View source for Vanguard (rocket)

{{short description|Class of rocket}}
{{Infobox rocket
|image          = Vanguard rocket vanguard1 satellite.jpg
|caption        = Vanguard rocket on Pad LC-18A

|name           = Vanguard
|country-origin = United States
|function       = Satellite [[launch vehicle]]
|manufacturer   = [[Glenn L. Martin Company]]
|height         = {{convert|21.9|m|sp=us}}
|diameter       = {{convert|1.14|m|sp=us}}
|mass           = {{convert|10050|kg}}
|stages         = 3
|capacities     =

{{Infobox rocket/payload
|location       = [[Low Earth Orbit|LEO]]
|kilos          = {{cvt|11.3|kg}}
}}
|status         = Retired
|sites          = [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral]], [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 18|LC-18A]] 
|launches       = 11
|success        = 3
|fail           = 8

|first          = 23 October 1957<br/>([[Vanguard 1]]: 17 March 1958)
|last           = 18 September 1959

|stagedata      = 
  {{Infobox rocket/stage
 |type         = stage
 |stageno      = First
 |name         = Vanguard
 |length       = {{cvt|13.4|m}}
 |diameter     = {{cvt|1.14|m}}
 |empty        = {{cvt|811|kg}}
 |gross        = {{cvt|8090|kg}}
 |engines      = 1 [[General Electric]]<br/>[[XLR50|GE X-405]]
 |thrust       = {{cvt|125000|N}}
 |SI           = {{cvt|248|isp}}
 |burntime     = 144 seconds
 |fuel         = [[LOX]] / [[Kerosene]] (RP-1)
  }}
  {{Infobox rocket/stage
 |type         = stage
 |stageno      = Second
 |name         = [[Able (rocket stage)|Delta]]
 |length       = {{cvt|5.8|m}}
 |diameter     = {{cvt|0.8|m}}
 |empty        = {{cvt|694|kg}}
 |gross        = {{cvt|1990|kg}}
 |engines      = 1 [[Aerojet|Aerojet General]] [[AJ10|AJ10-37]]
 |thrust       = {{cvt|32600|N}}
 |SI           = {{cvt|261|isp}}
 |burntime     = 120 seconds
 |fuel         = [[Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine|UDMH]] / [[Nitric acid]] ([[White fuming nitric acid|IWFNA]])
  }}
  {{Infobox rocket/stage
 |type         = stage
 |stageno      = Third
 |name         = [[Lockheed Propulsion Company|Grand Central Rocket Company]]
 |length       = {{cvt|1.5|m}}
 |diameter     = {{cvt|0.8|m}}
 |empty        = {{cvt|31|kg}}
 |gross        = {{cvt|194|kg}}
 |engines      = 1 33KS2800
 |solid        = yes
 |thrust       = {{cvt|10400|N}}
 |SI           = {{cvt|238|isp}}<ref name="Martin report" />{{rp|151}}
 |burntime     = 33 seconds<ref name="Martin report" />{{rp|151}}
 |fuel         = [[Polysulfide polymer|Polysulfide]]/[[Ammonium perchlorate|AP]] ([[APCP]])
  }}
  {{Infobox rocket/stage
 |type         = stage
 |stageno      = Third
 |diff       =SLV-7
 |name         = [[Allegany Ballistics Laboratory]]
 |length       = {{cvt|1.5|m}}
 |diameter     = {{cvt|0.8|m}}
 |empty        = {{cvt|23|kg}}<ref name="Martin report" />{{rp|151}}
 |gross        = {{cvt|229|kg}}<ref name="Martin report" />{{rp|151}}
 |engines      = 1 [[Altair (rocket stage)|X248]]
 |solid        = yes
 |thrust       = {{cvt|10400|N}}
 |SI           = {{cvt|251|isp}}<ref name="Martin report" />{{rp|151}}
 |burntime     = 38 seconds<ref name="Martin report" />{{rp|151}}
 |fuel         = Solid [[double base propellant]]
  }}
}}

The '''Vanguard rocket'''<ref name="Martin report">{{Cite report |url=https://archive.org/details/TheVanguardSatelliteLaunchingVehicle |title=The Vanguard Satellite Launching Vehicle — An Engineering Summary |last=Klawans |first=B. |date=April 1960 |id=Martin Company Engineering Report No 11022 |via=the Internet Archive}} PDF of an optical copy. {{PD-notice}}</ref> was intended to be the first [[launch vehicle]] the United States would use to place a [[satellite]] into orbit. Instead, the [[Sputnik crisis]] caused by the surprise launch of [[Sputnik 1]] led the U.S., after the failure of [[Vanguard TV-3]], to quickly orbit the [[Explorer 1]] satellite using a [[Juno I]] rocket, making [[Vanguard 1]] the second successful U.S. orbital launch.

Vanguard rockets were used by [[Project Vanguard]] from 1957 to 1959. Of the eleven Vanguard rockets which the project attempted to launch, three successfully placed satellites into orbit. Vanguard rockets were an important part of the [[Space Race]] between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]].

==Overview==
In 1955, the United States announced plans to put a scientific satellite in orbit for the [[International Geophysical Year]] (IGY) in 1957–1958. The goal was to track the satellite as it performed experiments.<ref name="McDougall 1985 121">{{cite book|title=The Heavens and the Earth A Political History of the Space Age|last=McDougall|first=Walter A.|year=1985|publisher=Basic Books |location=New York|isbn=0-465-02887-X|pages=[https://archive.org/details/heavensearth00walt_0/page/121 121]|url=https://archive.org/details/heavensearth00walt_0/page/121}}</ref> At that time, there were three candidates for the launch vehicle: The Air Force's [[Atlas (rocket)|SM-65 Atlas]], a derivative of the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]]'s [[Redstone (rocket)|SSM-A-14 Redstone]], and a Navy proposal for a three-stage rocket based on the [[Viking (rocket)|RTV-N-12a Viking sounding rocket]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Project Vanguard|last=Stehling|first=Kurt R.|year=1961 |publisher=Doubleday & Company|location=Garden City, New York|page=50}}</ref><ref name="correll"/>

The [[RAND Corporation]], [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] and [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had long pursued the idea of a [[reconnaissance satellite]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.project1947.com/gr/randrecon.htm|title=Research and Development on Proposed Rand Satellite Reconnaissance|access-date=2016-02-28|last=Willette|first=Lt Col|date=17 March 1951|publisher=United States Air Force Directorate of Intelligence}}</ref> Such a program was under way, Weapon System 117L, which was top secret compartmented.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nro.gov/foia/declass/NROStaffRecords/1095.PDF|title=Chronology of Air Force Space Activities|access-date=2016-02-27|publisher=National Reconnaissance Office|page=2|archive-date=2016-12-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229062705/http://www.nro.gov/FOIA/declass/NROStaffRecords/1095.PDF|url-status=dead}}</ref> One problem with reconnaissance was the question of legality: Was there "freedom of space" or did a nation's airspace end when space is entered?<ref name="McDougall 1985 121"/> The [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] backed the IGY satellite because it would make good cover for WS117L and set a precedent of freedom of space peaceful civilian satellite. At the same time the NSC stressed that the IGY satellite must not interfere with military programs.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Fiery Peace in a Cold War|last=Sheehan|first=Neil|year=2009 |publisher=Vintage Books|location=New York|isbn=978-0-679-74549-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fierypeaceincold00shee_0/page/299 299]|url=https://archive.org/details/fierypeaceincold00shee_0/page/299 }}</ref> The [[United States Army|Army's]] [[Redstone (rocket family)|Redstone]]-based proposal would likely be the first one ready for a satellite launch. Its connection with German-born scientist [[Wernher von Braun]], however, was a public-relations risk.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Heavens and the Earth A Political History of the Space Age|last=McDougall|first=Walter A.|year=1985 |publisher=Basic Books|location=New York|isbn=0-465-02887-X|pages=[https://archive.org/details/heavensearth00walt_0/page/122 122]|url=https://archive.org/details/heavensearth00walt_0/page/122}}</ref><ref name="correll">Correll, John T. "{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20081010235152/http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2005/July%202005/0705icbm.aspx How the Air Force Got the ICBM]}}" ''Air Force'', July 2005.</ref> In any case, the [[SM-65 Atlas|Atlas]] and [[PGM-11 Redstone|Redstone]] ballistic missiles were top-priority military projects, which were not to be hindered by pursuing a secondary space launch mission.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Green |first=Constance |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19710008544 |title=Vanguard - a History |last2=Lomask |first2=Milton |publisher=NASA |year=1970 |location=Washington D.C. |page=41 |id=NASA-SP-4202}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> [[Milton Rosen]]'s Vanguard was a project at the [[United States Naval Research Laboratory|Naval Research Laboratory]] (NRL), which was regarded more as a scientific than a military organization. Rosen and Richard Porter (IGY satellite chief and head of the [[American Rocket Society]]) both lobbied for the Vanguard and against using the Atlas or von Braun's rockets.<ref>Drew Pearson, "USA Second Class Power?", Simon & Schuster, 1958</ref> They emphasized the non-military goals of the satellite program. Besides the public-relations aspect, a non-military satellite was considered important, because a discussion of whether overflights of foreign countries by satellites were legal or illegal was to be avoided.<ref>McDougall, Walter A., (1985) ...the Heavens and the Earth</ref>

In August or September 1955, the [[United States Department of Defense|DOD]] Committee on Special Capabilities chose the NRL proposal, named Vanguard, for the IGY project. The Martin company, which had also built the Viking, became prime contractor for the launch vehicle.<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=Popular Mechanics|author=Hearst Magazines|title=Satellite Rocket Will Resemble Shell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QuEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA70|date=June 1956|publisher=Hearst Magazines|page=70}}</ref> The Vanguard rocket was designed as a three-stage vehicle. The first stage was a [[General Electric]] [[XLR50|X-405 liquid-fueled engine]] (designated XLR50-GE-2 by the Navy), derived from the engine of the [[Viking (rocket)|RTV-N-12a Viking]]. The second stage was the [[Aerojet|Aerojet General]] [[AJ10-37]] (XLR52-AJ-2) liquid-fueled engine, a variant of the engine in the RTV-N-10 [[Aerobee]]. Finally, the third stage was a solid-propellant rocket motor. All three-stage Vanguard flights except the last one used a motor built by the [[Lockheed Propulsion Company|Grand Central Rocket Company]]. Vanguard had no fins, and the first and second stages were steered by [[Gimbaled thrust|gimbaled]] engines. The second stage housed the vehicle's telemetry system, the inertial guidance system and the autopilot. The third stage was [[Spin-stabilisation|spin-stabilized]], with the spin imparted by a turntable on the second stage before separation.

The Vanguard's second stage served for decades as the Able and Delta second stage for satellite launch vehicles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/alpha/a.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909151131/http://www.astronautix.com/alpha/a.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 9, 2010|title=Encyclopedia Astronautica J |access-date=2016-02-28|last=Wade|first=Mark}}</ref> The [[AJ10]] engine which made up those stages was adapted into the [[AJ10-137]], which was used as the [[Apollo Service Module]] engine. The [[AJ10-190]], adapted from the [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo spacecraft]] was used on the [[Space Shuttle]] for orbital maneuvers.<ref>History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines by George P. Sutton, pp. 375-376, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Reston, VA, 2006 {{ISBN|1-56347-649-5}}</ref> {{As of|2025}} an AJ10 is used on each [[European Service Module]] for NASA's [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] spacecraft.

==Launch summary==
The first two flights of the Vanguard program, designated [[Vanguard TV0|Vanguard TV-0]] and [[Vanguard TV1|Vanguard TV-1]], were actually the last two remaining RTV-N-12a [[Viking (rocket)|Viking rockets]] modified. Vanguard TV-0, launched on 8 December 1956, primarily tested new telemetry systems, while Vanguard TV-1 on 1 May 1957, was a two-stage vehicle testing separation and ignition of the solid-fueled upper stage of Vanguard. [[Vanguard TV2|Vanguard TV-2]], launched on 23 October 1957, after several abortive attempts, was the first real Vanguard rocket. The second and third stages were inert, but the flight successfully tested first/second-stage separation and spin-up of the third stage. However, by that time, the Soviet Union had already placed the [[Sputnik 1]] satellite into orbit, and so project Vanguard was more or less forced to launch its own satellite as soon as possible. Therefore, a very small experimental satellite (derisively called the "grapefruit" by [[Nikita Khrushchev]], and weighing only {{convert|1.5|kg}}) was added to [[Vanguard TV3|Vanguard TV-3]], which was to be the first test of an all-up Vanguard rocket. Although the [[United States Naval Research Laboratory|NRL]] and [[Glenn L. Martin Company]] tried to emphasize that the Vanguard TV-3 mission was a pure test flight (and one with several "firsts"), everyone else saw it as the first satellite launch of the Western world, billed as "America's answer to Sputnik". [[Wernher von Braun]] angrily said about the Sputnik launch: "We knew they were going to do it. Vanguard will never make it. We have the hardware on the shelf. We can put up a satellite in 60 days".<ref>{{Citation|last=Foerstner|first=Abigail|year=2007|title=James Van Allen: the first eight billion miles|edition=illustrated, revised|publisher=University of Iowa Press|page=146|isbn=978-0-87745-999-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgm-EiL0K1kC&pg=PA146|access-date=June 27, 2011}}</ref>

On 6 December 1957, the [[United States Navy|US Navy]] launched [[Vanguard TV-3]] rocket, carrying a {{convert|1.5|kg|adj=on}} satellite, from [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral]]. It only reached an altitude of {{convert|1.2|m|ft|sp=us}} before it fell and exploded. The satellite was thrown clear from the top of the rocket, landed in bushes near the pad, and began transmitting signals, leading ''[[New York Journal-American]]'' columnist [[Dorothy Kilgallen]] to remark "Why doesn't somebody go out there, find it, and shoot it?"<ref>Stehling, Kurt (1961) Project Vanguard</ref> The American press called it ''Kaputnik''.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893768,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121080942/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893768,00.html |archive-date=November 21, 2007|url-status=dead|title=VANGUARD'S AFTERMATH: JEERS AND TEARS|date=December 16, 1957|magazine=Time|access-date=June 27, 2011|quote=Scripps-Howard's WASHINGTON DAILY NEWS: SAMNIK IS KAPUTNIK}}</ref>

[[File:1958-02-06 Vanguard Fails in Second Launching.ogv|thumb|thumbtime=25|Newsreel of Vanguard TV3 Backup launch]]

Investigation into the accident concluded that inadequate fuel tank pressure had allowed hot exhaust gases to back up into the injector head and destroy it, causing complete loss of engine thrust. After the failure of Vanguard TV-3, the backup vehicle, [[Vanguard TV-3BU]] ("BU" for backup), was prepared for another attempt. Pad crews hastened to repair the damage done to [[Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 18|LC-18A]] by Vanguard TV-3's explosion, and in the third week of January 1958, the job was completed. Vanguard TV-3BU was erected on the pad, but continuous delays frustrated the launch attempt. Heavy rains shorted some electrical cables on the ground and necessitated their replacement. The second stage had also been sitting on the pad with a full load of [[nitric acid]] for several weeks, which eventually corroded the fuel tank and valves. It had to be removed and replaced by a different stage. Finally, the launch got under way on the night of 5 February 1958. The Vanguard lifted smoothly into the sky and performed well until 57 seconds into launch, when the booster pitched over almost 40°. The skinny second stage broke in half from aerodynamic stress four seconds later, causing the Vanguard to tumble end-over-end before [[Range safety|range safety officer]] sent the destruct command. Cause of the failure was attributed to a spurious guidance signal that caused the first stage to perform unintended pitch maneuvers. The guidance system was modified to have greater redundancy, and efforts were made to improve quality control. On 17 March 1958, Vanguard TV-4 finally succeeded in orbiting the [[Vanguard 1]] satellite. By that time, however, the [[United States Army|Army's]] [[Juno I|Juno]] ([[Jupiter-C]]) had already launched the United States' first satellite, [[Explorer 1]]. The Vanguard TV-4 rocket had put the satellite Vanguard 1, to a relatively high orbit of ({{convert|3966|x|653|km|sp=us}}). Vanguard 1 and its third stage remain in orbit as the oldest man-made artifacts in space.<ref name=ha20130921a>{{cite web|title=Vanguard 1 - Satellite Information|url=http://www.heavens-above.com/SatInfo.aspx?satid=5|work=Satellite database|publisher=Heavens-Above|access-date=2018-01-13}}</ref><ref name=ha20130921b>{{cite web|title=Vanguard 1 Rocket - Satellite Information|url=http://www.heavens-above.com/SatInfo.aspx?satid=16|work=Satellite database|publisher=Heavens-Above|access-date=2018-01-13}}</ref> The following four flights, [[Vanguard TV5|TV-5]] and SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle) [[Vanguard SLV-1]], [[Vanguard SLV-2]] and [[Vanguard SLV-3]] all failed, but on 17 February 1959, [[Vanguard 2|Vanguard SLV-4]] launched [[Vanguard 2]], weighing {{convert|10.8|kg}}, into orbit. The SLVs were the "production" Vanguard rockets. [[Vanguard SLV-5]] and [[Vanguard SLV-6]] also failed, but the final flight on 18 September 1959, successfully orbited the {{convert|24|kg|adj=on}} [[Vanguard 3]] satellite. That last mission was designated Vanguard TV-4BU, because it used a remaining test vehicle, which had been upgraded with a new third stage, the [[Allegany Ballistics Laboratory]] [[Altair (rocket stage)|X-248A2 Altair]]. This more powerful motor enabled the launch of the heavier payload. The combination of the [[AJ10|AJ10 liquid engine]] and [[Altair (rocket stage)|X-248 solid motor]] was also used, under the name [[Able (rocket stage)|Able]], as an upper stage combination for Thor and Atlas space launch vehicles.

==Launches==
Vanguard launched 3 satellites out of 11 launch attempts:
*[[Vanguard TV3]] - December 6, 1957 - Failed to orbit {{cvt|1.36|kg|lb}} satellite
*[[Vanguard TV3BU|Vanguard TV3 Backup]] - February 5, 1958 - Failed to orbit {{cvt|1.36|kg|lb}} satellite
*'''[[Vanguard 1]] (Vanguard TV4) - March 17, 1958 - Orbited {{cvt|1.47|kg|lb}} satellite'''
*[[Vanguard TV5]] - April 28, 1958 - Failed to orbit {{cvt|10.0|kg|lb}} satellite
*[[Vanguard SLV-1]] - May 27, 1958 - Failed to orbit 10.0&nbsp;kg satellite
*[[Vanguard SLV-2]] - June 26, 1958 - Failed to orbit 10.0&nbsp;kg satellite
*[[Vanguard SLV-3]] - September 26, 1958 - Failed to orbit 10.0&nbsp;kg satellite
*'''[[Vanguard 2]] (Vanguard SLV-4) - February 17, 1959 - Orbited {{cvt|9.8|kg|lb}} satellite'''
*[[Vanguard SLV-5]] - April 13, 1959 - Failed to orbit {{cvt|10.3|kg|lb}}
*[[Vanguard SLV-6]] - June 22, 1959 - Failed to orbit 10.3&nbsp;kg satellite
*'''[[Vanguard 3]] (Vanguard TV4-BU, also Vanguard SLV-7) - September 18, 1959 - Orbited {{cvt|22.7|kg|lb}} satellite'''<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
|url         = http://www.astronautix.com/project/vanguard.htm
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020829125109/http://astronautix.com/project/vanguard.htm
|url-status  = dead
|archive-date = August 29, 2002
|title       = Vanguard
|encyclopedia        = Encyclopedia Astronautica
|publisher   = Mark Wade
|access-date  = June 27, 2011
}}</ref>
[[Image:Vanguard rocket explodes.jpg|thumb|Unsuccessful launch of Vanguard TV-3 at [[Cape Canaveral]] (December 6, 1957).]]

===Specifications===

*'''Stage Number: 1''' - Vanguard
**Mass: {{cvt|7,704|kg|lb}}
**Empty Mass: {{cvt|811|kg|lb}}
**Thrust (vac): {{cvt|134.7|kN|lbf}}
**[[Specific impulse|Isp]] (sea level): {{cvt|248|isp}}
**Burn time: 145&nbsp;s
**Diameter: {{cvt|1.14|m|ft}}
**Length: {{cvt|12.20|m|ft}}
**Propellants: [[LOX]]/[[Kerosene]]
**Engines: [[General Electric]] [[X-405]]
*'''Stage Number: 2''' - Delta A
**Mass: {{cvt|2,164|kg|lb}}
**Empty Mass: {{cvt|694|kg|lb}}
**Thrust (vac): {{cvt|33.8|kN|lbf}}
**Isp: {{convert|271|isp}}
**Burn time: 115&nbsp;s
**Diameter: {{cvt|0.84|m|ft}}
**Length: {{cvt|5.36|m|ft}}
**Propellants: [[Nitric acid]]/[[UDMH]]
**Engines: [[Aerojet]] [[AJ10|AJ10-37]]
*'''Stage Number: 3''' - Vanguard 3
**Mass: {{cvt|210|kg|lb}}
**Empty Mass: {{cvt|31|kg|lb}}
**Thrust (vac): {{cvt|11.6|kN|lbf}}
**Isp: {{convert|230|isp}}
**Burn time: 31&nbsp;s
**Isp (sea level): {{convert|210|isp}}
**Diameter: {{cvt|0.50|m|ft}}
**Length: {{cvt|2.00|m|ft}}
**Propellants: Solid
**Engines: Grand Central 33KS2800

== See also ==
* [[Vanguard 1]] satellite
* [[Vanguard 2]] satellite
* [[Vanguard 3]] satellite
* [[Explorer program]]
* [[Sputnik program]]
* [[Viking rocket]]
* [[Comparison of orbital launchers families]]
* [[Comparison of orbital launch systems]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Green, Constance, and Lomask, Milon, “Vanguard A History,” SP-4202, National Aeronautics And Space Administration, Government Printing Office, Washington D.C., 1970
* Foerstner, Abigail M., “James Van Allen: The First Eight Billion Miles ,” University of Iowa Press, Iowa City, Iowa, {{ISBN|978-0877459996}}, 2007
* McDougall, Walter A., “..the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age,” Basic Books, New York, {{ISBN|978-1597401654}}, 1985
* Sheehan, Neil., “A Fiery Peace in a Cold War,” Vintage Books, New York, {{ISBN|978-0-679-74549-5}}, 2009
* Stehling, Kurt r., “Project Vanguard,” Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City, New York, Library of CongressCatalog Card Number 61-8906, 1961
* Sutton, George P., “History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines,” American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Reston, VA, {{ISBN|1-56347-649-5}}, 2006

== External links ==
{{Commons and category|Vanguard (rocket)}}
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4202/toc2.html Vanguard - A History - NASA SP-4202 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315134136/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4202/toc2.html |date=2008-03-15 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060203142436/http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740072500_1974072500.pdf The Vanguard Satellite Launching Vehicle: An Engineering Summary - NASA (PDF)]
* [http://nielspapermodels.com/models.htm Free paper models of Vanguard rockets]
* [http://sites.google.com/site/rgoddardsite/ From Robert Goddard to Vanguard.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205053231/http://sites.google.com/site/rgoddardsite/ |date=2009-02-05 }}

{{Project Vanguard}}
{{Expendable launch systems}}
{{US launch systems}}

[[Category:1956 in spaceflight]]
[[Category:1957 in spaceflight]]
[[Category:1958 in spaceflight]]
[[Category:1959 in spaceflight]]
[[Category:Project Vanguard]]
[[Category:Rockets and missiles]]
[[Category:Space launch vehicles of the United States]]
[[Category:Microsatellite launch vehicles]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]