mentioned but not the prophet Moḥammad, and there had been no reference to any Islamic doctrines. Owing to civil unrest (e.g., the revolt of ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. Ašʿaṯ, q.v., against Ḥajjāj in 81/701), coins of Sasanian type continued to be issued at certain mints in Fārs, Kermān, and Sīstān, but by 84/703 these mints had either been closed down or converted to production of the new dirhams. The latest known Arab-Sasanian coin, an extraordinary issue, is dated 85/704-05, though some mints in the east, still outside Muslim control, continued producing imitation Arab-Sasanian types for perhaps another century.|url-access=subscription}}</ref> similar designs were minted in the names of important leaders such as [[Muawiyah I]] and [[Ibn Zubayr]].  ([[Crescent and star (symbol)|crescent-star]], [[fire altar]], depictions of the last Sasanian emperor [[Khosrow II]], Arabic ''[[Basmala|bismillāh]]'' in margin)]]

[[Wilferd Madelung]] summarises Umar's contribution:{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p=33}}
{{blockquote|Umar judged the outcome of the Saqifa assembly to be a falta [translated by Madelung as "a precipitate and ill-considered deal"{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p=22}}] because of the absence of most of the prominent Muhajirun, including the Prophet's own family and clan, whose participation he considered vital for any legitimate consultation (shura, mashwara). It was, he warned the community, to be no precedent for the future. Yet he also defended the outcome, claiming that the Muslims were longing for Abu Bakr as for no one else. He apologised, moreover, that the Muhajirun present were forced to press for an immediate oath of allegiance since the Ansar could not have been trusted to wait for a legitimate consultation and might have proceeded to elect one of their own after the departure of the Mekkans. Another reason for Umar to censure the Saqifa meeting as a falta was no doubt its turbulent and undignified end, as he and his followers jumped upon the sick Khazraji leader Sa'd bin Ubada in order to teach him a lesson, if not to kill him, for daring to challenge the sole right of Quraysh to rule. This violent break-up of the meeting indicates, moreover, that the Ansar cannot all have been swayed by the wisdom and eloquence of Abu Bakr's speech and have accepted him as the best choice for the succession, as suggested by [[Leone Caetani]]. There would have been no sense in beating up the Khazraji chief if everybody had come around to swearing allegiance to Umar's candidate. A substantial number of the Ansar, presumably of Khazraj in particular, must have refused to follow the lead of the Muhajirun.{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p=33}}}}

According to various [[Twelver]] [[Shia]] sources and Madelung,<ref name="iis.ac.uk">{{cite web |url=http://www.iis.ac.uk/view_article.asp?ContentID=106316 |title=Institute of Ismaili Studies |access-date=7 April 2023 |archive-date=3 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703110811/http://www.iis.ac.uk/view_article.asp?ContentID=106316 |url-status=dead |author=Dr Paul E Walker}} <!-- It is unclear what article is being referenced or what it is being referenced for--></ref><ref name="us.macmillan.com">{{cite web |url=http://us.macmillan.com/author/wilfredmadelung |title=Wilfred Madelung |work=us.macmillan.com |access-date=7 April 2023 |archive-date=26 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626141253/http://us.macmillan.com/author/wilfredmadelung|url-status=dead}} <!-- It is unclear what article is being referenced or what it is being referenced for--></ref> Umar and Abu Bakr had in effect mounted a political coup against [[Ali]] at the Saqifah.{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p={{page needed|date=June 2022}}}} According to one version of narrations in [[primary sources]], Umar and Abu Bakr are also said to have used force to try to secure the allegiance from Ali and his party. It has been reported in mainly Persian historical sources written 300 years later, such as in the [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|History of al-Tabari]], that after Ali's refusal to pay homage, Abu Bakr sent Umar with an armed contingent to [[Fatimah]]'s house where Ali and his supporters are said to have gathered. Umar is reported to have warned those in the House that unless Ali succumbed to Abu Bakr, he would set the House on fire<ref name="history"/>{{page needed|date=August 2021}} and under these circumstances Ali was forced to capitulate. This version of events, fully accepted by Shia scholars, is generally rejected by Sunni scholars who, in view of other reports in their literature, believe that Ali gave an oath of alliance to Abu Bakr without any grievance. But then other Sunni and Shia sources say that Ali did not swear allegiance to Abu Bakr after his election but six months later after the death of his wife Fatimah putting into question al-Tabari's account. Either way the Sunni and the Shia accounts both accept that Ali felt that Abu Bakr should have informed him before going into the meeting with the Ansar and that Ali did swear allegiance to Abu Bakr.

Western scholars tend to agree that Ali believed he had a clear mandate to succeed Muhammad,{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} but offer differing views as to the extent of use of force by Umar in an attempt to intimidate Ali and his supporters. For instance, Madelung discounts the possibility of the use of force and argues that:

{{blockquote|Isolated reports of use of force against Ali and Banu Hashim who unanimously refused to swear allegiance for six months are probably to be discounted. Abu Bakr no doubt was wise enough to restrain Umar from any violence against them, well realizing that this would inevitably provoke the sense of solidarity of the majority of Abdul Mannaf whose acquiescence he needed.{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p=43}} His policy was rather not isolating Banu Hashim as far as possible.}}

According to Tom Holland, Umar's historicity is beyond dispute.<ref name="holland">{{cite book |title=In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World |first=Tom |last=Holland |date=2013 |isbn=978-0-349-12235-9 |publisher=Abacus |pages=381–382}}</ref> An Armenian bishop writing a decade or so after Qadisiyya describes Umar as a "mighty potentate coordinating the advance of the sons of Ismael from the depths of the desert".<ref name="holland" /><ref>Sebeos 139</ref> Tom Holland writes "What added incomparably to his prestige, was that his earth-shaking qualities as a generalissimo were combined with the most distinctive cast of virtues. Rather than ape the manner of a Caesar, as the Ghassanid kings had done, he drew on the example of a quite different kind of Christian. Umar's threadbare robes, his diet of bread, salt and water, and his rejection of worldly riches would have reminded anyone from the desert reaches beyond Palestine of a very particular kind of person. Monks out in the Judaean desert had long been casting themselves as warriors of God. The achievement of Umar was to take such language to a literal and previously unimaginable extreme."<ref name="holland" />

== Abu Bakr's era ==
Due to the delicate political situation in Arabia{{Vague|date=December 2014}}, Umar initially opposed military operations against the rebel tribes there,{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} hoping to gain their support in the event of an invasion by the Romans or the Persians. Later, however, he came to agree with Abu Bakr's strategy to crush the rebellion by force. By late 632, Khalid ibn Walid had successfully united Arabia after consecutive victories against the rebels. During his own reign later, Umar would mostly adopt the policy of avoiding wars and consolidating his power in the incorporated lands rather than expanding his empire through continuous warfare.<ref>''Medieval Islamic political thought'', Patricia Crone, p. 18</ref>

Umar advised Abu Bakr to compile the Quran in the form of a book after 300 huffāẓ (memorizers) of the Quran died in the [[Battle of Yamamah]].<ref name="sunnah.com">{{cite web |url=http://sunnah.com/bukhari/93/53 |title=Hadith – Book of Judgments (Ahkaam) – Sahih al-Bukhari – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |website=sunnah.com}}</ref>

=== Appointment as a caliph ===
Abu Bakr appointed Umar as his successor before dying in 634.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/TheBiographyOfAbuBakrAsSiddeeq/TheBiographyOfAbuBakrAs-siddeeq#page/n711/mode/2up |title=The Biography of Abu Bakr As-Siddeeq |via=Internet Archive |date=2007}}</ref> Due to his strict and autocratic nature, Umar was not a very popular figure among the notables of Medina and members of [[Majlis-ash-Shura|Majlis al Shura]]; accordingly, high-ranking companions of Abu Bakr attempted to discourage him from naming Umar.<ref>Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, pp. 58–59</ref><ref>K. Y. Blankinship, ''The History of al-Tabari'', vol. XI, p. 157</ref> Nevertheless, Abu Bakr decided to make Umar his successor. Umar was well known for his extraordinary willpower, intelligence, political astuteness, impartiality, justice, and care for the poor.<ref>''Early caliphate'', Muhammad Ali, Muḥammad Yaʿqūb K̲h̲ān, p. 85</ref>
Abu Bakr is reported to have said to the high-ranking advisers:

{{blockquote|His (Umar's) strictness was there because of my softness when the weight of Caliphate will be over his shoulders he will remain no longer strict. If I will be asked by God to whom I have appointed my successor, I will tell him that I have appointed the best man among your men.<ref>''Umar Farooq-i-Azam'', Mohammad Hussain Haikal, chapter 4, pp. 112–113</ref>}}

Abu Bakr was aware of Umar's power and ability to succeed him. His was perhaps one of the smoothest transitions of power from one authority to another in the Muslim lands.<ref>K. Y. Blankinship, ''The History of al-Tabari'', vol. XI, p. 145–153.</ref>
Before his death, Abu Bakr called [[Uthman]] to write his will in which he declared Umar his successor. In his will he instructed Umar to continue the conquests on [[Iraq]]i and [[Syria]]n fronts.{{Citation needed|date= December 2017}}

== Caliphate ==
=== Political and civil administration ===
The government of Umar was a [[Unitary state|unitary government]], where the sovereign political authority was the caliph.{{Citation needed|date= December 2017}} The empire of Umar was divided into provinces and some [[autonomous]] territories, e.g., [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Armenia]], that had accepted the suzerainty of the caliphate.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} The provinces were administered by the provincial governors or ''[[Wali]]'', personally and fastidiously selected by Umar. Provinces were further divided into about 100 districts. Each district or main city was under the charge of a junior governor or Amir, usually appointed by Umar himself, but occasionally also appointed by the provincial governor. Other officers at the provincial level were:

# ''Katib'', the Chief Secretary;
# ''Katib-ud-Diwan'', the Military Secretary;
# ''Sahib-ul-Kharaj'', the Revenue Collector;
# ''Sahib-ul-Ahdath'', the [[Police chief]];
# ''Sahib-Bait-ul-Mal'', the [[Treasury]] Officer;
# ''Qadi'', the Chief Judge.

In some districts there were separate military officers, though the ''Wali'' was, in most cases, the Commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}

Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view to regulating the ''Wali's'' conduct. On assuming office, the ''Wali'' was required to assemble the people in the main [[mosque]], and read the instrument of instructions before them.<ref>''The Cambridge History of Islam'', ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, Cambridge, 1970</ref>

Umar's general instructions to his officers were:

{{blockquote|Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}}}

Various other strict codes of conduct were to be obeyed by the governors and state officials. The principal officers were required to travel to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff.{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}} Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand dirham annually besides their shares of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander in chief of the army of their sector).{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}}

Under Umar, the empire was divided into the following provinces:
# Mecca (Arabia)
# Medina (Arabia)
# [[Basra]] (Iraq)
# [[Kufa]] (Iraq)
# [[Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia|Jazira]], in the upper reaches of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]]
# Syria
# [[Aelia Capitolina|Iliyā' (إلياء)]] ([[Palestine (region)|Palestine]])
# [[Ramlah]] (Palestine)
# [[Upper Egypt]]
# [[Lower Egypt]]
# [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] (Persia)
# Azerbaijan (Persia)
# [[Fars province|Fars]] (Persia)

Umar was first to establish a special department for the investigation of complaints against the officers of the State. This department acted as the [[Administrative court]], where the legal proceedings were personally led by Umar.<ref>''Commanding right and forbidding wrong in Islamic thought'', M. A. Cook, p. 79</ref>

The department was under the charge of [[Muhammad ibn Maslamah]], one of Umar's most trusted men. In important cases, Muhammad ibn Maslamah was deputed by Umar to proceed to the spot, investigate the charge and take action. Sometimes an Inquiry Commission was constituted to investigate the charge. On occasion, the officers against whom complaints were received were summoned to Medina and charged in Umar's administrative court.

Umar was known for this intelligence service through which he made his officials accountable.<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Buraey |first=Muhammad |title=Administrative Development - An Islamic Perspective |date=2002 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-7103-0333-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA249 |pages=248–249}}</ref> This service was also said to have inspired fear in his subjects.<ref>{{cite book |last=Essid |first=Yassine |title=A Critique of the Origins of Islamic Economic Thought |date=1995 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |isbn=978-90-04-10079-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij86T6DAwzgC&pg=PA67 |pages=24, 67}}</ref>

Umar was a pioneer in some affairs:
# Umar was the first to introduce the public ministry system, where the records of officials and soldiers were kept. He also kept a record system for messages he sent to Governors and heads of state;
# He was the first to appoint police forces to keep civil order;
# He was the first to discipline the people when they became disordered.<ref>"The Precious Pearls" by Muhammad Ayub Sipra, Darussalam publishers and distributors, 2002, p. 57.</ref>

Another important aspect of Umar's rule was that he forbade any of his governors and agents from engaging in any sort of business dealings whilst in a position of power. An agent of Umar by the name of Al Harith ibn K'ab ibn Wahb was once found to have extra money beyond his salary and Umar enquired about his wealth. Al Harith replied that he had some money and he engaged in trade with it. Umar said: ''By Allah, we did not send you to engage in trade!'' and he took from him the profits he had made.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/UmarIbnAl-KhattabHisLifeAndTimesVolume2/100713541-Umar-Ibn-Al-Khattab-Vol-2#page/n47/mode/2up |title=Umar Ibn Al-Khattab - His Life and Times, Volume 2}}</ref>

=== Canals ===
Since Medina, with a rapidly growing population, was at risk of recurring famines when crops were lacking, Umar sought to facilitate the import of grain. He ordered the building of a canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea and an improvement of port infrastructure on the Arabian coast. When Basra was established during Umar's rule, he started building a nine-mile canal from the Tigris to the new city for irrigation and drinking water.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mqbcAwAAQBAJ&q=umar+canal+medina&pg=PA78 |title=Early Islam and the Birth of Capitalism |last=Koehler |first=Benedikt |date=17 June 2014 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Lexington Books]] |isbn=9780739188835 |page=78 |language=en}}</ref> Al-Tabari reports that Utba ibn Ghazwan built the first canal from the Tigris River to the site of Basra when the city was in the planning stage.{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}} After the city was built, Umar appointed [[Abu Musa Ashaari]] (17-29/638 – 650) as its first governor.{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}} He began building two important canals, the [[al-Ubulla]] and the Ma'qil, linking Basra with the Tigris River. These two canals were the basis for the agricultural development for the whole Basra region and used for drinking water. Umar also adopted a policy of assigning barren lands to those who undertook to cultivate them. This policy continued during the Umayyad period and resulted in the cultivation of large areas of barren lands through the construction of irrigation canals by the state and by individuals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/articles/articles%2012.htm |title=History of Science And Technology in Islam |publisher=History-science-technology.com |access-date=29 January 2019}}</ref>

=== Reforms ===
{{Main|Reforms of Umar's era|Covenant of Umar I}}

Under Umar's leadership, the empire expanded; accordingly, he began to build a political structure that would hold together the vast territory. He undertook many administrative reforms and closely oversaw public policy, establishing an advanced administration for the newly conquered lands, including several new ministries and bureaucracies, and ordered a census of all the Muslim territories. During his rule, the garrison cities (''[[amsar]]'') of Basra and Kufa were founded or expanded. In 638, he extended and renovated the [[Masjid al-Haram]] (Grand Mosque) in Mecca and [[al-Masjid al-Nabawi]] (Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina.{{Citation needed |date=September 2023}}

Umar also ordered the expulsion to Syria and Iraq of the Christian and Jewish communities of [[Najran]] and [[Khaybar]]. He also permitted Jewish families to resettle in Jerusalem, which had previously been barred from all Jews.<ref name="Simha Assaf 1946, pp. 20-21">Simha Assaf, ''Meqorot u-Meḥqarim be-Toldot Yisrael'', Jerusalem 1946, pp. 20–21 (Hebrew and Judeo-Arabic)</ref> He issued orders that these Christians and Jews should be treated well and allotted them the equivalent amount of land in their new settlements. Umar also forbade non-Muslims from residing in the [[Hejaz]] for longer than three days.<ref>[[Giorgio Levi Della Vida]] and [[Michael Bonner]], ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''.</ref>{{Page needed|date=September 2023}}{{sfnp|Madelung|1997|p=74}} He was first to establish the army as a state department.

In 641, he established [[Bayt al-mal]], a financial institution and started annual allowances for the Muslims. As a leader, Umar was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}} In 638, his fourth year as caliph and the seventeenth year since the [[Hijra year|Hijra]], he decreed that the [[Islamic calendar]] should be counted from the year of the Hijra of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina.

=== Visit to Jerusalem in 637 ===
[[File:The entrance of Caliph Umar (581?-644) into Jerusalem, 638- colored engraving, 19th century..jpg|thumbnail|19th-century colored engraving depicting [[Umar]]'s entrance into [[Jerusalem]] in 638.]]
Umar's visit to [[Jerusalem]] is documented in several sources. A recently discovered Judeo-Arabic text has disclosed the following anecdote:<ref name="Simha Assaf 1946, pp. 20-21"/>

"Umar ordered Gentiles and a group of Jews to sweep the area of the Temple Mount. Umar oversaw the work. The Jews who had come sent letters to the rest of the Jews in Palestine and informed them that Umar had permitted resettlement of Jerusalem by Jews. Umar, after some consultation, permitted seventy Jewish households to return. They returned to live in the southern part of the city, i.e., the Market of the Jews. (Their aim was to be near the water of ''[[Siloam|Silwan]]'' and the [[Temple Mount]] and its gates). Then the Commander Umar granted them this request. The seventy families moved to Jerusalem from Tiberias and the area around it with their wives and children".

It is also reported in the name of the [[Eutychius of Alexandria|Alexandrian Bishop Eutychius]] (932–940) that the rock known as the Temple Mount had been a place of ruins as far back as the time of the [[Helena (empress)|Empress Helena]], mother of Constantine the Great, who built churches in Jerusalem. "The Byzantines" he said, "had deliberately left the ancient site of the Temple as it was and had even thrown rubbish on it so that a great heap of rubble formed". It was only when Umar marched into Jerusalem with an army that he asked [[Ka'ab al-Ahbar]], who was Jewish before he converted to Islam, "Where do you advise me to build a place of worship?" Ka'ab indicated the Temple Rock, now a gigantic heap of ruins from the temple of Jupiter.<ref>''The History of al-Tabari'', vol. XII, Albany, [[SUNY Press|State University of New York Press]], 2007, pp. 194–195</ref> The Jews, Ka'ab explained, had briefly won back their old capital a quarter of a century before (when Persians overran Syria and Palestine), but they had not had time to clear the site of the Temple, for the ''Rums'' (Byzantines) had recaptured the city. It was then that Umar ordered the rubbish on the ''Ṣakhra'' (rock) to be removed by the Nabataeans, and after three showers of heavy rain had cleansed the Rock, he instituted prayers there. To this day, the place is known as ''ḳubbat es ṣakhra'', the [[Dome of the Rock]].

According to lexicographer [[David ben Abraham al-Fasi]] (died before 1026), the Muslim conquest of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on the [[Temple Mount]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Al-Fasi |first=D. |author-link=David ben Abraham al-Fasi |title=The Hebrew-Arabic Dictionary of the Bible, Known as 'Kitāb Jāmiʿ al-Alfāẓ' (Agron) |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |editor=Solomon L. Skoss |volume=1 |page=xxxix – xl (Introduction) |date=1936 |language=he |oclc=745093227}}</ref>

=== Military expansion ===
{{Main|Military conquests of Umar's era}}

{{Campaignbox Wars of Caliph Umar}}

The military conquests were partially terminated between 638 and 639 during the years of great famine in Arabia and plague in the [[Levant]]. During his reign the Levant, Egypt, [[Cyrenaica]], [[Tripolitania]], [[Fezzan]], Eastern [[Anatolia]], almost the whole of the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid Persian Empire]] including [[Bactria]], Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, [[Caucasus]] and [[Makran]] were annexed to the Rashidun Caliphate. According to one estimate more than 4,050 cities were captured during these military conquests.<ref>''Medieval Islamic Civilization'', Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach, p. 844</ref> Prior to his death in 644, Umar had ceased all military expeditions apparently to consolidate his rule in recently conquered [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman Egypt]] and the newly conquered Sassanid Empire (642–644). At his death in November 644, his rule extended from present day [[Libya]] in the west to the [[Indus river]] in the east and the [[Oxus river]] in the north.

=== Great famine ===
In 638, Arabia fell into severe drought followed by a famine. Soon after, the reserves of food at Medina began to run out. Umar ordered caravans of supplies from Syria and Iraq and personally supervised their distribution. His actions saved countless lives throughout Arabia.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3HYQ3vETMgcC&q=umar+saved+famine&pg=PA44 |title=Umar - Makers of Islamic Civilization |last1=Numani |first1=Shibli |last2=Numani |first2=Muhammad Shibli |date=6 November 2004 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |isbn=9781850436706 |pages=44–45 |language=en}}</ref> The first governor to respond was Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, the governor of Syria and supreme commander of the [[Rashidun army]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Life and Works of 2nd Caliph Umar Al Khattab |url=http://www.lscollege.ac.in/sites/default/files/e-content/2nd%20Caliph%20Umar%20al%20Khattab.pdf |website=[[Langat Singh College]], India}}</ref>

Later, Abu Ubaidah paid a personal visit to Medina and acted as an officer of [[disaster management]], which was headed personally by Umar. For internally displaced people, Umar hosted a dinner every night at Medina, which according to one estimate, had attendance of more than a hundred thousand people.<ref>Haykal, 1944, Chapter 22.</ref>

=== Great plague ===
While famine was ending in Arabia, many districts in Syria and Palestine were devastated by [[First plague pandemic|plague]]. While Umar was on his way to visit Syria, at [[Elat]], he was received by [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]], governor of Syria, who informed him about the plague and its intensity and suggested that Umar go back to Medina. Umar tried to persuade Abu Ubayda to come with him to Medina, but he declined to leave his troops in that critical situation. Abu Ubayda died in 639 of the plague, which also cost the lives of 25,000 Muslims in Syria. After the plague had weakened, in late 639, Umar visited Syria for political and administrative re-organization, as most of the veteran commanders and governors had died of the plague.<ref>Haykal, 1944, Chapter 21.</ref>

=== Welfare state ===
To be close to the poor, Umar lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar established the first welfare state, [[Bayt al-mal]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWp8aeuqKaYC&q=umar+walked+the+streets+every+evening&pg=PT44 |title=Umar bin Al Khattab – The Second Caliph of Islam |first=Abdul Basit |last=Ahmad |date=6 September 2017 |publisher=[[Darussalam Publishers]] |isbn=9789960861081}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T-uN7tDGSZMC&q=umar+lived+in+a+mud+hut&pg=PA20 |title=Men Around the Messenger |first=Khālid Muḥammad |last=Khālid |date=1 February 2005 |publisher=The Other Press |isbn=9789839154733}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQxYnAykK6sC&q=umar+lived+in+a+mud+hut&pg=PT132 |title=The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad |isbn=9781934271223 |last1=Ali |first1=Maulana Muhammad |date=16 April 2015 |publisher=Ahmadiyya Anjuman Ishaat Islam Lahore USA}}</ref> The Bayt al-mal aided the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years, from the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century through the Umayyad period (661–750) and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced a child benefit and pensions for the children and the elderly.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HJE9AAAAIAAJ&q=umar+welfare+state&pg=PA254 |title=Administrative Development - An Islamic Perspective |first=Muhammad |last=Al-Buraey |date=6 September 1985 |publisher=KPI |isbn=9780710303332}}</ref><ref>The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lT8OAAAAQAAJ&q=umar+Bayt+al-mal&pg=PA252 |title=Administrative Development - An Islamic Perspective |first=Muhammad |last=Al-Buraey |date=6 September 1985 |publisher=KPI |isbn=9780710300591}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnT_zhqEe5cC&q=umar+Bayt+al-mal&pg=PA539 |title=Ottoman History |isbn=9789090261089 |last1=Akgündüz |first1=Ahmed |last2=Öztürk |first2=Said |date=2011 |publisher=IUR Press }}</ref>

=== Free trade ===
Local populations of Jews and Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the [[Byzantine–Sassanid Wars]], often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.{{sfnp|Esposito|2010|p=38}}{{sfnp|Hofmann|2007|p=86}} As new areas were attached to the Caliphate, they also benefited from free trade, while trading with other areas in the Caliphate (to encourage commerce, in Islam trade is not taxed, but wealth is subject to the [[zakat]]).<ref>Islam - An Illustrated History By Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay, p. 40</ref> Since the [[Constitution of Medina]], drafted by Muhammad, the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Caliphate and had their own judges.<ref>R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called "Constitution of Medina"", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1–42, [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref><ref>Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina", Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964), p. 4.</ref><ref name="Constitution of Medina">{{cite web |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/15118390/Madinah-Peace-Treaty |title=Madinah Peace Treaty |via=Scribd}}</ref>

== Assassination ==
{{Main|Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz}}

[[File:Tarikhuna bi-uslub qasasi-The Conspiracy to kill Umar.jpg|thumb|left|Early 20th-century depiction of ([[Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf]] or [[Abdul-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr]]) witnessing the purported conspiracy of [[Abu Lu'lu'a]], [[Hurmuzān]], and Jufayna (wrongly depicted here as a woman; the depiction of the murder weapon may also be wrong)<ref>{{harvnb|Madelung|1997|p=404}} refers to Jufayna as "al-Naṣrānī", indicating that he was a man. Moreover, while the murder weapon seems to be depicted here as a split-blade sword (like [[Zulfiqar]]), {{harvnb|El-Hibri|2010|p=109}} describes it as "a unique dagger", having "two pointed sharp edges, with a handle in the middle". The picture is taken from {{transliteration|ar|Tārīkhunā bi-uslūb qaṣaṣī}} ("Our History in a Narrative style"), a popular history book first published in Iraq in 1935.</ref>]]
[[File:Tombstone of Umar (r.a) by mohammad adil rais.JPG|thumb|Tombstone of caliph Umar, in the [[Green Dome]] in [[al-Masjid al-Nabawi]], Medina. The first window from the right gives a view of Umar's grave.]]

In 644, Umar was assassinated by a Persian slave named [[Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz]]. His motivation for the assassination is not clear, but medieval sources attribute it to a tax dispute with his Arab master [[al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba]].{{sfnp|Pellat|2011}}

According to some historical accounts, Abu Lu'lu'a was a [[Zoroastrian]] from [[Nahavand]] (Iran), though other reports describe him as a [[Eastern Christianity|Christian]].<ref>{{harvnb|Pellat|2011}}. Modern authors also take different views: {{harvnb|Levi Della Vida|Bonner|2000}} merely state that he was a Christian slave, whereas {{harvnb|Madelung|1997|p=75 note 67}} finds the sources claiming he was Christian unreliable. {{harvnb|Ishkevari|Nejad|2008}} mention that according to the {{transliteration|ar|Mujmal al-tawārīkh wa-l-qiṣaṣ}}, an anonymous work written c. 1126, Abu Lu'lu'a came from Fin, a village near [[Kashan]].</ref> A highly skilled [[joiner]] and [[blacksmith]],<ref name="Pellat2011">{{harvnb|Pellat|2011}}.</ref> Abu Lu'lu'a was probably taken captive by his master al-Mughira in the [[Battle of Nahavand]] (642) and subsequently brought to [[Arabia]], where he may also have converted to Islam.<ref>This is the view of {{harvnb|Madelung|1997|p=75 note 67}}.</ref> Other historical sources report that he was rather taken captive by al-Mughira in the [[Battle of al-Qadisiyya]] (636), or that he was sold to al-Mughira by [[Hurmuzān]], an ex-[[Sassanid]] military officer who had been working for Umar as an adviser after his own capture by the Muslims.<ref>See the sources cited by {{harvnb|El-Hibri|2010|pp=108–109}} (cf. also p. 112).</ref> Although [[Medina]] was generally off-limits to the {{transliteration|ar|[[ʿajam]]}} (non-[[Arabs]]) under Umar's reign, Abu Lu'lu'a was exceptionally allowed to enter the capital of the [[Rashidun Caliphate|early caliphate]], being sent there by al-Mughira to serve the caliph.<ref>{{harvnb|Pellat|2011}}; cf. {{harvnb|Madelung|1997|p=75 note 64}}.</ref>

When al-Mughira forced Abu Lu'lu'a to pay a {{transliteration|ar|[[kharāj]]}} tax of two [[dirham]]s a day,<ref>Other sources speak of three dirhams a month; see {{harvnb|Pellat|2011}}.</ref> Abu Lu'lu'a turned to Umar to protest this tax. However, Umar refused to lift the tax, thus provoking Abu Lu'lu'a's rage.<ref>{{harvnb|Pellat|2011}}; {{harvnb|Levi Della Vida|Bonner|2000}}. As pointed out by Pellat 2011, other accounts rather maintain that Abu Lu'lu'a's was angry about the caliph's raising a {{transliteration|ar|kharāj}} tax on his master al-Mughira.</ref> Although this is the reason given by most historical accounts for Abu Lu'lu'a's assassination of Umar,<ref>{{harvnb|Levi Della Vida|Bonner|2000}}.</ref> Umar's biased policies against non-Arab captives may also have played a prominent role.<ref>This is the hypothesis of {{harvnb|Madelung|1997|p=75}}.</ref> One day when Umar was leading the congregational prayer in the [[mosque of Medina]], Abu Lu'lu'a stabbed him with a double-bladed dagger.<ref>{{harvnb|El-Hibri|2010|p=109}} describes the dagger as "unique", having "two pointed sharp edges, with a handle in the middle".</ref> There are different versions of how this happened: according to one version, he also killed Kulayb ibn al-Bukayr al-Laythi who was behind Umar,<ref>{{The History of al-Tabari |volume=14 |page=90}} Cf. {{harvnb|El-Hibri|2010|p=109}}. See also {{harvnb|Caetani|1905–1926|loc=vol. V, p.}} [https://archive.org/details/annalidellislam05caetuoft/page/216/mode/1up 216].</ref> while in another version, he stabbed thirteen people who tried to restrain him.<ref>{{harvnb|El-Hibri|2010|p=109}}.</ref> According to some accounts, the caliph died on the day of the stabbing (Wednesday {{nowrap|26 [[Dhu al-Hijja]]}} of the {{nowrap|[[Islamic calendar|Islamic year]] 23}}, or {{nowrap|3 November 644}} according to the [[Julian calendar]], or {{nowrap|6 November 644}} according to the [[Gregorian calendar]]), while other accounts maintain that he survived three more days.<ref>{{harvnb|Levi Della Vida|Bonner|2000}}; {{harvnb|Pellat|2011}}.</ref>

Some historical sources report that Abu Lu'lu'a was taken prisoner and executed for his assassination of Umar, while other sources claim that he committed suicide.<ref name="Pellat2011"/> After Abu Lu'lu'a's death, his daughter was killed by [[Ubayd Allah ibn Umar]], one of Umar's sons. Acting upon the claim of one man (either [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf]] or [[Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr]]) that they had been seen conspiring with Abu Lu'lu'a while he was holding the double-bladed dagger, Ubayd Allah also killed Hurmuzān (Umar's Persian military adviser), and Jufayna, a Christian man from [[al-Hira]] (Iraq) who had been taken to Medina to serve as a private tutor to a family in Medina.<ref>{{harvnb|Madelung|1997|p=69}} (cf. p. 404, where Madelung refers to him as "Jufayna al-Naṣrānī").</ref> After Ubayd Allah was detained for these murders, he threatened to kill all foreign captives residing in Medina, as well as some others. Although Ubayd Allah may have been encouraged by his sister [[Hafsa bint Umar]] to avenge their father's death, his murder of Hurmuzān and Jufayna was likely the result of a mental breakdown rather than of a true conspiracy. It was regarded by his peers as a crime rather than as a legitimate act of retaliation.<ref>{{harvnb|Madelung|1997|p=69}}.</ref>

In early 20th-century scholarship it was sometimes supposed that Abu Lu'lu'a had really been an instrument in the hands of a conspiracy, though not a conspiracy led by Hurmuzān, but rather one led by [[Ali]], [[al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam]], and [[Talha ibn Ubayd Allah]]. These men, who according to the historical sources were appointed by Umar himself as members of the council who would elect the next caliph, were thought by scholars to have conspired to overthrow Umar's reign and to put Ali in his place.<ref>{{harvnb|Caetani|1905–1926|loc=vol. V, pp. 40–51}}, as reported by {{harvnb|Madelung|1997|pp=68–70}}.</ref> This hypothesis, however, is rejected by more recent scholars.<ref>{{harvnb|Madelung|1997|pp=68–70}}; {{harvnb|Levi Della Vida|Bonner|2000}}; {{harvnb|Pellat|2011}}.</ref> Nevertheless, while Ubayd Allah was subsequently acquitted of his crimes by Umar's successor [[Uthman]] (r. 644–656), who considered the execution of Ubayd Allah an excessive measure in view of his father's recent assassination,{{sfn|Madelung|1997|p=70}} Ali, among others, did protest against this and vowed to apply the regular punishment for murder if he were ever to be caliph.<ref>{{harvnb|Madelung|1997|pp=69–70}}.</ref>

Umar was buried at the [[Green Dome]] in al-Masjid al-Nabawi alongside Muhammad and the caliph Abu Bakr, by the permission of [[Aisha]] given to his son Abdullah ibn Umar on Umar's request.{{sfn|Fayda|Koçak|2007|p=46}}

=== Aftermath ===
On his deathbed, Umar vacillated on his succession. However, it has been reported that he said that if [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]], [[Muadh ibn Jabal]], or [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] were alive he would have appointed one of them his successor.<ref>{{Cite book|author=[[Ziya-ur-Rahman Azmi]]|title=[[Al-Jami al-Kamil]] (Authentic Hadith Encyclopaedia - Arranged According to the Chapters of Fiqh)|volume=9|publisher=[[Darussalam Publishers]]|year=2016|page=197|language=Arabic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Nabil bin Mansur bin Ya‘qub al-Basara|title=Anis al-Sari in the Verification and Authentication of the Hadiths Mentioned by Al-Hafiz Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani in Fath al-Bari|volume=9|publisher=Al-Samahah Foundation, Al-Rayan Foundation|year=2005|page=6263|language=Arabic}}</ref> Umar finally appointed a committee of six persons to [[The election of Uthman|choose a caliph from amongst them]]: [[Abdur Rahman bin Awf]], [[Saad ibn Abi Waqqas]], [[Talha ibn Ubaidullah]], [[Uthman ibn Affan]], [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] and [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/UmarIbnAl-KhattabHisLifeAndTimesVolume2/100713541-Umar-Ibn-Al-Khattab-Vol-2#page/n381/mode/2up |title=Umar Ibn Al-Khattab : His Life and Times, Volume 2 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

All six are among [[the ten to whom Paradise was promised]] according to Sunnis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sunnah.com/abudawud/42/54 |title=Hadith – Book of Model Behavior of the Prophet (Kitab Al-Sunnah) – Sunan Abi Dawud – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |website=sunnah.com}}</ref> The only one out of the "famous ten" left out of the committee who was still alive at the time was Saeed ibn Zaid, the cousin and brother-in-law of Umar. He was excluded on the basis of being related by blood and of the same tribe as Umar. Umar had a policy of not appointing anyone related to him to a position of authority even if they were qualified by his standards.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/UmarIbnAl-KhattabHisLifeAndTimesVolume2/100713541-Umar-Ibn-Al-Khattab-Vol-2#page/n45/mode/2up |title=Umar Ibn Al-Khattab - His Life and Times, Volume 2 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

Umar appointed a band of fifty armed soldiers to protect the house where the meeting was proceeding. Until the appointment of the next caliph, Umar appointed a notable [[Sahaba|Sahib ( singular of Sahaba )]] and mawla, [[Suhayb ar-Rumi]] (''Suhayb the Roman''), as a deputy or caretaker caliph to run state affairs.<ref>Efendioğlu, Mehmet(2009), ''[[TDV Encyclopedia of Islam]]'', Volume 37, p. 476.</ref>
While the meeting for selection of a caliph was proceeding, [[Abdulrehman ibn Abu Bakr]] and Abdur Rahman bin Awf revealed that they saw the dagger used by Abu Lu'lu'a, the assassin of Umar. A night before Umar's assassination, reported Abdur Rahman bin Awf, he saw Hurmuzan, Jafina and Abu Lu'lu'a, while they were suspiciously discussing something.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} Surprised by his presence, the dagger fell; it was the same two-sided dagger used in the assassination. Abdulrehman ibn Abu Bakr, son of the late caliph Abu Bakr, confirmed that a few days before Umar's assassination, he saw this dagger in Hurmuzan's possession. After this revelation, it seemed clear that it had been planned by the Persians residing in Medina. Infuriated by this, Umar's younger son [[Ubayd Allah ibn Umar]] sought to kill all the Persians in Medina.{{Citation needed|date= December 2017}} He killed Hurmuzan, Jafinah, and the daughter of Umar's assassin Abu Lu'lu'a, who is believed to have been a Muslim. Ubayd Allah was intercepted by the people of Medina, who prevented him from continuing the massacre. [[Amr ibn al-Aas]] is said to have intercepted him and convinced him to hand over his sword. The murder of Jafinah enraged Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, his foster brother, and he assaulted Ubaidullah ibn Umar; again the companions intervened. When Umar was informed about the incident, he ordered Ubayd Allah imprisoned and that the next caliph should decide his fate.<ref name="haykal-death">Haykal, 1944, Chapter "Death of Umar".</ref>

Umar died on 6 November 644; on 7 November [[The election of Uthman|Uthman succeeded him]] as caliph. After prolonged negotiations, the tribunal decided to give [[blood money (restitution)|blood money]] to the victims, and released Umar's son Ubaidullah on the ground that, after the tragedy of Umar's assassination, people would be further infuriated by the execution of his son the very next day.

== Physical appearance ==
Umar was strong, fit, athletic and good at wrestling. He is said to have participated in the wrestling matches on the occasion of the annual fair of Ukaz.<ref name="hadrat">"Hadrat Umar Farooq" by Masud-Ul-Hasan</ref> From first hand accounts of his physical appearance Umar is said to be vigorous, robust and a very tall man; in markets, he would tower above the people. The front part of his head was bald, always ''A'sara Yusran'' (working with two hands),<ref>Lisan al-Arab 4/196</ref> both his eyes were black, with yellow skin; however, ibn Sa'ad in his book stated that he never knew that Umar had yellow skin, except for a certain part of Umar's life where his color changed due to his frequent consumption of oil.<ref name="tabaqat-3-324"/> Moreover, it is also narrated that he was initially white but his color turned dark during the Year of Ashes (18 A.H.) where a [[famine]] caused him to exert considerable effort in running the caliphate whilst there was a widespread lack of food.<ref name="tabaqat-3-324" /><ref>Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, Genealogies of the Nobles, pp. 325</ref> It is also narrated by [[Abu Nu'aym al-Isfahani]] that he had reddish-white skin.<ref>معرفة الصحابة 1/205،206</ref> His teeth were ''ashnabul asnan'' (very white shining). He would always color his beard and take care of his hair using a type of plant.<ref name="tabaqat-3-324">ibn Sa'ad, 3/ 324</ref><ref>''History of the Prophets and Kings'' (''Tarikh ar-Rusul wa al-Muluk'') 4/ 196 by [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]]</ref>

The early Muslim historians ''Ibn Saad'' and ''al-Hakim'' mention that Abu Miriam Zir, a native of Kufa, described Umar as being "advanced in years, bald, of a tawny colour – a left handed man, tall and towering above the people".<ref name=hadrat /> Umar's eldest son [[Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab|Abdullah]] described his father as "a man of fair complexion, a ruddy tint prevailing, tall, bald and grey".<ref>Ibn Sa'd, Kitāb al-Ṭabaqāt al-Kabīr, vol. 3, p. 301,قال: أخبرنا محمد بن عمر قال: أخبرنا شُعيب بن طلحة عن أبيه عن القاسم بن محمّد قال: سمعتُ ابن عمر يصف عمر يقول رجل أبيض تعْلُوه حُمْرَةٌ، طُوال، أصلع، أشيب.</ref> Historian Salima bin al-Akwa'a said that "Umar was ambidextrous, he could use both his hands equally well". On the authority of ''Abu Raja al-U'taridi'', [[Ibn Asakir]] records that "Umar was a man tall, stout, very bald, very ruddy with scanty hair on the cheeks, his moustaches large, and the ends thereof reddish".<ref name="hadrat" /> In addition, on the authority of Amir bin Rabi'ah, Ibn Sa'ad records that "I saw Umar a white man, pale. Prevailing ruddiness, tall and bald".<ref>Ibn Sa'd, Kitāb al-Ṭabaqāt al-Kabīr, vol. 3, p. 301, أخبرنا محمد بن عمر قال: أخبرنا عمر بن عمران بن عبد الله بن عبد الرحمن بن أبي بكر عن عاصم بن عبيد الله عن عبد الله بن عامر بن ربيعة قال: رأيتُ عمر رجلًا أبيض، أمْهَق. تعلوه حمرة، طُوالًا، أصلع.</ref>

== Assessments and legacy ==
=== Political legacy ===
Umar was the first caliph to adopt the title {{Transliteration|ar|[[amir al-mu'minin]]}} (Commander of the Faithful).{{Sfnp|Madelung|1997|p=49}} Umar was one of Muhammad's chief advisers. After Muhammad's passing, it was Umar who reconciled the Medinan Muslims to accept Abu Bakr, a Meccan, as the caliph.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Umar I {{!}} Muslim caliph |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Umar-I |access-date=22 August 2017}}</ref> During Abu Bakr's era, he actively participated as his secretary and main adviser.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/umar-ibn-al-khattab |title=Umar ibn al-Khattab |website=jewishvirtuallibrary.org |language=en |access-date=22 August 2017}}</ref> After succeeding Abu Bakr as caliph, Umar won over the hearts of Bedouin tribes by emancipating all their prisoners and slaves taken during the Ridda wars.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Crawford |first=Peter |date=16 July 2013 |title=The War of the Three Gods - Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |publisher=[[Pen and Sword Books]] |isbn=9781473828650 |page=119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-oHBAAAQBAJ&q=umar+slaves+emancipation+ridda&pg=PA119}}</ref>

Umar never appointed governors for more than two years, for they might amass too much local power. He dismissed his most successful general, [[Khalid ibn Walid]], because he wanted people to know that it is Allah who grants victory, and to counter the cult of personality that had built up around Khalid, for the sake of the Muslim faith.{{sfnp|Lock|2003|p=70}}

He would patrol the streets of Medina with a whip in his hand, ready to punish any offenders he might come across. It is said that Umar's whip was feared more than the sword of another man. But with all of this, he was also known for being kindhearted, answering the needs of the fatherless and widows.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsP3DAAAQBAJ&q=umar+whip+streets+medina&pg=PA27 |title=Entrepreneurship and Management in an Islamic Context |last1=Ramadani |first1=Veland |last2=Dana |first2=Léo-Paul |last3=Gërguri-Rashiti |first3=Shqipe |last4=Ratten |first4=Vanessa |date=2 September 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319396798 |page=27 |language=en}}</ref>

Umar's swift imposition of justice against his governors for misdeeds made even powerful governors such as [[Mu'awiya I|Muawiyah]] scared of him. [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]], during the later rule of [[Uthman ibn Affan]], wanted Uthman to be more strict with his governors, saying, "I adjure you by God, do you know that Mu'awiyah was more afraid of Umar than was Umar's own servant Yarfa?"<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kq9RzQWlBNwC&q=I%20adjure%20you%20by%20God,%20do%20you%20know%20that%20Mu'awiyah%20was%20more%20afraid%20of%20Umar%20than%20was%20Umar's%20own%20slave%20Yarfa%E2%80%99&pg=PA143 |title=History of al-Tabari Vol. 15, The Crisis of the Early Caliphate - The Reign of Uthman A.D. 644-656/A.H. 24–35 |date=16 June 2015 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=9781438407289}}</ref>

Under Umar's rule, in order to promote strict discipline, Arab soldiers were settled outside of cities, between the desert and cultivated lands in special garrison towns known as "amsar". Known examples of such settlements are [[Basra]] and [[Kufa]] in Iraq and [[Fustat]] south of what would later become [[Cairo]]. His soldiers were forbidden to own land outside of Arabia. There were restrictions on their right to seize buildings and other immovable things usually thought of as prizes of war. Movable spoils were shared with the people of the umma, regardless of their social stratum.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hSOdBAAAQBAJ&q=forbidden+to+acquire&pg=PA48 |title=A Concise History of the Middle East |last1=Goldschmidt |first1=Arthur Jr. |last2=Boum |first2=Aomar |date=7 July 2015 |publisher=[[Perseus Books Group|Avalon Publishing]] |isbn=9780813349633 |pages=48–49 |language=en}}</ref>

A modern researcher writes about this:<ref>Mohtsham, Saeed M., [http://www.bizresearchpapers.com/Mohtsham.pdf ''Vision and Visionary Leadership – An Islamic Perspective'']</ref>

{{blockquote|He used to monitor public policy very closely and had kept the needs of the public central to his leadership approach. As second caliph of Islam, he refused to chop off the hands of thieves because he felt he had fallen short of his responsibility to provide meaningful employment to all his subjects. As a ruler of a vast kingdom, his vision was to ensure that every one in his kingdom should sleep on a full stomach.}}
{{blockquote|If a dog dies hungry on the banks of the River Euphrates, Umar will be responsible for dereliction of duty.|(Umar)}}
{{blockquote|He also knew that just having a vision is not enough unless it is supported by effective strategies. He didn't only have a vision; he truly transformed his vision into actions. For example, to ensure that nobody sleeps hungry in his empire, he used to walk through the streets almost every night to see if there is any one needy or ill.}}

In ''[[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon]] refers to Umar in the following terms:
{{blockquote|"Yet the abstinence and humility of Umar were not inferior to the virtues of Abubeker; his food consisted of barley bread or dates; his drink was water; he preached in a gown that was torn or tattered in twelve places; and a Persian satrap who paid his homage to the conqueror, found him asleep among the beggars on the steps of the mosque of Medina."<ref name="Gibbon1833">{{cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Gibbon |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume III |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jOo5AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA410 |date=1833 |publisher=Harper |page=410}}</ref>}}

His rule was one of the few moments in the history of Islam where Muslims were united as a single community. [[Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud]] would often weep whenever the subject of Umar was brought up. He said: "Umar was a fortress of Islam. People would enter Islam and not leave. When he died, the fortress was breached and now people are going out of Islam".<ref name="archive.org">{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/UmarIbnAl-KhattabHisLifeAndTimesVolume2/100713541-Umar-Ibn-Al-Khattab-Vol-2#page/n397/mode/2up |title=Umar Ibn Al-Khattab - His Life and Times, Volume 2}}</ref> [[Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah]] before Umar died famously said: "If Umar dies, Islam would be weakened". People asked him why and his reply was "You will see what I am speaking about if you survive".<ref name="archive.org"/>

His greatest achievement from a religious perspective was the compilation of the Qur'an.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/UmarIbnAl-KhattabHisLifeAndTimesVolume1/100714724-Umar-Ibn-Al-Khattab-Vol-1#page/n147/mode/2up |title=Umar Ibn Al-Khattab - His Life and Times, Volume 1 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref> This had not been done during the time of Muhammad. However, during the Battle of Yamama, a great number of the memorisers of the Quran perished in the battle. On the advice of Umar, Abu Bakr tasked [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] with the momentous task of compiling the Quran into a single Book.<ref name="sunnah.com"/>

The [[Farooqui dynasty]] which ruled the [[Khandesh]] region in north of [[Maharashtra]], India, from 14th century until 16th century, has claimed their descent from Umar's lineage.<ref name="The Kingdom of Khandesh; Radhey Shyam">{{cite book |author1=Radhey Shyam |title=The Kingdom of Khandesh |date=1981 |publisher=Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i Delli |pages=157, 165 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kwoMAAAAIAAJ |access-date=6 March 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="The Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society Volumes 52–54; Mythic Society (Bangalore, India)">{{cite book |author1=Mythic Society (Bangalore, India) |title=The Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society Volumes 52–54 |date=14 March 1962 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x07jAAAAMAAJ |access-date=6 March 2024 |language=en |quote=The rulers of Khandesh who claimed descent from Caliph Umar Faruq evinced the Faruq – like spirit of statesmanship, worldly wisdom, tenacity of purpose, tolerance and patriotism}} [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.92870 Alt URL]</ref>

=== Military legacy ===
Along with Khalid ibn Walid, Umar was influential in the Ridda wars.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/UmarIbnAl-KhattabHisLifeAndTimesVolume2/100713541-Umar-Ibn-Al-Khattab-Vol-2#page/n415/mode/2up |title=Umar Ibn Al-Khattab - His Life and Times, Volume 2 |via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

One strategic success was his sundering of the Byzantine-Sassanid alliance in 636, when Emperors [[Heraclius]] and [[Yazdegerd III]] allied against their common enemy.{{Citation needed|date= December 2017}} He was lucky in that the Persian Emperor Yazdegerd III couldn't synchronise with Heraclius as planned. Umar fully availed himself of the opportunity by inducing the Byzantines to act prematurely.{{Citation needed|date= December 2017}} This was contrary to the orders of Emperor Heraclius, who presumably wanted a coordinated attack along with the Persians. Umar did this by sending reinforcements to the Roman front in the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], with instructions that they should appear in the form of small bands, one after the other, giving the impression of a continuous stream of reinforcements that finally lured the Byzantines to an untimely battle.{{Citation needed|date= December 2017}} On the other hand, Yazdegerd III was engaged in negotiations that further gave Umar time to transfer his troops from Syria to Iraq. These troops proved decisive in the [[Battle of Qadisiyyah]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}

His strategy resulted in a Muslim victory at the Second Battle of Emesa in 638, where the pro-Byzantine Christian Arabs of [[Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia|Jazira]], aided by the Byzantine Emperor, made an unexpected flanking movement and laid siege to [[Homs|Emesa (Homs)]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}

Umar issued an order to invade the very homeland of the Christian Arab forces besieging Emesa, the Jazira. A three-pronged attack against Jazira was launched from Iraq. To further pressure the Christian Arab armies, Umar instructed [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]], commander of Muslim forces in Iraq, to send reinforcements to Emesa. Umar himself led reinforcements there from Medina. Under this unprecedented pressure, the Christian Arabs retreated from Emesa before Muslim reinforcements could arrive. The Muslims annexed [[Mesopotamia]] and parts of [[Byzantine Armenia]].{{citation needed|date=June 2017}}

After the [[Battle of Nahavand]], Umar launched a full-scale invasion of the Sassanid Persian Empire. The invasion was a series of well-coordinated multi-pronged attacks designed to isolate and destroy their targets. Umar launched the invasion by attacking the very heart of Persia, aiming to isolate Azerbaijan and eastern Persia.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} This was immediately followed by simultaneous attacks on Azerbaijan and Fars. Next, [[Sistan]] and [[Kerman province|Kirman]] were captured, thus isolating the stronghold of Persia, the Khurasan. The final expedition was launched against Khurasan, where, after the [[Battle of Oxus River]], the Persian empire ceased to exist, and Yazdegerd III fled to [[Central Asia]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}

=== Religious legacy ===
==== Sunni views ====
{{Main|Sunni view of Umar}}

Umar is remembered by Sunnis as a rigid Muslim of a sound and just disposition in matters of religion; a man they title ''Fārūq'', meaning "Distinguisher", and the second of the rightly guided caliphs. He patched his clothes with skin, took buckets on his two shoulders, always riding his donkey without the saddle, rarely laughing and never joking with anyone. On his ring is written the words "Enough is Death as a reminder to you O' Umar".<ref name="misas168">''Tartib wa Tahthib Kitab [[Al-Bidaya wa l-Nihaya]]'' by [[ibn Kathir]], published by Dar al-Wathan publications, [[Riyadh]], Saudi Arabia, 1422 AH (2002), compiled by Muhammad ibn Shamil as-Sulami, p. 168</ref> He did not seek advancement for his own family, but rather sought to advance the interests of the Muslim community, the ''[[ummah]]''. According to one of Muhammad's companions, [[Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud]]:
{{blockquote|Umar's submission to Islam was a conquest, his migration was a victory, his Imamate (period of rule) was a blessing, I have seen when we were unable to pray at the Kaabah until Umar submitted, when he submitted to Islam, he fought them (the pagans) until they left us alone and we prayed.|Abd Allah ibn Mas'ud|<ref>as-Suyuti, ''The History of the Khalifas Who Took the Right Way'', p. 112.</ref>}}

==== Shia views ====
{{Main|Shia view of Umar}}

Umar is viewed very negatively in the literature of [[Twelver]] [[Shi'a]] (the main branch of Shia Islam<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/shia-islam-s-holiest-sites.html |title=Shia Islam's Holiest Sites |date=25 April 2017}}</ref>{{sfnp|The World Factbook|2010}}) and is often regarded as a usurper of Ali's right to the Caliphate. After the [[Saqifah]] assembly chose Abu Bakr as caliph, Umar marched with armed men to Ali's house in order to get the allegiance of Ali and his supporters. Sources indicate that a threat was made to burn Ali's house if he refused, but the encounter ended when [[Fatima]], wife of [[Ali]], intervened.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C&pg=PA19 |title=An Introduction to Shiʿi Islam - The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism |isbn=978-0-300-03531-5 |last1=Momen |first1=Moojan |date=1985 |page=19 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]]}}</ref> According to the majority of Twelver scholar writings, Fatima was physically assaulted by Umar, that this caused her to miscarry her child, [[Muhsin ibn Ali]], and led to her death soon after.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vGhp8Obm3bgC&pg=PA45 |title=The Conference of Baghdad's Ulema |page=45 |publisher=Forgotten Books |isbn=9781605067087}}</ref> (see [[Umar at Fatimah's house]]). However, some Twelver scholars, such as [[Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah]], reject these accounts of physical abuse as a "myth",<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780195137996 |last=Walbridge |first=Linda S. |title=The Most Learned of the Shi'a - The Institution of the Marja' Taqlid |date=30 August 2001 |page=211}}</ref> although Fadlallah mentioned that his speech is a probability, and not a certain reason to reject that event.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aparat.com/v/NayZp |title=تدلیس شبکه وهابی در سخنان آقای محمد حسین فضل الله |website=آپارات}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2017}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://shayeaat.ir/post/798 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320151502/http://shayeaat.ir/post/798 |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 March 2017 |title=شایعات – کلیپ رد هجوم به منزل حضرت زهرا(س)، توسط آیت الله سید حسین فضل الله ! / شایعه 0717 |website=shayeaat.ir |date=11 March 2017}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=September 2017}}

Another Shia sect, the [[Zaydism|Zaidiyyah]] followers of [[Zayd ibn Ali]], generally has two views about that. Some branches, such as [[Jarudiyya]] (Sarhubiyya), don't accept Umar and Abu Bakr as legitimate caliphs. For instance, Jarudiyya believes that Muhammad appointed Ali and believes that the denial of the Imamate of Ali after Muhammad's passing would lead to infidelity and deviation from the right path.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} The other view accepts Umar and Abu Bakr as legitimate caliphs, albeit inferior to Ali.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780195305036  |last=Ruthven |first=Malise |title=Islam in the World |date=20 April 2006 |page=186}}</ref> According to [[al-Tabari]] (and [[Ibn A'tham]]),<ref>{{Cite book |edition=1st |publisher=Dār al-ḍwāʾ |author=Alī Shīrī |title=Kitāb al-Futūḥ by Aḥmad ibn Aʿtham al-Kūfī |location=Lebanon |date=1991 |volume=8 |page=289}}</ref> when asked about Abu Bakr and Umar, Zayd ibn Ali replied: "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them [...] when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Qur'an and the Sunnah".<ref>''The waning of the Umayyad caliphate'' by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, pp. 37–38</ref><ref>''The Encyclopedia of Religion'', Vol. 16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p. 243, ''"They were called "Rafida by the followers of Zayd"''</ref>

== Family ==
{{Main|Family tree of Umar}}

Umar married nine women in his lifetime and had fourteen children: ten sons and four daughters.{{Citation needed|date= December 2017}}

=== Wives ===
The known wives of Umar are:
* [[Zaynab bint Maz'un]], she was the mother of Hafsa, Abd Allah and Abd al-Rahman al-Akbar;
* [[Umm Kulthum bint Jarwal]], she was divorced by Umar. She was the mother of Ubayd Allah and Zayd al-Asghar;
* [[Qurayba bint Abi Umayya]], divorced by Umar in 628;
* [[Jamila bint Thabit]], she married Umar sometime between May 627 and May 628;<ref name="Tabari/Fishbein, vol. 8, p. 95">Tabari/Fishbein, vol. 8, p. 95.</ref> They had one son, Asim.<ref>Malik ibn Anas, ''Al-Muwatta'', 37:6.</ref><ref>Ibn Saad/Bewley, vol. 3, p. 204.</ref><ref>Ibn Saad/Bewley, vol. 8, p. 236.</ref><ref name="Tabari/Fishbein, vol. 8, p. 95"/><ref>Tabari/Smith, vol. 14, pp. 100–101.</ref>
* [[Atiqa bint Zayd]], she was married to Umar and had a son named Iyad;
* [[Umm Hakim bint al-Harith ibn Hisham]], she was married to Umar;<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YDs14WLLPy4C&q=umm+hakim&pg=PA465 |title=Life of Umar the Great, the (Al-Farooq) |isbn=9788174353382 |access-date=18 January 2014 |last1=Nomani |first1=Shibli |date=2003 |publisher=Adam Publishers & Distributors}}</ref> in 634 and was mother of Fatima.
* [[Umm Kulthum bint Ali]] from this marriage Umar had a son named Zayd and a daughter named Ruqayya. This is, however, the Sunni view. The Shi'a do not accept that such a marriage took place. In fact, even some Sunni scholars maintain that Umar's wife Umm Kulthum was actually Abu Bakr's daughter who was raised in Ali's house.<ref>Nawawī, Tahdhīb al-asmāʾ wa l-lughāt, vol. 2, p. 630</ref>

=== Sons ===
The sons of Umar are:{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}
* [[Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab|Abd Allah]], son of Zaynab bint Maz'un;
* Abd al-Rahman, son of Zaynab bint Maz'un;
* [[Zayd ibn Umar|Zayd]], son of Umm Kulthum bint Ali.<ref name="Saad3">Muhammad ibn Saad, ''Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir'', vol. 3, Translated by Bewley, A.; (2013), ''The Companions of Badr'', p. 204, London, Ta-Ha Publishers.</ref>
* [[Ubayd Allah ibn Umar|Ubayd Allah]], son of Umm Kulthum bint Jarwal;
* Zayd, son of Umm Kulthum bint Jarwal;
* [[Asim ibn Umar|Asim]], son of Jamila bint Thabit;
* Iyad, son of Atiqa bint Zayd;
* Abd al-Rahman Abu'l-Mujabbar;
* Abd al-Rahman "''Abu Shahmah''" ibn Umar;
* Abd Allah.

=== Daughters ===
The daughters of Umar are:{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}
* [[Hafsa bint Umar|Hafsa]], daughter of Zaynab bint Maz'un;
* Fatima, daughter of Umm Hakim bint al-Harith ibn Hisham;
* Ruqayya, daughter of Umm Kulthum bint Ali;
* Zaynab.

== See also ==
* [[Pact of Umar]]
* [[Umar's Assurance]]
* [[Shia view of Umar]]
* ''[[Al-Farooq (book)|Al-Farooq]]'', modern biography about Umar
* [[Sahaba]]
* {{Section link|7th century in Lebanon|Ṣaḥāba who have visited Lebanon}}
* [[Farooqi]]
* [[Omar (TV series)|''Omar'' (TV series)]]
* [[Umar ibn Ibrahim ibn Waqid al-Umari]]
* [[Omar ibn AlKhatab Mosque|Omar ibn al-Khattab Mosque]] is a historic mosque in Dumat al-Jandal in northern Arabia, it was built by Umar
* [[Al Farooq Omar Bin Al Khattab Mosque]], mosque named for him in Dubai

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |author=Ibn Sa'ad |title=The Book of the Major Classes (Tabaqat al-Kubra) |title-link=The Book of the Major Classes}}
* {{cite book |last1=Caetani |first1=Leone |author1-link=Leone Caetani |date=1905–1926 |title=Annali dell'Islam |series=10 vols. |location=Milan |publisher=Ulrico Hoepli |oclc=3423680 |url=https://archive.org/details/annalidellislam05caetuoft}}
* Guillaume, A.; ''The Life of Muhammad'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1955.
* Previte-Orton, C. W.; (1971), ''The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History'', Cambridge, [[Cambridge University Press]].
* Donner, Fred; ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', [[Princeton University Press]], 1981.
* {{cite book |last1=El-Hibri |first1=Tayeb |date=2010 |title=Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History - The Rashidun Caliphs |location=New York |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-15082-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ouwL4dGrTN8C&pg=PA108}}
* {{cite book |last=Hourani |first=Albert |author-link=Albert Hourani |title-link=History of the Arab Peoples |title=A History of the Arab Peoples |publisher=[[Faber & Faber]] |date=1991}}
* {{cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |title=The Succession to Muhammad |title-link=The Succession to Muhammad |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1997}}
* {{cite book |last=Madelung |first=Wilferd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QKBUwBUWWkC |title=The Succession to Muhammad - A Study of the Early Caliphate |date=15 October 1998 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-52-164696-3}}
* {{EI2 |last=Levi Della Vida |first=G. |author-link=Giorgio Levi Della Vida |last2=Bonner |first2=M. |title=Umar (I) b. al-Khaṭṭāb |volume=10 |pages=818−821}}
* {{cite book |title=Conquerors of Palestine Through Forty Centuries |first=Henry Osmond |last=Lock |others=Introduction by [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby]] |publisher=[[Kessinger Publishing]] |orig-date=1920 |date=2003 |isbn=0-7661-3984-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hart |first=Michael H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jvbNRbDKY1wC |title=The 100 - A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History |publisher=[[Carol Publishing Group]] |date=1978 |isbn=9780806513508 |author-link=Michael H. Hart}}
* {{Encyclopaedia Islamica |last1=Ishkevari |first1=Hasan Yusofi |last2=Nejad |first2=Saleh |title=Abu Lu'lu'a |date=2008 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fayda |first1=Mustafa |last2=Koçak |first2=Muhşin |title=ÖMER b. el-Hattâb – An article published in 34th volume of Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam |date=2007 |publisher=[[TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi]] |location=Istanbul |isbn=978-97-53-89456-2 |pages=44–53 |volume=34 |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/omer#2-fikih |language=tr}}
* {{citation |author=Barnaby Rogerson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qzyBPwAACAAJ |title=The Heirs of Muhammad - Islam's First Century and the Origins of the Sunni-Shia Split |date=2008 |publisher=Overlook |isbn=978-1-59-020022-3}}.
* {{citation |author=Barnaby Rogerson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExbdVf5fFmUC |title=The Heirs of the Prophet Muhammad - And the Roots of the Sunni-Shia Schism |date=4 November 2010 |publisher=Little, Brown Book Group |isbn=978-0-74-812470-1 |author-link=Barnaby Rogerson}}.
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Pellat |first1=Charles |author1-link=Charles Pellat |date=2011 |title=Abu Lu'lu'a |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]] |editor1-last=Yarshater |editor1-first=Ehsan |editor1-link=Ehsan Yarshater |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/abu-loloa-a-persian-slave-of-mogira-b}}
* {{Cite book |last=Vaglieri |first=Laura Veccia |author-link=Laura Veccia Vaglieri |chapter=The Patriarchal and Umayyad caliphates |title=The Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1A - The Central Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War |pages=57–103 |date=1970 |editor1-first=P. M. |editor1-last=Holt |editor2-first=Ann K. S. |editor2-last=Lambton |editor3-first=Bernard |editor3-last=Lewis |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521219464.005 |isbn=9780521219464 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory0001unse_b2z0/page/n5/mode/2up}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.bogvaerker.dk/Bookwright/Umar.html Excerpt from ''The History of the Khalifahs''] by Jalal ad-Din as-[[Suyuti]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930162009/http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah40.asf Sirah of Amirul Muminin Umar Bin Khattab] by Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya al-Husayni al-Ninowy
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Omar|short=x}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Banu Adi]]|| {{circa|584}} || {{circa}} 6 November 644 |[[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]]}}
{{s-rel|su}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Abu Bakr]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Caliphate|Caliph of Islam]]<br />[[Rashidun Caliph]]|years=634 – 644}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Uthman ibn Affan]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Rashidun Caliphs|state=expanded}}
{{Ten companions of Muhammad|state=expanded}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Umar| ]]
[[Category:584 births]]
[[Category:644 deaths]]
[[Category:Arab Muslims]]
[[Category:7th-century caliphs]]
[[Category:7th-century murdered monarchs]]
[[Category:Assassinated caliphs]]
[[Category:Deaths by edged and bladed weapons]]
[[Category:People of the Muslim conquest of Persia]]
[[Category:Rashidun caliphs]]
[[Category:Sahabah who participated in the battle of Uhud]]
[[Category:Shahnameh characters]]
[[Category:Burials at Al-Masjid an-Nabawi]]