View source for Vandalic language

{{Short description|Extinct Germanic language of the Vandals}}
{{about|the ancient Germanic language|the modern Slavic language of the Slovenes once thought to be descendants of the Vandals|Prekmurje Slovene}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Vandalic
| states           = [[Spain]], [[North Africa]]
| extinct          = [[6th century]] AD
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3             = [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] †
| iso3             = xvn
| linglist         = xvn
| glotto           = vand1245
| glottorefname    = Vandal
}}
{{Contains special characters |special=[[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] characters |fix=Help:Multilingual_support#Gothic |characters=letters}}

'''Vandalic''' was the [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]] spoken by the [[Vandals]] during roughly the 3rd to 6th centuries. It was probably closely related to [[Gothic language|Gothic]], and, as such, is traditionally classified as an [[East Germanic language]].<ref name="Hartmann">{{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Frederik |title=The Vandalic language – origins and relationships |date=2020 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Winter |location=Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-8253-4752-9}}</ref>{{rp|p=9}} Its attestation is very fragmentary, mainly due to the Vandals' constant migrations and late adoption of writing. All modern sources from the time when Vandalic was spoken are [[protohistoric]].<ref name="Reichert">{{cite book |author-first=Hermann|author-last=Reichert|editor-last1=Greule |editor-first1=Albrecht |editor-last2=Springer |editor-first2=Matthias |title=Namen des Frühmittelalters als Sprachliche Zeugnisse und als Geschichtsquellen |trans-title=Names from the early Middle Ages as linguistical evidence and as historical sources|date=2009 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=9783110208153 |language=de |chapter=Sprache und Namen der Wandalen in Afrika|trans-chapter=The language and names of the Vandals in Africa}}</ref>{{rp|pages=43-44}}

== Classification ==
Vandalic is traditionally classified as an East Germanic language,<ref name="Wrede">{{cite book |last1=Wrede |first1=Ferdinand |title=Über die Sprache der Wandalen |date=2018 |orig-date=1886 |publisher=De Gruyter |location=Berlin/Boston |isbn=9783111347615 |language=de |trans-title=On the language of the Vandals}}</ref>{{rp|page=4}}<ref name="Hennings" /> though the reasons for this classification are mostly historical and not linguistic.{{r|Hartmann|p=7}} Due to the perception of Vandalic as an East Germanic language, its reconstruction from [[onomastics]] recorded by Greek and Roman sources relies on Gothic forms. Therefore, it is difficult to assess whether or not Vandalic is closely related to Gothic.{{r|Hartmann|page=9}}

Theories include that Vandalic together with Gothic and [[Burgundian language (Germanic)|Burgundian]] formed a [[dialect continuum]];<ref name="Riegger">{{cite journal |last1=Hartmann |first1=Frederik |last2=Riegger |first2=Chiara |title=The Burgundian language and its phylogeny: A cladistical investigation |journal=NOWELE. North-Western European Language Evolution |date=16 March 2022 |volume=75 |issue=1 |pages=42–80 |doi=10.1075/nowele.00062.har|s2cid=247514646 }}</ref> that the language of the Vandals was actually Gothic;{{r|Reichert|p=47}} and that they were different languages that separated early on, without having an intermediary East Germanic ancestor.<ref name="Phylogeny">{{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Frederik |chapter=Genealogical implications and Germanic phylogeny |title=Germanic Phylogeny |date=2023 |pages=172–211 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780198872733.003.0005 |isbn=9780191983719 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Vandals Migration pt.gif|thumb|The Vandals during the [[Migration Period]]]]
According to their own [[mythology]], the [[Goths]] originally came from [[Scandinavia]]. It is debated whether Gothic, and by extension Vandalic, came from Scandinavia, as linguistic evidence shows no specific relation between [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] and either Gothic or Vandalic. Still, it is possible that both the Goths and the Vandals migrated from Scandinavia southwards, where their respective languages started to diverge from [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]].<ref name="Phylogeny" />

The linguistic [[Linguistic homeland|urheimat]] of Vandalic probably lies south of the Baltic sea. They [[Crossing of the Rhine|crossed the Rhine]] in the fifth century,<ref name="Phylogeny" /> establishing themselves together with the [[Hasdingi]] and the [[Silingi]] in [[Gallaecia]] (northern [[Portugal]] and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]) and in [[Andalusia|southern Spain]], following other Germanic and non-Germanic peoples ([[Visigoths]], [[Alans]] and [[Suebi]]) in c. 410 before they moved [[Vandal Kingdom|to North Africa]] in the  430s. Their kingdom flourished in the early 6th century, but after their [[Vandalic War|defeat]] in 534 they were placed [[Praetorian prefecture of Africa|under Byzantine administration]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moorhead |first1=John |title=The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration |date=2013 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-4443-3489-0 |edition=1 |language=en |chapter=Goths and Vandals, migration history}}</ref><ref name="Miles">{{cite book |last1=Merrills |first1=Andrew H. |last2=Miles |first2=Richard |title=The Vandals |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |isbn=9781444318074}}</ref>{{rp|page=1}} The Vandalic language is presumed to still have been spoken at the time of the Byzantine conquest.{{r|Miles|page=95}} It likely disappeared before the end of the century.<ref name="Hennings">{{cite book |last1=Hennings |first1=Thordis |title=Einführung in das Mittelhochdeutsche |date=2012 |publisher=De Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-11-025959-9 |page=26 |edition=3 |language=de |trans-title=Introduction to Middle High German}}</ref>

==Attestation==
Very little is known about the Vandalic language other than various phrases and a small number of personal names of Vandalic origin, mainly known from documents and coins.{{r|Hartmann|p=7}}{{r|Reichert|p=44}} Most Vandalic names were recorded by native speakers of Latin or Greek, who might have misinterpreted phonemes or assimilated names to those common in their mother tongue.{{r|Reichert}}

The regional name [[Andalusia]] is traditionally believed to have derived from Vandalic, although this [[Etymology of Andalusia|claim is contested]]. Following the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania]], from the 8th century to the end of the 15th the region was called {{transliteration|ar|[[al-Andalus]]}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=García Sanjuán |first1=Alejandro |editor1-last=Fleet |editor1-first=Kate |editor2-last=Krämer |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor3-last=Matringe |editor3-first=Denis |editor4-last=Nawas |editor4-first=John |editor5-last=Stewart |editor5-first=Devin J. |title=The encyclopaedia of Islam. 2017,5: Band |date=2017 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden/Boston |isbn=9789004335745 |chapter=al-Andalus, etymology and name}}</ref>

In one inscription from the [[Vandal Kingdom]], the Christian incantation of {{transliteration|grc|[[Kyrie eleison]]}} ("Lord, have mercy!") is given in Vandalic as "{{lang|xvn|italic=no|Froia arme}}".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ|title=Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed|editor1-last=Berndt|editor1-first=Guido M.|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317178651|language=en, de|editor2-first=Roland|editor2-last=Steinacher|chapter=Ulfila und der sogenannte gotische Arianismus|trans-chapter=Ulfila and the so-called Gothic Arianism|author-first=Knut|author-last=Schäferdiek|location=Abingdon/New York}}</ref><ref name="Tiefenbach">{{cite journal |last1=Tiefenbach |first1=Heinrich |title=Das wandalische Domine miserere |journal=Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics |date=1991 |volume=104 |issue=2 |pages=251–268 |language=de |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |location=Göttingen |issn=0935-3518 |jstor=40849030 |trans-title=The Vandalic Domine miserere}}</ref> The same phrase appears in {{lang|la|Collatio Beati Augustini cum Pascentio ariano}} 15 by [[Pseudo-Augustine]]: "{{lang|xvn|italic=no|Froja armes}}".<ref>{{cite conference|last=Steinacher|first=Roland|year=2008|title=Gruppen und Identitäten. Gedanken zur Bezeichnung "vandalisch"|trans-title=Groups and identities. Thoughts on the term "Vandalic"|url=http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c61705/downloads/GruppenundIdentitaeten2008.pdf|conference=2005|location=Vienna|publisher=Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften|pages=254|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317062529/http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c61705/downloads/GruppenundIdentitaeten2008.pdf|archive-date=17 March 2012|book-title=Das Reich der Vandalen und seine (Vor-)Geschichten|editor1-last=Berndt|editor1-first=Guido M.|editor2-last=Steinacher|editor2-first=Roland|language=de}}</ref> It is possible that this sentence is, in fact, Gothic, since the Vandals might have used Gothic as liturgical language.{{r|Tiefenbach|p=262}}

The epigram {{lang|la-015|[[De conviviis barbaris]]}} in the [[Latin Anthology]], of North African origin and disputed date, contains a fragment in a Germanic language that some authors believe to be Vandalic,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/quellentexte.cgi?5 |website=Indogermanistik Wien: Quellentexte |title=Inter eils Goticum (De conviviis barbaris) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017022045/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/quellentexte.cgi?5 |archive-date=17 October 2010 }}</ref>{{r|Reichert|pages=49{{Hyphen}}50}} although the fragment itself refers to the language as "Gothic". This may be because both languages were East Germanic and closely related; scholars have pointed out in this context{{r|Reichert|page=48}} that [[Procopius]] refers to the [[Goths]], Vandals, [[Visigoths]], and [[Gepids]] as "Gothic nations" and opines that they "are all of the [[Arianism|Arian]] faith, and have one language called Gothic".<ref>[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16765/16765-h/16765-h.htm Procopius of Caesarea, THE VANDALIC WAR I,2–8]</ref> The fragment reads:
{{Verse translation|
{{lang|la-015|Inter "{{lang|xvn|eils}}" Goticum "{{lang|xvn|scapia matzia ia drincan!}}"
non audet quisquam dignos educere versus.
Calliope madido trepidat se iungere Baccho.
ne pedibus non stet ebria Musa suis.<ref>Quoted in Magnús Snædal, '[https://www.academia.edu/758303 The "Vandal" Epigram]', in ''Filologia Germanica/Germanic Philology'', 1 (2009), 181–213 (pp. 183–84).</ref>}}
|
Amid the Gothic "Hail! Let's get [something to] eat and drink"
nobody dares to put forth decent verses.
[[Calliope]] hurries to depart from wet [[Bacchus]].
An inebriated Muse may not stand on her feet.}}
Other surviving Vandalic words are {{lang|xvn|Baudus}}, "master" <ref>Anthologia Latina No. 307, I. 5</ref> and {{lang|xvn|Vandalirice}}, "King of the Vandals".<ref>Anthologia Latina No. 215, 523–543</ref>

== Phonology ==
The phonological features of Vandalic are similar to those of Gothic.{{r|Wrede|p=7}}

===Vowels===
The following vowel inventory is based on Wrede:{{r|Wrede|pages=91–101}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |[[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="2" |[[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" |[[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
!<small>short</small> !! <small>long</small>
!<small>short</small> !! <small>long</small>
!<small>short</small> !! <small>long</small>
|-
!colspan="2" |[[High vowel|High]]
| align="center" |{{IPA|i}}
|align="center" |{{IPA|iː}}
|
|
| align="center" |{{IPA|u}}
| align="center" |{{IPA|uː}}
|-
!colspan="2" |[[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|{{IPA|eː}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA|oː}}
|-
!colspan="2" |[[Low vowel|Low]]
|
|
|{{IPA|a}}
|
|
|
|}
* Vandalic {{IPA|/i/}} was sometimes written {{angbr|e}} by Latin authors.{{r|Reichert|p=96}}

The Proto-Germanic long vowel *{{IPA|/e:/}} is often written in Vandalic names as {{angbr|e}} ({{lang|xvn|Gunthimer}}, {{lang|xvn|Geilimer}}), but it is also represented as {{angbr|i}} {{lang|xvn|Geilamir}}, {{lang|xvn|Vitarit}}.{{r|Wrede|p=91}}

The Proto-Germanic short vowel *{{IPA|/e/}} is often written as {{angbr|i}} in Vandalic{{r|Reichert|p=96}} when it was not preceded by *{{IPA|/r, h, w/}}. For example, {{lang|xvn|Sigisteus}} contains -''i'' because ''g'' precedes the vowel, but {{lang|xvn|Beremut}} retains the *e since ''r'' precedes the vowel.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} It could either mean that *{{IPA|/e/}} turned into {{IPA|/i/}} in Vandalic<ref name="Onesti2">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/691311|first=Nicoletta |last=Francovich Onesti |chapter=Tracing the language of the Vandals |title=Goti e Vandali |date=2013 |publisher=Artemide|location=Rome |isbn=9788875751821 |pages=179–195}}</ref> or that the Vandalic short {{IPA|/e/}} was interpreted as {{IPA|/i/}} by non-natives.{{r|Reichert|p=97}}

Similar to Gothic, Vandalic does not seem to have [[Germanic umlaut|i-umlaut]]. One example of items that demonstrate the lack of umlaut are names that contain the form *{{lang|xvn|ari}} (< Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*harjaz}} 'army'): {{lang|xvn|Ariarith}}, {{lang|xvn|Arifridos}}, {{lang|xvn|Guntari}}, {{lang|xvn|Raginari}} vs. Old English {{lang|ang|here}}, the latter of which does show umlaut with the Proto-Germanic *''a'' having shifted to ''e''.<ref name="Onesti2" />

Proto-Germanic *{{IPA|/o:/}} is written {{angbr|u}}; {{lang|xvn|Blumarit}} (compare Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|blōmô}}), {{lang|xvn|Vilimut}}.<ref name="Onesti2" /> This could either mean that *{{IPA|/o:/}} turned into {{IPA|/u/}} in Vandalic<ref name="Onesti2" /> or that it is a misinterpretation of the sound by Latin authors.{{r|Reichert|p=98}} In Gothic documents, *{{IPA|/o:/}} is mostly written {{angbr|o}}, but sometimes also {{angbr|u}}.{{r|Reichert|p=98}}

The Proto-Germanic diphthong *eu tends to come down to Vandalic as ''eu''. Take for example the form {{lang|xvn|teudo}}- ('people'),<ref name="Onesti2" /> as opposed to the Gothic {{lang|got|𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰}} ({{lang|got-Latn|þiuda}}),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Balg |first1=Gerhard Hubert |title=A comparative glossary of the Gothic language with especial reference to English and German |date=1887 |publisher=Max Niemeyer |location=Halle |page=470 |url=https://archive.org/details/comparativegloss00balguoft/page/n3/mode/2up}}</ref> where it has changed to {{IPA|/iu/}}.<ref name="Onesti2" />

The Proto-Germanic diphthong *ai is preserved as {{IPA|/ai/}}, but tends to become {{IPA|/ei/}} later on. For example, the name {{lang|xvn|Gaisericus}} changes to {{lang|xvn|Geiseric}} in later documents.<ref name="Onesti2" />

===Consonants===
The Vandalic consonant inventory according to Wrede.{{r|Wrede|pages=101–109}}
{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
!&nbsp;
!colspan=2|[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!colspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
!colspan=2|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!colspan=2|[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
!colspan=2|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Labialized velar consonant|Labiovelar]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|colspan=2|{{angbr|m}}
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
|colspan=2|{{angbr|n}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|{{angbr|ng}}
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|-
|colspan=2|{{IPA|[[m]]}}
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
|colspan=2|{{IPA|[[n]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|{{IPA|[[ŋ]]}}
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{angbr|p}}
| {{angbr|b}}
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
| {{angbr|t}}
| {{angbr|d}}
| {{angbr|c}}
| {{angbr|g}}
| {{angbr|c}}
| {{angbr|g}}
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|-
| {{IPA|[[p]]}}
| {{IPA|[[b]]}}
|colspan=2| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|[[t]]}}
| {{IPA|[[d]]}}
| {{IPA|[[c]]}}
| {{IPA|[[ɟ]]}}
| {{IPA|[[k]]}}
| {{IPA|[[ɡ]]}}
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| {{angbr|f}}
| {{angbr|b}}
| {{angbr|th}}
| {{angbr|d}}
| {{angbr|s}}
| {{angbr|s, z}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
| ? {{angbr|h}}
| ? {{angbr|g}}
|&nbsp;
| ? {{angbr|h}}
|-
| {{IPA|[[ɸ]]}}
| {{IPA|[[β]]}}
| {{IPA|[[θ]]}}
| {{IPA|[[ð]]}}
| {{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolar sibilant|s]]}}
| {{IPA|[[Voiced alveolar sibilant|z]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
| {{IPA|[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]}}
| {{IPA|[[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]]}}
|&nbsp;
| {{IPA|[[h]]}}
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|{{angbr|l}}
|colspan=2|{{angbr|i, j}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
| {{angbr|w, v}}
|
|-
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|{{IPA|[[l]]}}
|colspan=2|{{IPA|[[j]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
| {{IPA|[[w]]}}
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|{{angbr|r}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|-
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|{{IPA|[[Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar trills|r]]}}
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|colspan=2|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|&nbsp;
|}
* It is unclear how {{angbr|h}} was originally pronounced.{{r|Wrede|pages=107–108}}{{r|Reichert|p=101}}
* It is likely that [{{IPA|[[ɣ]]}}] occurred in Vandalic, but there is not enough evidence for the sound.{{r|Wrede|p=107}}

The Proto-Germanic *{{IPA|/z/}} is also preserved in the language as a [[sibilant]] (always found written {{angbr|s}} or as part of {{angbr|x}}), as opposed to having undergone [[rhotacism]] as it has in [[North Germanic|North]] or [[West Germanic]].<ref name="Onesti1">{{cite book |last1=Francovich Onesti |first1=Nicoletta |editor1-last=Hattler |editor1-first=Claus |editor2-last=Erbelding |editor2-first=Susanne |editor3-last=Wenzel |editor3-first=Astrid |title=Das Königreich der Vandalen: Erben des Imperiums in Nordafrika; Große Landesausstellung Baden-Württemberg 2009 im Badischen Landesmuseum Schloss Karlsruhe, 24. Oktober 2009 bis 21. Februar 2010 |date=2009 |publisher=von Zabern |location=Mainz |isbn=978-3805340830 |language=de |chapter=Zeugnisse der vandalischen Sprache |pages=228–233 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/1516556}}</ref> For example, compare the Vandalic form {{lang|xvn|geis}} (as in {{lang|xvn|Geiseric}}) 'spear' to Old English {{lang|ang|gār}}.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

The word-initial {{IPA|/h/}} inherited from Proto-Germanic does not consistently appear in Vandalic names recorded by Greek or Latin authors (e.g., the element {{lang|xvn|ari}} in {{lang|xvn|Arifridos}} and {{lang|xvn|Guntari}}, from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*harja-}} 'army'). Sometimes the same name appears with and without {{angbr|h}}, depending on the author. However, royal names on Vandal coins use a conservative official spelling, with the {{angbr|h}} always being written.<ref name="Onesti2" /> This could point to either a loss of the sound represented by {{angbr|h}}<ref name="Onesti2" /> or errors introduced by authors unfamiliar with the sound.{{r|Wrede|p=107}}{{r|Reichert|p=100}}

The Proto-Germanic fricatives *{{IPA|/θ/}} and *{{IPA|/ð/}} often turned into {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/d/}}, but there are also some names in which they were retained or otherwise represented distinctly: {{lang|xvn|Thrasamundus}}, {{lang|xvn|Guntha}}.<ref name="Onesti2" />

Initial {{IPA|/w/}} is sometimes written as {{angbr|gu}}.{{r|Reichert|p=104}}<ref name="Onesti2" /> This could be an issue of Latin spelling{{r|Reichert|p=104}} or a point to the development of {{IPA|/gw/}}. Examples are {{lang|xvn|Guiliaruna}}, < Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*wilja-}} and {{lang|xvn|Guitifrida}}, < {{lang|gem-x-proto|*wīti-}}.<ref name="Onesti2" />

The Proto-Germanic cluster *{{IPA|/-ww-/}} can be found strengthened to {{IPA|/-g-/}}.<ref name="Onesti2" />

The Proto-Germanic cluster *{{IPA|/-tj-/}} can become {{IPA|[tsj]}}, as in {{lang|xvn|matzia}} from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*matjaną}}.<ref name="Onesti2" />

== Grammar ==
Very little is known about Vandalic grammar, but some things can be extracted from extant Vandalic material.{{r|Reichert|p=105}}

=== Morphology ===
The original Proto-Germanic ''*-z'' used to mark the nominative masculine singular in [[nominal (linguistics)|nominal]]s, which was lost in [[West Germanic]] early on, is attested within some preserved Vandalic forms as -''s'' or as part of -''x'' (occasionally found [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] in some name attestations as ''-us''). This marker is potentially to be deemed an archaic feature since it is lost in most words, with complete loss in [[Ostrogoths|Ostrogothic]] names from the 6th century onward.<ref name="Onesti2" />{{r|Reichert|p=106}}

The epithet {{lang|xvn|Vandalirice}} 'king of the Vandals' gives possible attestation of a genitive plural ending ''-e'' (cf. Gothic -ē), albeit written as {{angbr|i}} within this form.<ref name="Onesti2" /><ref name="Tiefenbach" /> Old Germanic languages outside of East Germanic have -''a'' (as in [[Old English]] and [[Old Norse]])<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brunner |first1=Karl |title=Altenglische Grammatik |date=1965 |publisher=Niemeyer |location=Tübingen |page=195 |edition=3 |language=de |trans-title=Anglo-Saxon grammar}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Noreen |first1=Adolf |title=Altnordische Grammatik. 1: Altisländische und altnorwegische Grammatik (Laut- und Flexionslehre) unter Berücksichtigung des Urnordischen |date=1970 |publisher=Niemeyer |location=Tübingen |isbn=3484101458 |edition=5 |language=de |page=246 |trans-title=Old Norse grammar. 1: Old Islandic and Old Norwegen grammar (phonology and morphology)}}</ref> or -''o'' (as in [[Old Dutch]] or [[Old High German]]) as their equivalents of this ending instead;<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gallée |first1=Johan Hendrik |last2=Tiefenbach |first2=Heinrich |last3=Lochner |first3=Johannes |title=Altsächsische Grammatik |date=1993 |publisher=Niemeyer |location=Tübingen |isbn=3484106816 |page=195 |edition=3 |language=de |trans-title=Old Saxon grammar}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Braune |first1=Wilhelm |last2=Ebbinghaus |first2=Ernst A. |title=Abriss der althochdeutschen Grammatik: mit Berücksichtigung des Altsächsischen |date=1989 |publisher=Niemeyer |location=Tübingen |isbn=3484106433 |page=34 |edition=15 |language=de |trans-title=Basics of Old High German grammar}}</ref> compare Old English {{lang|ang|Wendla}} against the potential Vandalic form *{{lang|xvn|Vandali}}.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

==Vocabulary==
The tables below show various Vandalic words, phrases and forms that survive in (or as) names and various Latin texts. The majority of these were taken from {{ill|Nicoletta Francovich Onesti|fr}}.<ref name="Onesti2" />{{clarification needed|date=September 2023}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Vandalic words attested outside of names
! Attested<br />Vandalic form
! Gothic cognate
! Gloss of Vandalic form
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|arme}}
| {{lang|got|𐌰𐍂𐌼𐌰}}𐌹 ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|armai}})<br />(2.sg.ipv. form of {{lang|got|𐌰𐍂𐌼𐌰𐌽}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|arman}}))
| 'have mercy!'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|baudus}}<br /> (cf. -''{{lang|xvn|baudes}}'')
| —
| 'ruler, master'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|drincan}}
| {{lang|got|𐌳𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌺𐌰𐌽}} ({{lang|got|italic=no|drigkan}})
| 'drink ([[infinitive|{{abbr|inf.|infinitive}}]])'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|eils}}
| {{lang|got|𐌷𐌰𐌹𐌻𐍃}} ({{lang|got|italic=no|hails}})
| 'hail!' (greeting)
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|ia}}
| {{lang|got|𐌾𐌰𐌷}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|jah}})
| 'and'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|froia}}
| {{lang|got|𐍆𐍂𐌰𐌿𐌾𐌰}} ({{lang|got-latn|italic=no|frauja}})
| 'lord, (the) Lord'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|matzia}}
| {{lang|got|𐌼𐌰𐍄𐌾𐌰𐌽}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|matjan}})
| 'eat ([[infinitive|{{abbr|inf.|infinitive}}]]),<br /> have one's meal ([[infinitive|{{abbr|inf.|infinitive}}]])'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|scapia}}
| *{{lang|got|𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍀𐌾𐌰𐌽}} (*{{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|skapjan}}),<br />cf. {{lang|got|𐌲𐌰𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍀𐌾𐌰𐌽}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|gaskapjan}})
| 'make, create'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|vandalirice}}
| — (-{{lang|got|𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐌴}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|reikē}}))
| 'king of the Vandals'
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Vandalic words and forms attested in or as personal names
! Attested<br />Vandalic form(s)
! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] cognate
! [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]]<br /> etymon
! [[Old English language|Old English]] cognate
! Gloss of Vandalic form
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|ari}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌹𐍃}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|harjis}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*harjaz}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|here}}
| 'army'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|baudes}}<br />(cf. {{lang|xvn|italic=no|baudus}})
| —
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*baudiz}}
| —
| 'master, ruler'
|- 
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|bere}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐌱𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌰-}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|baira-}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*bera-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|bera-}}
| 'bear, carry'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|bluma}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐌱𐌻𐍉𐌼𐌰}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|blōma}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*blōmô}}
| *{{lang|ang|italic=no|blōma}}
| 'bloom, flower'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|dagila}}
| *{{lang|got|italic=no|𐌳𐌰𐌲𐌹𐌻𐌰}} (*{{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|dagila}})<br /> cf. {{lang|got|italic=no|𐌳𐌰𐌲𐍃}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|dags}})
|{{lang|gem-x-proto| *dag-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|(dæġ)}}
| 'day ([[diminutive|{{abbr|dim.|diminutive}}]])'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|frida}}<br />{{lang|xvn|italic=no|frede}}<br />{{lang|xvn|italic=no|feua}}
| *{{lang|got|italic=no|𐍆𐍂𐌹𐌸𐌿𐍃}} (*{{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|friþus}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*friþu-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|friþ(u)}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} †frith)
| 'peace'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|geis}}
|  *{{lang|got|italic=no|𐌲𐌰𐌹𐍃}} (*{{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|gais}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*gaiza-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|gār}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} '''gar'''lic)
| 'spear'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|gunda}}<br />{{lang|xvn|italic=no|guntha}}
| —
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*gunþjo}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|gūþ}}
| 'battle'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|hildi-}}, {{lang|xvn|italic=no|-ild}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐌷𐌹𐌻𐌳𐌹-}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|hildi-}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*hildjō}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|hild}}
| 'battle'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|mir}}<br />{{lang|xvn|italic=no|mer}}
| *{{lang|got|𐌼𐌴𐍂𐍃}} (*{{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|mērs}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*mēraz}}, {{lang|gem-x-proto|*mērijaz}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|mǣre}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} ‡mere)
| 'famous'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|munds}}
| —
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*mundō}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|mund}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} ‡mound)
| 'defender'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|mut}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐌼𐍉𐌸𐍃}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|mōþs}})<br />('mood, anger')
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*moda-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|mōd}}<br /> (cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} mood)
| 'courage'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|oa}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐌷𐌰𐌿𐌷𐍃}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|hauhs}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*hauha-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|hēah}}
| 'high'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|osta}}<br />{{lang|xvn|italic=no|hostra}}
| *{{lang|got|italic=no|𐌰𐌿𐍃𐍄𐍂𐌰-}} (*{{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|austra-}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*austra-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|ēast}}
| 'east'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|rit}}<br />{{lang|xvn|italic=no|rith}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|-𐍂𐌴𐌳𐌰𐌽}} ({{lang|got|italic=no|-rēdan}})<br />('to advise')
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*rēdaz}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|rǣd}}, {{lang|ang|italic=no|rēd}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} †rede)
| 'advice, counsel'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|rix}}<br />{{lang|xvn|italic=no|ricus}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐍃}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|reiks}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*rīk-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|rice}} ('dominion')
| 'king'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|runa}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌰}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|rūna}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*rūnō}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|rūn}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} †roun, rune)
| 'secret'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|scarila}}
| —
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*skarō}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|scearu}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} share)
| 'band ({{abbr|dim.|diminutive}})'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|sifila}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐍃𐌹𐌱𐌾𐌰}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|sibja}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*sibjō}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|sibb}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} '''''sib'''ling'')
| 'kindred ({{abbr|dim.|diminutive}})'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|sindi-}}
| {{lang|got|𐍃𐌹𐌽𐌸𐍃}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|sinþs}})<br />('time, occurrence')
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*sinþa-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|sīþ}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} ''send'')
| 'travel, path'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|trioua}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐍄𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍅𐌰}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|triggwa}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*triwwa}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|trīewu}}
| 'loyal, true ([[Grammatical gender|{{abbr|f.|feminine}}]])'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|teus}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐌸𐌹𐌿𐍃}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|þius}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*þewaz}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|þēow}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} †thew)
| 'slave, servant'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|theudo}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|þiuda}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*þeudō}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|þēod}}<br />(cf. {{abbr|MnE|Modern English}} †thede)
| 'folk'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|vili}}, {{lang|xvn|italic=no|guilia}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐍅𐌹𐌻𐌾𐌰}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|wilja}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*wiljô}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|willa}}
| 'will (noun)'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|uit-}}<br />{{lang|xvn|italic=no|guit-}}
| {{lang|got|*𐍅𐌴𐌹𐍄𐌹-}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|*weiti-}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*wīti-}}
| —
| 'struggle, combat'
|-
| {{lang|xvn|italic=no|vult}}
| {{lang|got|italic=no|𐍅𐌿𐌻𐌸𐌿𐍃}} ({{lang|got-Latn|italic=no|wulþus}})
| {{lang|gem-x-proto|*wulþu-}}
| {{lang|ang|italic=no|wuldor}}
| 'glory'
|}

== Writing system ==
The few names on coins issued by the Vandalic kingdom were written in Latin script.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friedländer |first1=Julius |title=Die Münzen der Vandalen |date=1849 |publisher=Wigand |location=Leipzig |page=6 |language=de |trans-title=The coins of the Vandals}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Vandals]]
* [[Gothic language]]
* [[East Germanic languages]]
* [[Languages of the Roman Empire]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Wrede |first1=Ferdinand |title=Über die Sprache der Wandalen |date=2018 |orig-date=1886 |publisher=De Gruyter |location=Berlin/Boston |isbn=9783111347615 |language=de |trans-title=On the language of the Vandals}}
* {{cite book |author-first=Hermann|author-last=Reichert|editor-last1=Greule |editor-first1=Albrecht |editor-last2=Springer |editor-first2=Matthias |title=Namen des Frühmittelalters als Sprachliche Zeugnisse und als Geschichtsquellen |trans-title=Names from the early Middle Ages as linguistical evidence and as historical sources|date=2009 |publisher=W. de Gruyter |location=Berlin |isbn=9783110208153 |language=de |chapter=Sprache und Namen der Wandalen in Afrika|trans-chapter=The language and names of the Vandals in Africa}}
* {{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/691311|first=Nicoletta |last=Francovich Onesti |chapter=Tracing the language of the Vandals |title=Goti e Vandali |date=2013 |publisher=Artemide|location=Rome |isbn=9788875751821 |pages=179–195}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=Frederik |title=The Vandalic language – origins and relationships |date=2020 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Winter |location=Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-8253-4752-9}}

{{Germanic languages}}

[[Category:East Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Extinct Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Africa]]
[[Category:Languages extinct in the 6th century]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Europe]]
[[Category:Vandals|Language]]