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{{Short description|Spice extracted from orchids of the genus Vanilla}}
{{About|the flavoring}}
{{Redirect|Vanilla bean|the Washington, D.C. milliner|Vanilla Beane|the Japanese band|Vanilla Beans (band)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
[[File:Vanilla planifolia (6998639597).jpg|upright|thumb|right|''Vanilla planifolia'', flower]]
[[File:Vanilla 6beans.JPG|upright|thumb|right|Dried vanilla beans]]

'''Vanilla''' is a [[spice]] derived from [[orchid]]s of the genus ''[[Vanilla (genus)|Vanilla]]'', primarily obtained from pods of the flat-leaved vanilla (''[[Vanilla planifolia|V.&nbsp;planifolia]]'').<ref>{{Cite web |title=HS1348/HS1348: Vanilla Cultivation in Southern Florida |url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/HS1348 |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=edis.ifas.ufl.edu |language=en |archive-date=25 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225171133/https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/hs1348 }}</ref>

''Vanilla'' is not [[Autogamy|autogamous]], so [[pollination]] is required to make the plants produce the fruit from which the vanilla spice is obtained.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maryland Grows |date=2020-11-09 |title=Vanilla and food: not plain when it comes to pollination |url=https://marylandgrows.umd.edu/2020/11/09/vanilla-and-food-not-plain-when-it-comes-to-pollination/ |access-date=2022-06-24 |website=Maryland Grows |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1837, Belgian botanist [[Charles François Antoine Morren]] discovered this fact and pioneered a method of artificially pollinating the plant. The method proved financially unworkable and was not deployed commercially. In 1841, [[Edmond Albius]], a 12-year-old slave who lived on the French island of [[Réunion]] in the Indian Ocean, discovered that the plant could be [[hand-pollination|hand-pollinated]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krulwich |first=Robert |date=2015-06-15 |title=The Little Boy Who Should've Vanished, but Didn't |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/the-little-boy-who-shouldve-vanished-but-didnt |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302230749/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/the-little-boy-who-shouldve-vanished-but-didnt |archive-date=2 March 2021 |access-date=2022-06-24 |website=National Geographic |language=en}}</ref> Hand-pollination allowed global cultivation of the plant. Noted French botanist and plant collector [[Jean Michel Claude Richard]] falsely claimed to have discovered the technique three or four years earlier. By the end of the 20th century, Albius was considered the true discoverer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Edmond Albius–The boy who revolutionised the vanilla industry |url=https://www.linnean.org/news/2019/10/16/edmond-albius |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=The Linnean Society |language=en}}</ref>

Three major [[species]] of vanilla currently are grown globally, all derived from a species originally found in [[Mesoamerica]], including parts of modern-day [[Mexico]]. They are ''V. planifolia'' (syn. ''V. fragrans''), grown on [[Madagascar]], Réunion, and other tropical areas along the Indian Ocean; ''[[Vanilla × tahitensis|V. × tahitensis]]'', grown in the South Pacific; and ''[[Vanilla pompona|V. pompona]]'', found in the West Indies, Central America, and South America. The majority of the world's vanilla is the ''V. planifolia'' species, more commonly known as {{anchor|Bourbon vanilla}}''Bourbon vanilla'' (after the former name of Réunion, Île Bourbon) or ''Madagascar vanilla'', which is produced in Madagascar and neighboring islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean, and in Indonesia. Madagascar's and Indonesia's cultivations produce two-thirds of the world's supply of vanilla.

Measured by weight, vanilla is the world's second-most expensive spice after [[saffron]], because growing the vanilla seed pods is labor-intensive. Nevertheless, vanilla is widely used in both commercial and domestic baking, perfume production, and [[aromatherapy]], as only small amounts are needed to impart its signature flavor and aroma.

==History==
[[File:Vanilla florentine codex.jpg|upright=1.81|thumb| Drawing of the ''Vanilla'' plant from the ''[[Florentine Codex]]'' (c. 1580) and description of its use and properties written in the [[Nahuatl]] language]]

''Vanilla planifolia'' traditionally grew wild around the [[Gulf of Mexico]] from [[Tampico]] around to the northeast tip of South America, and from [[Colima]] to [[Ecuador]] on the Pacific side, as well as throughout the Caribbean. The [[Totonac]] people, who live along the eastern coast of Mexico in the present-day state of [[Veracruz]], were among the first people to domesticate vanilla, cultivated on farms since at least 1185. The Totonac used vanilla as a fragrance in temples and as a good-luck charm in amulets, as well as flavoring for food and beverages. The cultivation of vanilla was a low-profile affair, as few people from outside these regions knew of it.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Although the Totonacs are the most famously associated with human use of vanilla, it is speculated that the [[Olmecs]], who also lived in the regions of wild vanilla growth thousands of years earlier, were one of the first people to use wild vanilla in cuisine.<ref>{{cite book |author1-last=Rain |author1-first=Patricia |author2-last=Lubinsky |author2-first=Pesach |editor1-last=Odoux |editor1-first=Eric |editor2-last=Grisoni |editor2-first=Michel |chapter=Vanilla Use in Colonial Mexico and Traditional Totonac Vanilla Farming |date=2011 |title=Vanilla |chapter-url=http://www.crcnetbase.com/isbn/9781420083385 |location=USA |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |page=252 |isbn=978-1-4200-8337-8}}{{dead link|date=November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Vanilla History |url=https://rodellekitchen.com/resources/learning/vanilla-history/ |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=Rodelle Kitchen |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-12-04 |title=The Vanilla Bean Orchid |url=https://www.gulleygreenhouse.com/vanilla-bean-orchid/ |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=Gulley Greenhouse |language=en-US |last1=Gulley |first1=Beth |archive-date=20 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820032836/https://www.gulleygreenhouse.com/vanilla-bean-orchid/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Rain |first=Patricia |date=February 26, 2009 |title=History of Vanilla |url=https://vanillaqueen.com/facts-about-vanilla/}}</ref>

Aztecs from the central highlands of Mexico invaded the Totonacs in 1427, developed a taste for the vanilla pods, and began using vanilla to flavor their foods and drinks, often mixing it with cocoa in a drink called "''xocolatl''" that later inspired modern [[hot chocolate]]. The fruit was named ''tlilxochitl'', wrongly interpreted as "black flower" instead of the more probable "black pod"<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Correll |first=Donovan S. |date=1953 |title=Vanilla: Its Botany, History, Cultivation and Economic Import |journal=Economic Botany |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=291–358 |doi=10.1007/BF02930810 |jstor=4287786 |bibcode=1953EcBot...7..291C |s2cid=34061570 |issn=0013-0001}}</ref> because the matured fruit shrivels and turns a dark color shortly after being picked. For the Aztecs, much like earlier Mesoamerican peoples before them, it is probable that vanilla was used to tame the otherwise bitter taste of [[Cocoa bean|cacao]], as [[sugarcane]] was not harvested in these regions at the time and there were no other sweeteners available.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

[[Hernán Cortés]] is credited with introducing both vanilla and [[chocolate]] to Europe in the 1520s.<ref name="nashville">{{cite web |url=http://www.herbsocietynashville.org/gardening.htm |title=The Life of Spice |author=The Herb Society of Nashville |publisher=The Herb Society of Nashville |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920205115/http://www.herbsocietynashville.org/gardening.htm |archive-date=20 September 2011 |quote=Following Montezuma's capture, one of Cortés' officers saw him drinking "chocolatl" (made of powdered cocoa beans and ground corn flavored with ground vanilla pods and honey). The Spanish tried this drink themselves and were so impressed by this new taste sensation that they took samples back to Spain.' and 'Actually it was vanilla rather than the chocolate that made a bigger hit and by 1700 the use of vanilla was spread over all of Europe. Mexico became the leading producer of vanilla for three centuries. – Excerpted from 'Spices of the World Cookbook' by McCormick and 'The Book of Spices' by Frederic Rosengarten, Jr}}</ref> In Europe, vanilla was seen mostly as an additive to chocolate until the early 17th century when [[Hugh Morgan (apothecary)|Hugh Morgan]], a creative apothecary in the employ of Queen Elizabeth I, created chocolate-free, vanilla-flavored "sweetmeats". By the 18th century, the French were using vanilla to flavor [[ice cream]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-10-23 |title=The History of Vanilla |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/plain-vanilla |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227161025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/plain-vanilla |archive-date=27 February 2021 |author=Rebecca Rupp|access-date=2022-06-14 |publisher=National Geographic |language=en}}</ref>

Until the mid-19th century, Mexico was the chief producer of vanilla.<ref>{{cite book |author1-last=Rain |author1-first=Patricia |author2-last=Lubinsky |author2-first=Pesach |editor1-last=Odoux |editor1-first=Eric |editor2-last=Grisoni |editor2-first=Michel |chapter=Vanilla Production in Mexico |date=2011 |title=Vanilla |chapter-url=http://www.crcnetbase.com/isbn/9781420083385 |location=USA |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |page=336 |isbn=978-1-4200-8337-8}}</ref> One of Mexico's top producing regions was Veracruz, especially in the town of Papantla. By 1889, Mexican exports of vanilla exceeded 70,000 kilograms making the region one of the world leaders in vanilla production at the time.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kouri |first=Emilio |title=A Pueblo Divided: Business, Property, and Community in Papantla, Mexico |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2004 |page=188 |isbn=978-0-8047-5848-2}}</ref> While vanilla trade was surging throughout Papantla, many farmers who owned land on which this commodity was growing would soon be subject to political shifts that led to those farmers having to pay rent. Protests of these shifts in policy led many to fight and die against the four tier hierarchy made up of Totonac caciques, ranchero clans, a hefty class of landowning labradores, and a bulging stratum of tenants, jornaleros, and ranch hands.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kouri |first=Emilio |title=A Pueblo Divided: Business, Property, and Community in Papantla, Mexico |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2004 |page=280 |isbn=978-0-8047-5848-2}}</ref>  In 1819, French entrepreneurs shipped vanilla fruits to the islands of [[Réunion]] and [[Mauritius]] in hopes of producing vanilla there. After 1841, when [[Edmond Albius]] discovered how to pollinate the flowers quickly by hand, the pods began to thrive. Soon, the tropical orchids were sent from Réunion to the [[Comoros Islands]], [[Seychelles]], and [[Madagascar]], along with instructions for pollinating them. By 1898, Madagascar, Réunion, and the Comoros Islands produced 200 metric tons of vanilla beans, about 80% of world production in that year. According to the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] 2019 data, Madagascar, followed by Indonesia, were the largest producers of vanilla in 2018.<ref name=FAOSTAT>{{cite web |title=Crops, Vanilla |work=FAO Global Statistical Yearbook | date=2019 | url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |access-date=13 April 2020 }}</ref>

[[File:Vanilla fragrans 3.jpg|thumb|Vanilla cultivation, [[Réunion]] ]]

After a [[tropical cyclone]] ravaged key croplands, the market price of vanilla rose sharply in the late 1970s and remained high through the early 1980s despite the introduction of Indonesian vanilla. In the mid-1980s, the [[cartel]] that had controlled vanilla prices and distribution since its creation in 1930 disbanded.<ref name="Bleu-2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Wf-NFH5ZuoC&pg=PA213|title=Le Cordon Bleu Cuisine Foundations|first=The Chefs of Le Cordon|last=Bleu|date=21 April 2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|via=Google Books|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428023238/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Wf-NFH5ZuoC&pg=PA213|archive-date=28 April 2016|isbn=978-1-4354-8137-4}}</ref> Prices dropped 70% over the next few years, to nearly US$20 per kilogram; prices rose sharply again after [[Cyclone Hudah|tropical cyclone Hudah]] struck Madagascar in April 2000.<ref name="Zhu-2018">{{Cite journal|title=Hot money, cold beer: Navigating the vanilla and rosewood export economies in northeastern Madagascar|first=Annah|last=Zhu|date=21 November 2018|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=45|issue=2|pages=253–267|doi=10.1111/amet.12636|doi-access=free}}</ref> The cyclone, political instability, and poor weather in the third year drove vanilla prices to US$500/kg in 2004, bringing new countries into the vanilla industry. A good crop, coupled with decreased demand caused by the production of imitation vanilla, pushed the market price down to the $40/kg range in the middle of 2005. By 2010, prices were down to $20/kg.  [[Cyclone Enawo]] caused a similar spike to $500/kg in 2017.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Forani|first1=Jonathan|title=Eager bakers may face a cake crisis as vanilla supply evaporates|url=https://www.thestar.com/life/2017/09/20/world-cake-crisis-as-vanilla-supply-evaporates.html|access-date=21 September 2017|work=[[Toronto Star]]|date=20 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921000857/https://www.thestar.com/life/2017/09/20/world-cake-crisis-as-vanilla-supply-evaporates.html|archive-date=21 September 2017}}</ref>

An estimated 95% of "vanilla" products are artificially flavored with [[vanillin]] derived from [[lignin]] instead of vanilla fruits.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vanillaexchange.com/RVCA_Handout.htm |title=Rainforest Vanilla Conservation Association |access-date= 16 June 2011 |publisher= RVCA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624003638/http://vanillaexchange.com/RVCA_Handout.htm |archive-date= 24 June 2009 }}</ref>

Although vanilla was domesticated in [[Mesoamerica]] and subsequently spread to the [[Old World]], the use of an unidentified, Old World-endemic ''[[Vanilla (genus)|Vanilla]]'' species is attested in [[Canaan]]/[[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Israel]] during the Middle Bronze Age and later.<ref>{{Cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352409X18307557 | title=First evidence for vanillin in the old world: Its use as mortuary offering in Middle Bronze Canaan | journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports | date=June 2019 | last1 = Linares | first1 = V. | last2 = Adams | first2 = M.&nbsp;J. | last3 = Cradic | first3 = M.&nbsp;S. | last4 = Finkelstein | first4 = I. | last5 = Lipschits | first5 = O. | last6 = Martin | first6 = M.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;S.| last7 = Neumann | first7 = R. | last8 = Stockhammer | first8 = P.&nbsp;W. | last9 = Gadot | first9 = Y.| volume=25 | pages=77–84 | doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.03.034 | bibcode=2019JArSR..25...77L | s2cid=181608839 | url-access = subscription }}</ref><ref name="Amir-2022">{{Cite journal | title=Amir A, Finkelstein I, Shalev Y, Uziel J, Chalaf O, Freud L, et al. (2022) Residue analysis evidence for wine enriched with vanilla consumed in Jerusalem on the eve of the Babylonian destruction in 586 BCE. PLoS ONE 17(3)| year=2022| doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0266085| pmid=35349581| doi-access=free| last1=Amir| first1=A.| last2=Finkelstein| first2=I.| last3=Shalev| first3=Y.| last4=Uziel| first4=J.| last5=Chalaf| first5=O.| last6=Freud| first6=L.| last7=Neumann| first7=R.| last8=Gadot| first8=Y.| journal=PLOS ONE| volume=17| issue=3| article-number=e0266085| pmc=8963535}}</ref> Traces of vanillin were found in wine jars in [[Jerusalem]], which were used by the [[Kingdom of Judah|Judahite]] elite before [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|the city was destroyed]] in 586 BCE.<ref name="Amir-2022" />

==Etymology==
The word ''vanilla'' is derived from the Spanish word {{lang|es|vainilla}} meaning "little pod", the [[diminutive]] of ''vaina'' derived from the Latin ''vagina'' (sheath) describing the shape of the [[Pod (botany)|pods]].<ref name="Ackerman-2002">{{eFloras|1|134375|Vanilla |first=James D. |last=Ackerman |volume=26 |quote=Spanish vainilla, little pod or capsule, referring to long, podlike fruits |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080229012115/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=134375 |archivedate=29 February 2008 |access-date=22 July 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=vanilla&searchmode=none |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=1 May 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312131351/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=vanilla&searchmode=none |archive-date=12 March 2011 }}</ref> The word "vanilla" entered the English language in 1754, when the botanist [[Philip Miller]] wrote about the genus in his ''Gardener's Dictionary''.<ref>Correll D (1953) Vanilla: its botany, history, cultivation and economic importance. Econ Bo 7(4): 291–358.</ref>

==Biology==

===Vanilla orchid===
{{Main|Vanilla planifolia}}
[[File:VanillaExtract.png|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Vanilla extract]] displays its distinctive color.]]
[[File:VanillaFlowerLongitudinalSection-en.png|thumb|upright=1.2|''V. planifolia'' – flower]]

The main species of vanilla cultivated is ''V. planifolia''. Although it is native to Mesoamerica and South America, it is now widely grown throughout the tropics. Indonesia and Madagascar are the world's largest producers. Additional sources include ''V. pompona'' and ''V. tahitiensis'' (grown in [[Niue]] and [[Tahiti]]), although the vanillin content of these species is much less than ''V. planifolia''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/food/chi-vanilla-types-11jun11,0,5117837.story |title=Types of Vanilla |last=Brockman |first=Terra |work=Chicago Tribune |date=11 June 2008 |access-date=1 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616064118/http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/food/chi-vanilla-types-11jun11,0,5117837.story |archive-date=16 June 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s12231-008-9014-y |title=Origins and Dispersal of Cultivated Vanilla (''Vanilla planifolia'' Jacks. &#91;Orchidaceae&#93;) |year=2008 |last1=Lubinsky |first1=Pesach |last2=Bory |first2=Séverine |last3=Hernández Hernández |first3=Juan |last4=Kim |first4=Seung-Chul |last5=Gómez-Pompa |first5=Arturo |journal=Economic Botany |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=127–38|s2cid=11744202 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.plantsci.2004.04.007 |title=RAPD genetic diversity in cultivated vanilla: ''Vanilla planifolia'', and relationships with ''V. Tahitensis'' and ''V. Pompona'' |year=2004 |last1=Besse |first1=Pascale |last2=Silva |first2=Denis Da |last3=Bory |first3=Séverine |last4=Grisoni |first4=Michel |last5=Le Bellec |first5=Fabrice |last6=Duval |first6=Marie-France |journal=Plant Science |volume=167 |issue=2 |pages=379–85|bibcode=2004PlnSc.167..379B }}</ref>

Vanilla grows as a vine, climbing up an existing tree (also called a tutor), pole, or other support. It can be grown in a wood (on trees), in a plantation (on trees or poles), or in a "shader", in increasing orders of productivity. Its growth environment is referred to as its ''[[terroir]]'', and includes not only the adjacent plants, but also the climate, geography, and local geology. Left alone, it will grow as high as possible on the support, with few flowers. Every year, growers fold the higher parts of the plant downward so the plant stays at heights accessible by a standing human. This also greatly stimulates flowering.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Biology |url=https://ceylonorganicvanilla.com/portfolio/biology/ |access-date=2025-06-24 |website=Ceylon Organic Vanilla |language=en-US}}</ref>

The distinctively flavored compounds are found in the fruit, which results from the [[pollination]] of the flower. These seed pods are roughly {{convert|1/3|in|mm|adj=pre|of an|spell=in}} by {{convert|6|in|mm|spell=in}}, and brownish red to black when ripe. Inside of these pods is an oily liquid full of tiny seeds.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Diderot|first1=Denis|title=Vanilla|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;rgn=main;view=text;idno=did2222.0000.830|journal=Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert – Collaborative Translation Project|access-date=1 April 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921231225/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;rgn=main;view=text;idno=did2222.0000.830|archive-date=21 September 2015|date=September 2007}}</ref> One flower produces one fruit. ''V. planifolia'' flowers are [[hermaphroditic]]: they carry both male ([[anther]]) and female ([[pistil|stigma]]) organs. However, [[self-pollination]] is blocked by a membrane which separates those organs.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Despite various claims otherwise, the only pollinators definitively documented to date are orchid bees in the genus ''[[Eulaema]]''<ref name="Lubinsky-2006">{{cite journal|last1=Lubinsky|first1=Pesach|last2=Van Dam|first2=Matthew|last3=Van Dam|first3=Alex|title=Pollination of Vanilla and Evolution in the Orchidaceae |journal=Lindleyana |date=2006 |volume=75 |issue=12 |pages=926–9 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288609351|access-date=20 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121041917/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Matthew_Van_Dam/publication/288609351_Pollination_of_Vanilla_and_evolution_in_Orchidaceae/links/56fecd7608ae1408e15d0bc2.pdf|archive-date=21 November 2016}}</ref> and the [[Western honey bee]].<ref name="Pemberton-2023">{{cite journal|last1=Pemberton|first1=Robert|last2=Wheeler|first2=Gregory|last3=Madeira|first3=Paul|title=Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Pollination of Vanilla planifolia in Florida and Their Potential in Commercial Production|journal=Florida Entomologist|date=2023|volume=104|issue=4|pages=230–237|doi=10.1653/024.106.0404 |doi-access=free}}</ref> All commercial vanilla production takes place via hand pollination by humans.

The first vanilla orchid to flower in Europe was in the London collection of the Honourable Charles Greville in 1806. Cuttings from that plant went to Netherlands and Paris, from which the French first transplanted the vines to their overseas colonies. The vines grew, but would not fruit outside Mexico. The only known way to produce fruits is [[pollination management|artificial pollination]]. Today, even in Mexico, hand pollination is used extensively. In 1837, botanist [[Charles François Antoine Morren]] began experimenting with hand pollination of ''Vanilla'' orchids in cultivation in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Morren |first=C. |year=1837 |title=Note sur la première fructification du Vanillier en Europe (Note on the first fruiting of vanilla in Europe) |journal=Annales de la Société Royale d'Horticulture de Paris |volume=20 |pages=331–334}}  Morren describes the process of artificially pollinating vanilla on p. 333:  "{{lang|fr|En effet, aucun fruit n'a été produit que sur les cinquante-quatre fleurs auxquelles j'avais artificiellement communiqué le pollen. On enlève le tablier ou on le soulève, et on met en contact avec le stigmate une mass pollinique entière, ou seulement une partie de cette masse, car une seule de celles-ci, coupée en huit ou dix pièces, peut féconder autant de fleurs.}}" (In effect, fruit has been produced only on fifty-four flowers to which I artificially communicated pollen. One removes the labellum or one raises it, and one places in contact with the stigma a complete mass of pollen [i.e., pollinium], or just a part of that mass, for just one of these, cut into eight or ten pieces, can fertilize as many flowers.) Available on-line at:  [https://web.archive.org/web/20160825231127/http://www.hortalia.org/viewer/show/216#page/n679/mode/2up Hortalia.org]</ref> The method proved financially unworkable and was not deployed commercially.<ref name="Hazen-1995">{{cite book |title=Vanilla |url=https://archive.org/details/vanilla00haze |url-access=registration |author=Janet Hazen |publisher=Chronicle Books |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-8118-0254-3 }}</ref> A few years later in 1841, a simple and efficient artificial hand-pollination method was developed by a 12-year-old slave named Edmond Albius on Réunion, a method still used today.<ref name=silvercloud>{{cite web |url=http://www.silvercloudestates.com/vanilla_history.aspx |title=History of Vanilla |author=Silver Cloud Estates |publisher=Silver Cloud Estates |access-date=23 July 2008 |quote=In 1837 the Belgian botanist Morren succeeded in artificially pollinating the vanilla flower. On Reunion, Morren's process was attempted, but failed. It was not until 1841 that a 12-year-old slave by the name of Edmond Albius discovered the correct technique of hand-pollinating the flowers. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219152341/http://www.silvercloudestates.com/vanilla_history.aspx |archive-date=19 February 2008 }}</ref> <!--He had been shown how to manually pollinate other vegetable species by hand by his master Férréol Bellier-Beaumont}}<Vanilla:Travels in Search of the Luscious Substance(Ecott)>--> Using a beveled sliver of [[bamboo]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/10/stories/2004051000900300.htm |title=Flower with money power |date=10 May 2004 |access-date=1 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090623222730/http://www.hindu.com/edu/2004/05/10/stories/2004051000900300.htm |archive-date=23 June 2009 |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] }}</ref> an agricultural worker lifts the membrane separating the anther and the [[Gynoecium|stigma]], then, using the thumb, transfers the [[pollinia]] from the anther to the stigma. The flower, self-pollinated, will then produce a fruit. The vanilla flower lasts about one day, sometimes less, so growers have to inspect their plantations every day for open flowers, a labor-intensive task.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

The [[fruit]], a seed [[capsule (fruit)|capsule]], if left on the plant, ripens and opens at the end; as it dries, the [[natural phenol|phenolic]] compounds [[crystallization|crystallize]], giving the fruits a diamond-dusted appearance, which the French call ''givre'' (hoarfrost). It then releases the distinctive vanilla smell. The fruit contains tiny, black seeds. In dishes prepared with whole natural vanilla, these seeds are recognizable as black specks. Both the pod and the seeds are used in cooking.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Like other orchids' seeds, vanilla seeds will not germinate without the presence of certain [[Orchid mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] [[fungi]]. Instead, growers reproduce the plant by [[cutting (plant)|cutting]]: they remove sections of the vine with six or more leaf nodes, a root opposite each leaf. The two lower leaves are removed, and this area is buried in loose soil at the base of support. The remaining upper roots cling to the support, and often grow down into the soil. Growth is rapid under good conditions.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

===Cultivars===
[[File:Madagascar bourbon vanilla x.jpg|thumb|upright 0.7|A bottle of vanilla extract]]

* '''Bourbon vanilla''' or '''Bourbon-Madagascar vanilla''', produced from ''V. planifolia'' plants introduced from the Americas, is from [[Indian Ocean]] islands such as [[Madagascar]], the [[Comoros]], [[Mauritius]] and [[Réunion]], formerly named the [[Île Bourbon]]. It is also used to describe the distinctive vanilla flavor derived from ''V. planifolia'' grown successfully in tropical countries such as India. However, there is no [[Bourbon whiskey]] in Bourbon vanilla extract, despite common confusion about this.
* '''Mexican vanilla''', made from the native ''V. planifolia'',<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7O5YpNRnpNoC&q=Mexican+vanilla,+made+from+the+native+V.+planifolia&pg=PA44|title=The Art and Soul of Baking|last1=Mushet|first1=Cindy|last2=Table|first2=Sur La|date=2008-10-21|publisher=Andrews McMeel Publishing|isbn=978-0-7407-7334-1|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208201835/https://books.google.com/books?id=7O5YpNRnpNoC&pg=PA44&dq=Mexican+vanilla,+made+from+the+native+V.+planifolia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjqpOyItePUAhVY12MKHQ2bD6IQ6AEILjAB#v=onepage&q=Mexican%20vanilla,%20made%20from%20the%20native%20V.%20planifolia&f=false|archive-date=8 December 2017}}</ref> is produced in much less quantity and marketed as the vanilla from the land of its origin.
* '''Tahitian vanilla''' is from [[French Polynesia]], made with ''V. tahitensis''. Genetic analysis shows this species is possibly a cultivar from a hybrid of ''V. planifolia'' and ''V. odorata''. The species was introduced by French Admiral [[François Alphonse Hamelin]] to French Polynesia from the [[Philippines]], where it was introduced from [[Guatemala]] by the [[Manila Galleon]] trade.<ref name="ucr">{{cite web|url=http://newsroom.ucr.edu/1911|title=Tahitian Vanilla Originated in Maya Forests, Says UC Riverside Botanist|publisher=University of California at Riverside, Newsroom|date=21 August 2008|access-date=28 June 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517110743/http://newsroom.ucr.edu/1911|archive-date=17 May 2017}}</ref> It comprises less than one percent of vanilla production and is only grown by a handful of skilled growers and preparers.<ref>{{cite web |title=What are The Best Vanilla Beans to Buy and Why? |url=https://www.slofoodgroup.com/blogs/recipes-stories/what-are-the-best-vanilla-beans-to-buy-and-why |website=Slofoodgroup |access-date=30 December 2020}}</ref>
* '''West Indian vanilla''' is made from ''V. pompona'' grown in the [[Caribbean]] and [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]].<ref name=usdaplants>{{PLANTS |symbol=VAPO2 |taxon=Vanilla pompona |url-status=live |url=https://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=VAPO2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009163405/http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=VAPO2 |archive-date=9 October 2008 |access-date=24 July 2008 }}</ref>

The term ''French vanilla'' is often used to designate particular preparations with a strong vanilla aroma, containing vanilla grains and sometimes also containing eggs (especially egg yolks). The appellation originates from the French style of making [[vanilla ice cream]] with a [[custard]] base, using vanilla pods, cream, and egg yolks. Inclusion of vanilla varietals from any of the [[French colonial empire|former French dependencies]] or [[overseas France]] may be a part of the flavoring. Alternatively, French vanilla is taken to refer to a vanilla-custard flavor.

===Chemistry===
{{Main|Vanillin}}
[[File:vanillin.svg|thumb|upright|Chemical structure of [[vanillin]]]]

Vanilla essence occurs in two forms. Real seedpod [[vanilla extract|extract]] is a complex mixture of several hundred different compounds, including vanillin, [[acetaldehyde]], [[acetic acid]], [[furfural]], [[hexanoic acid]], [[4-hydroxybenzaldehyde]], [[eugenol]], [[methyl cinnamate]], and [[isobutyric acid]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.chromatographyonline.com/view/comparison-compounds-bourbon-vanilla-extract-and-vanilla-flavour|title=Comparison of Compounds in Bourbon Vanilla Extract and Vanilla Flavour|journal=The Application Notebook|date=July 2015|last1=Margraf|first1=Marelke|series=The Application Notebook-07-01-2015 }}</ref> Synthetic essence consists of a solution of synthetic vanillin in [[ethanol]]. The chemical compound [[vanillin]] (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is a major contributor to the characteristic flavor and aroma of real vanilla and is the main flavor component of [[Curing (vegetable preservation)|cured]] vanilla beans.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Bomgardner, M.M. | date = 2016 | url = http://cen.acs.org/articles/94/i36/problem-vanilla.html | title = The problem with vanilla | journal = Chemical and Engineering News | volume = 94 | issue = 36 | pages = 38–42 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170910221238/http://cen.acs.org/articles/94/i36/problem-vanilla.html | archive-date = 10 September 2017 | doi=10.1021/cen-09436-cover| doi-access = free }}</ref> Vanillin was first isolated from vanilla pods by Gobley in 1858.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Gobley, N.-T. | date = 1858 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Yrs8AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA401 | title = Recherches sur le principe odorant de la vanilla | trans-title = Research on the fragrant substance of vanilla | journal = Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie |series=Series 3 | volume = 34 | pages = 401–405 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160603194057/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yrs8AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA401 | archive-date = 3 June 2016 }}</ref> By 1874, it had been obtained from glycosides of pine tree sap, temporarily causing a depression in the natural vanilla industry. Vanillin can be easily synthesized from various raw materials, but the majority of food-grade (> 99% pure) vanillin is made from [[guaiacol]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vanillin {{!}} Baking Ingredients |url=https://bakerpedia.com/ingredients/vanillin/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=BAKERpedia |date=17 November 2016 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Cultivation==
[[File:Vanilla no Tahiti.jpg|upright|thumb|right|''Vanilla'' × ''tahitensis'' in cultivation]]
[[File:Vanilla plantation in wood dsc00190.jpg|thumb|upright|A vanilla plantation in a forest of [[Réunion Island]]]]

In general, quality vanilla only comes from good vines and through careful production methods. Commercial vanilla production can be performed under open field and "greenhouse" operations. The two production systems share these similarities:

* Plant height and number of years before producing the first grains
* Shade necessities
* Amount of organic matter needed
* A tree or frame to grow around (bamboo, coconut or ''Erythrina lanceolata'')
* Labor intensity (pollination and harvest activities)<ref name="Anilkumar 2004">{{cite journal |last=Anilkumar |first=A. S. |date=February 2004 |title=Vanilla cultivation: A profitable agri-based enterprise |journal=Kerala Calling |pages=26–30 |url=http://www.old.kerala.gov.in/keralacallfeb04/p26-30.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228070500/http://www.old.kerala.gov.in/keralacallfeb04/p26-30.pdf |archive-date=28 February 2013 }}</ref>

Vanilla grows best in a hot, humid climate from sea level to an elevation of 1,500&nbsp;m.<ref name="Stehlé-1952">{{Cite journal |last=Stehlé |first=Henri |date=1952 |title=Le Vanillier et sa culture: Histoire - Botanique - Géographie - Écologie du vanillier |url=https://revues.cirad.fr/index.php/fruits/article/view/32744 |journal=Fruits |language=fr |volume=7 |pages=50–56}}</ref> The ideal climate has moderate rainfall, 1,500–3,000&nbsp;mm, evenly distributed through 10 months of the year. Optimum temperatures for cultivation are {{convert|15|-|30|C|F}} during the day and {{convert|15|-|20|C|F}} during the night. Ideal humidity is around 80%, and under normal greenhouse conditions, it can be achieved by an evaporative cooler. However, since greenhouse vanilla is grown near the equator and under polymer (HDPE) netting (shading of 50%), this humidity can be achieved by the environment. Most successful vanilla growing and processing is done in the region within 10 to 20° of the equator.<ref name="Stehlé-1952" />

Soils for vanilla cultivation should be loose, with high organic matter content and loamy texture. They must be well drained, and a slight slope helps in this condition. Soil [[pH]] has not been well documented, but some researchers have indicated an optimum soil pH around 5.3.<ref>Berninger, F., Salas, E., 2003. "Biomass dynamics of Erythrina lanceolata as influenced by shoot-pruning intensity in Costa Rica." ''Agro-forestry Systems'', 57:19–28.</ref> [[Mulch]] is very important for proper growth of the vine, and a considerable portion of mulch should be placed in the base of the vine.<ref name="Davis-1983">{{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Elmo W. |year=1983 |title=Experiences with growing vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) |journal=Acta Horticulturae |volume=132 |issue=132 |pages=23–9 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.1983.132.2 }}</ref> Fertilization varies with soil conditions, but general recommendations are: 40 to 60 g of N, 20 to 30 g of P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub> and 60 to 100 g of K<sub>2</sub>O should be applied to each plant per year besides organic manures, such as [[vermicompost]], oil cakes, poultry manure, and wood ash. Foliar applications are also good for vanilla, and a solution of 1% NPK (17:17:17) can be sprayed on the plant once a month. Vanilla requires organic matter, so three or four applications of mulch a year are adequate for the plant.

===Propagation, preparation and type of stock===
Dissemination of vanilla can be achieved either by stem cutting or by tissue culture. For stem cutting, a progeny garden needs to be established. <!-- Recommendations for establishing this garden vary, but in general, trenches of {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} in width, {{convert|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} in depth and {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} spacing for each plant are necessary. --> All plants need to grow under 50% shade, as well as the rest of the crop. Mulching the trenches with coconut husk and micro irrigation provide an ideal microclimate for vegetative growth.<ref name="Elizabeth 2002">{{cite journal |last=Elizabeth |first=K. G. |year=2002 |title=Vanilla: an orchid spice |journal=Indian Journal of Arecanut Spices and Medicinal Plants |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=96–8}}</ref> Cuttings between {{convert|60|and|120|cm|in|abbr=on}} should be selected for planting in the field or greenhouse. Cuttings below {{convert|60|to|120|cm|in|abbr=on}} need to be rooted and raised in a separate nursery before planting. Planting material should always come from unflowered portions of the vine. Wilting of the cuttings before planting provides better conditions for root initiation and establishment.<ref name="Anilkumar 2004"/>

Before planting the cuttings, trees to support the vine must be planted at least three months before sowing the cuttings. Pits of 30 × 30 × 30&nbsp;cm are dug {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}} away from the tree and filled with farm yard manure (vermicompost), sand and top soil mixed well. An average of 2000 cuttings can be planted per hectare (2.5 acres). One important consideration is that when planting the cuttings from the base, four leaves should be pruned and the pruned basal point must be pressed into the soil in a way such that the nodes are in close contact with the soil, and are placed at a depth of {{convert|15|to|20|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Davis-1983"/> The top portion of the cutting is tied to the tree using natural fibers such as banana or hemp.

===Tissue culture===
Tissue culture was first used as a means of creating vanilla plants during the 1980s at Tamil Nadu University. This was the part of the first project to grow ''V. planifolia'' in India. At that time, a shortage of vanilla planting stock was occurring in India. The approach was inspired by the work going on to tissue culture other flowering plants. Several methods have been proposed for vanilla tissue culture, but all of them begin from axillary buds of the vanilla vine.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/BF01092772 |pmid=30727638 |title=In vitro multiplication of ''Vanilla planifolia'' using axillary bud explants |year=1997 |last1=George |first1=P. S. |last2=Ravishankar |first2=G. A. |journal=Plant Cell Reports |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=490–494|s2cid=25158520 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kononowicz |first1=H. |last2=Janick |first2=J. |year=1984 |title=In vitro propagation of Vanilla planifolia |journal=HortScience |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=58–9|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.19.1.58 |s2cid=89492752 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In vitro multiplication has also been achieved through culture of callus masses, protocorms, root tips and stem nodes.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Giridhar P, Ravishankar GA |year=2004 |title=Efficient micropropagation of ''Vanilla planifolia'' Andr. under influence of thidiazuron, zeatin and coconut milk |journal=Indian Journal of Biotechnology |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=113–118 |url=http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/5837 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506134353/http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/5837 |archive-date=6 May 2014 }}</ref> Description of any of these processes can be obtained from the references listed before, but all of them are successful in generation of new vanilla plants that first need to be grown up to a height of at least {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}} before they can be planted in the field or greenhouse.<ref name="Anilkumar 2004"/>

===Scheduling considerations===
In the tropics,{{where|date=October 2020}} the ideal time for planting vanilla is from September to November, when the weather is neither too rainy nor too dry, but this recommendation varies with growing conditions. Cuttings take one to eight weeks to establish roots, and show initial signs of growth from one of the leaf axils. A thick mulch of leaves should be provided immediately after planting as an additional source of organic matter. Three years are required for cuttings to grow enough to produce flowers and subsequent pods. As with most orchids, the blossoms grow along stems branching from the main vine. The buds, growing along the {{convert|6|to|10|in|cm|abbr=on}} stems, bloom and mature in sequence, each at a different interval.<ref name="Elizabeth 2002"/>

===Pollination===
{{external media
| float  = right
| video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RdoTcDD2EU Hand Pollination of Vanilla Planifolia Flowers], YouTube video
}}
Flowering normally occurs every spring, and without pollination, the blossom wilts and falls, and no vanilla bean can grow. In the wild in the [[New World]], the only organisms ever observed to carry ''Vanilla'' pollen are orchid bees in the genus ''[[Eulaema]]'', though direct evidence documenting seed set is lacking.<ref name="Lubinsky-2006" /> Claims that pollination is achieved by stingless bees of the genus ''[[Melipona]]'' or [[hummingbird]]s have never been substantiated, though they do visit the flowers.<ref name="Lubinsky-2006" /> Even within the range of orchid bees, wild vanilla orchids have only a 1% chance of successful pollination. As a result, all vanilla grown today is pollinated by hand. Each flower must be hand-pollinated within 12 hours of opening. A small splinter of wood or a grass stem is used to lift the [[rostellum]] or move the flap upward, so the overhanging anther can be pressed against the stigma and self-pollinate the vine. Generally, one flower per [[raceme]] opens per day, so the raceme may be in flower for over 20 days. A healthy vine should produce about 50 to 100 beans per year, but growers are careful to pollinate only five or six flowers from the 20 on each raceme. The first flowers that open in each raceme are usually the only ones that are pollinated, so the resulting beans are similar in age and mature together. This agronomic practice facilitates harvest and increases bean quality, as over-pollination results in diseases and inferior bean quality.<ref name="Davis-1983" /> The fruits require five to six weeks to develop, but around six months to mature. A vine remains productive between 12 and 14 years.

===Pest and disease management===
Vanilla is susceptible to many fungal and viral diseases. ''[[Fusarium]]'', ''[[Sclerotium]]'', ''[[Phytophthora]]'', and ''[[Colletrotrichum]]'' species cause rots of root, stem, leaf, bean, and [[shoot apex]]. Development of most diseases is favoured by unsuitable growing conditions such as overwatering, insufficient drainage, heavy mulch, overpollination, and too much shade. Fungal diseases can be controlled by spraying [[Bordeaux mixture]] (1%), [[carbendazim]] (0.2%) and [[copper oxychloride]] (0.2%).

Biological control of the spread of such diseases can be managed by applying to the soil ''[[Trichoderma]]'' ({{convert|0.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} per plant in the [[rhizosphere]]) and foliar application of [[pseudomonas]] (0.2%). [[Mosaic virus]], [[leaf curl]], and [[Cymbidium mosaic virus|cymbidium mosaic potexvirus]] are the common viral diseases. These diseases are transmitted through the sap, so affected plants must be destroyed. The insect pests of vanilla include beetles and weevils that attack the flower, caterpillars, snakes, and slugs that damage the tender parts of shoot, flower buds, and immature fruit, and grasshoppers that affect cutting shoot tips.<ref name="Davis-1983" /><ref name="Elizabeth 2002" /> If organic agriculture is practiced, insecticides are avoided, and mechanical measures are adopted for pest management.<ref name="Anilkumar 2004" /> Most of these practices are implemented under greenhouse cultivation, since such field conditions are very difficult to achieve.

===Artificial vanilla===
Most artificial vanilla products contain [[vanillin]], which can be produced synthetically from [[lignin]], a natural polymer found in wood. Most synthetic vanillin is a byproduct from the [[Pulp (paper)|pulp]] used in [[papermaking]], in which the lignin is broken down using [[sulfite]]s or [[sulfate]]s. However, vanillin is only one of 171 identified aromatic components of real vanilla fruits.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cooksvanilla.com/about_vanilla.html |title=About Vanilla – Vanilla imitations |publisher=Cook Flavoring Company |year=2011 |access-date=22 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090430092229/http://www.cooksvanilla.com/about.html |archive-date=30 April 2009 }}</ref>

The orchid species ''[[Leptotes bicolor]]'' is used as a natural vanilla replacement in Paraguay and southern Brazil.

In 1996 the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] cautioned that some vanilla products sold in Mexico were made from the cheaper [[tonka bean]] which as well as vanillin also contains the toxin [[coumarin]]. They advised consumers to always check the ingredients label and avoid suspiciously cheap products.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm048613.htm |title=IMPORT ALERT IA2807: "DETENTION WITHOUT PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF COUMARIN IN VANILLA PRODUCTS (EXTRACTS – FLAVORINGS – IMITATIONS)" |access-date=21 December 2007 |date=January 1998 |publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration Office of Regulatory Affairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603133600/https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm048613.htm |archive-date=3 June 2009 }}</ref>

===Nonplant vanilla flavoring===
In the United States, [[castoreum]], the exudate from the castor sacs of mature [[beaver]]s, has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration as a food additive,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Burdock GA |title=Safety assessment of castoreum extract as a food ingredient |journal=Int. J. Toxicol. |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=51–55 |year=2007 |pmid=17365147 |doi=10.1080/10915810601120145|s2cid=39977652 }}</ref> often referenced simply as a "[[natural flavoring]]" in the product's list of ingredients. It is used in both food and beverages,<ref name="Kennedy-2015"/> especially as vanilla and raspberry flavoring, with a total annual U.S. production of less than 300 pounds.<ref name="Kennedy-2015">{{cite news |url=http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/the-flavor-rundown-natural-vs-artificial-flavors/ |title=What's in a flavor? Vanillin dreams |last=Kennedy |first=C Rose |newspaper=Science in the News |year=2015 |series=The Flavor Rundown: Natural vs. Artificial Flavors |publisher=Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences |location=Boston, MA |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202173544/http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/the-flavor-rundown-natural-vs-artificial-flavors/ |archive-date=2 December 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Burdock|first=George A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8OyTzGGJhYC&pg=PA277|title=Fenaroli's Handbook of Flavor Ingredients|date=2004-12-03|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-3787-6|language=en}}</ref> It is also used to flavor some cigarettes and in perfume-making, and is used by fur trappers as a scent lure.

===Harvest===
Harvesting vanilla fruits is as labor-intensive as pollinating the blossoms. Immature, dark green pods are not harvested. Pale yellow discoloration that commences at the distal end of the fruits is not a good indication of the maturity of pods. Each fruit ripens at its own time, requiring a daily harvest. "Current methods for determining the maturity of vanilla (''Vanilla planifolia'' Andrews) beans are unreliable. Yellowing at the blossom end, the current index, occurs before beans accumulate maximum [[glucovanillin]] concentrations. Beans left on the vine until they turn brown have higher glucovanillin concentrations but may split and have low quality. Judging bean maturity is difficult as they reach full size soon after pollination. Glucovanillin accumulates from 20 weeks, maximum about 40 weeks after pollination. Mature green beans have 20% dry matter but less than 2% glucovanillin."<ref>{{cite journal|title=Determining the harvest maturity of vanilla beans|author1=S. Van Dyk |author2=P. Holford |author3=P. Subedi |author4=K. Walsh |author5=M. Williams |author6=W.B. McGlasson |journal=Scientia Horticulturae|volume=168|year=2014|pages=249–257|doi=10.1016/j.scienta.2014.02.002|bibcode=2014ScHor.168..249V }}</ref> The accumulation of dry matter and glucovanillin are highly correlated. To ensure the finest flavor from every fruit, each individual pod must be picked by hand just as it begins to split on the end. Overmatured fruits are likely to split, causing a reduction in market value. Its commercial value is fixed based on the length and appearance of the pod.

If the fruit is more than {{convert|15|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length, it is categorized as first-quality. The largest fruits greater than {{convert|16|cm|in|abbr=on}} and up to as much as {{convert|21|cm|in|abbr=on}} are usually reserved for the gourmet vanilla market, for sale to top chefs and restaurants. If the fruits are between 10 and 15&nbsp;cm long, pods are in the second-quality category, and fruits less than {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length are in the third-quality category. Each fruit contains thousands of tiny black vanilla seeds. Vanilla fruit yield depends on the care and management given to the hanging and fruiting vines. Any practice directed to stimulate [[aerial root]] production has a direct effect on vine productivity. A five-year-old vine can produce between {{convert|1.5|and|3|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of pods, and this production can increase up to {{convert|6|kg|lb|abbr=on}} after a few years. The harvested green fruit can be commercialized as such or cured to get a better market price.<ref name="Anilkumar 2004"/><ref name="Davis-1983"/><ref name="Elizabeth 2002"/>

===Curing===
Several methods exist in the market for curing vanilla; nevertheless, all of them consist of four basic steps: killing, sweating, slow-drying, and conditioning of the beans.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Havkin-Frenkel D, French JC, Graft NM |s2cid=90867600 |year=2004 |title=Interrelation of curing and botany in vanilla (vanilla planifolia) bean |journal=Acta Horticulturae |volume=629 |issue=629 |pages=93–102 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.629.12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Havkin-Frenkel |first1=D. |last2=French |first2=J. C. |last3=Pak |first3=F. E. |last4=Frenkel |first4=C. |year=2003 |title=Botany and curing of vanilla |journal=Journal of Aromatic Medicinal Plants}}</ref>

====Killing====
The vegetative tissue of the vanilla pod is killed to stop the vegetative growth of the pods and disrupt the cells and tissue of the fruits, which initiates [[enzymatic reaction]]s responsible for the aroma. The method of killing varies, but may be accomplished by heating in hot water, freezing, or scratching, or killing by heating in an oven or exposing the beans to direct sunlight. The different methods give different profiles of enzymatic activity.<ref name="Frenkel-2010">{{cite book |first1=Chaim |last1=Frenkel |first2=Arvind S. |last2=Ranadive |first3=Javier Tochihuitl |last3=Vázquez |first4=Daphna |last4=Havkin-Frenkel |chapter=Curing of Vanilla |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCraZokdYrkC&pg=PA79 |pages=79–106 [87] |editor1-first=Daphna |editor1-last=Havkin-Frenkel |editor2-first=Faith |editor2-last=Belanger |year=2010 |title=Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-2937-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425124132/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCraZokdYrkC&pg=PA79 |archive-date=25 April 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Arana-1944">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fjcSAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA119 |first1=Francisca E. |last1=Arana |date=October 1944 |title=Vanilla curing and its chemistry |journal=Bulletin |issue=42 |pages=1–17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427153641/https://books.google.com/books?id=fjcSAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA119 |archive-date=27 April 2016 }}</ref>

Testing has shown mechanical disruption of fruit tissues can cause curing processes,<ref>[https://patents.google.com/patent/US2621127 Methods of dehydrating and curing vanilla fruit] US Patent 2,621,127</ref> including the degeneration of glucovanillin to vanillin, so the reasoning goes that disrupting the tissues and cells of the fruit allow enzymes and [[Enzyme substrate (biology)|enzyme substrates]] to interact.<ref name="Frenkel-2010"/>

Hot-water killing may consist of dipping the pods in hot water ({{convert|63|-|65|C|F}}) for three minutes, or at {{convert|80|C|F}} for 10 seconds. In scratch killing, fruits are scratched along their length.<ref name="Arana-1944"/> Frozen or quick-frozen fruits must be thawed again for the subsequent [[#Sweating|sweating stage]]. Tied in bundles and rolled in blankets, fruits may be placed in an oven at {{convert|60|C|F}} for 36 to 48 hours. Exposing the fruits to sunlight until they turn brown, a method originating in Mexico, was practiced by the Aztecs.<ref name="Frenkel-2010"/>

====Sweating====
Sweating is a [[hydrolytic]] and [[oxidative]] process. Traditionally, it consists of keeping fruits, for 7 to 10 days, densely stacked and insulated in wool or other cloth. This retains a temperature of {{convert|45|-|65|C|F}} and high humidity. Daily exposure to the sun may also be used, or dipping the fruits in hot water. The fruits are brown and have attained much of the characteristic vanilla flavor and aroma by the end of this process, but still retain a 60–70% moisture content by weight.<ref name="Frenkel-2010"/>

====Drying====
Reduction of the beans to 25–30% moisture by weight, to prevent rotting and to lock the aroma in the pods, is always achieved by some exposure of the beans to air, and usually (and traditionally) intermittent shade and sunlight. Fruits may be laid out in the sun during the mornings and returned to their boxes in the afternoons, or spread on a wooden rack in a room for three to four weeks, sometimes with periods of sun exposure. Drying is the most problematic of the curing stages; unevenness in the drying process can lead to the loss of vanillin content of some fruits by the time the others are cured.<ref name="Frenkel-2010"/>

====Conditioning====
Conditioning is performed by storing the pods for five to six months in closed boxes, where the fragrance develops. The processed fruits are sorted, graded, bundled, and wrapped in paraffin paper and preserved for the development of desired bean qualities, especially flavor and aroma. The cured vanilla fruits contain an average of 2.5% vanillin.

===Grading===
{{See also|Food grading}}
[[File:Sambava - grading vanilla beans.jpg|thumb|Grading vanilla beans at [[Sambava]], Madagascar]]

Once fully cured, the vanilla fruits are sorted by quality and graded. Several vanilla fruit grading systems are in use. Each country which produces vanilla has its own grading system,<ref name="Havkin-Frenkel-2011">{{cite book|last=Havkin-Frenkel|first=Daphna|title=Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookvanillas00havk|url-access=limited|year=2011|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Chichester, UK|isbn=978-1-4051-9325-2|author2=Belanger, Faith C. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookvanillas00havk/page/n163 142]–145}}</ref> and individual vendors, in turn, sometimes use their own criteria for describing the quality of the fruits they offer for sale.<ref name=VanillaReview>{{cite web |url=http://www.vanillareview.com/vanilla-information/#grades |title=Vanilla |access-date=15 January 2012 |work=Vanilla Review |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308042435/http://www.vanillareview.com/vanilla-information/#grades |archive-date=8 March 2012 }}</ref> In general, vanilla fruit grade is based on the length, appearance (color, sheen, presence of any splits, presence of blemishes), and moisture content of the fruit.<ref name="Havkin-Frenkel-2011" /><ref name="Nielsen-1985">{{cite book|last=Nielsen|first=Chat Jr.|title=The Story of Vanilla|year=1985|publisher=Nielsen-Massey Vanillas|location=Chicago}}</ref> Whole, dark, plump and oily pods that are visually attractive, with no blemishes, and that have a higher moisture content are graded most highly.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vanilla|url=http://www.indianspices.com/html/spices_spfarm_vanilla.html|work=Spices Board of India|publisher=Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India|access-date=16 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027182357/http://www.indianspices.com/html/spices_spfarm_vanilla.html|archive-date=27 October 2011}}</ref> Such pods are particularly prized by chefs for their appearance and can be featured in gourmet dishes.<ref name=VanillaReview /> Beans that show localized signs of disease or other physical defects are cut to remove the blemishes; the shorter fragments left are called "cuts" and are assigned lower grades, as are fruits with lower moisture contents.<ref name="Nielsen-1985" /> Lower-grade fruits tend to be favored for uses in which the appearance is not as important, such as in the production of vanilla flavoring extract and in the fragrance industry.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

Higher-grade fruits command higher prices in the market.<ref name="Havkin-Frenkel-2011" /><ref name="Nielsen-1985" /> However, because grade is so dependent on visual appearance and moisture content, fruits with the highest grade do not necessarily contain the highest concentration of characteristic flavor molecules such as vanillin,<ref name="Binggeli-2008">{{cite book|title="Vanilla Bean Quality – A Flavour Industry View" in Expression of Multidisciplinary Flavour Science: Proceedings of the 12th Weurman Symposium (Interlaken, Switzerland 2008)|year=2008|publisher=Zürich University of Applied Sciences|location=Wädensil, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-905745-19-1 |author1=K. Gassenheimer|author2=E. Binggeli |editor=Imre Blank |editor2=Matthias Wüst |editor3=Chahan Yeretzian|pages=203–206}}</ref> and are not necessarily the most flavorful.<ref name=VanillaReview />

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Example of a vanilla fruit grading system, used in Madagascar<ref name="Havkin-Frenkel-2011" /><ref>{{cite web|title=LFIE Vanilla Products|url=http://www.vanille-lfie.com/|work=Lopat Frederic Import Export|access-date=16 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308020556/http://www.vanille-lfie.com/|archive-date=8 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Vanilla Bourbon|url=http://spezie-online.it/en/products/vanilla-bourbon|publisher=SA. VA. Import – Export|access-date=16 January 2012}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Vanilla Products|url=http://www.gascartrading.com/8601.html|publisher=Gascar Trading Company|access-date=16 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114045827/http://gascartrading.com/8601.html|archive-date=14 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Vanilla Bean Products|url=http://www.21food.com/showroom/505673/product/vanilla-bean.html|publisher=Vanexco|access-date=16 January 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120181613/http://www.21food.com/showroom/505673/product/vanilla-bean.html|archive-date=20 January 2013}}</ref>
|-
! Grade !! Color !! Appearance / feel !! Approximate<br/>moisture content†
|-
| Black || dark brown to black || supple with oily luster || > 30%
|-
| TK (Brown, or Semi-Black) || dark brown to black sometimes with a few red streaks || like Black but drier/stiffer || 25–30%
|-
| Red Fox (European quality) || brown with reddish variegation || a few blemishes || 25%
|-
| Red American quality || brown with reddish variegation || similar to European red but more blemishes and drier/stiffer || 22–25%
|-
| Cuts || short, cut, and often split fruits, typically with substandard aroma and color || ||
|}
† ''moisture content varies among sources cited''
[[File:Vanillanice-Madagascar-vanilla-grading.png|alt=vanilla-grading in Madagascar|center|thumb|300x300px|vanilla-grading in Madagascar]]
A simplified, alternative grading system has been proposed for classifying vanilla fruits suitable for use in cooking:<ref name=VanillaReview />

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Simplified vanilla fruit grading system for cooks
| Grade A / <br/>Grade I || 15&nbsp;cm and longer, 100–120 fruits per pound || Also called "Gourmet" or "Prime". 30–35% moisture content.
|-
| Grade B / <br/>Grade II || 10–15&nbsp;cm, 140–160 fruits per pound || Also called "Extract fruits". 15–25% moisture content.
|-
| Grade C / <br/>Grade III || 10&nbsp;cm ||
|}

Under this scheme, vanilla extract is normally made from Grade B fruits.<ref name=VanillaReview />

{{Table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable floatright col2right"
|+ Vanilla production <br />{{small|2023, tonnes}}
|-
| {{MDG}} || 3,113
|-
| {{IDN}} || 1,833
|-
| {{MEX}} || 508
|-
| {{PNG}} || 491
|-
| {{CHN}} || 434
|-
| '''World''' || '''7,433'''
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]]<br> of the [[United Nations]]}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=Raw vanilla production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=24 May 2025}}</ref>
|}

==Production==
In 2023, world production of raw vanilla was 7,433 [[tonne]]s, led by [[Madagascar]] with 42% of the total and [[Indonesia]] with 25% (table).

==Uses==
[[File:Pure Vanilla Powder.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|A vanilla powder preparation made from sucrose and vanilla bean extracts]]
[[File:Rhum arrangé Madagascar.jpg|thumb|center|upright=2.0|Vanilla rum, [[Madagascar]]]]

The four main commercial preparations of natural vanilla are:

* Whole pod
* Powder (ground pods, kept pure or blended with sugar, starch, or other ingredients)<ref>The [[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] [http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=169.179 requires at least 12.5% of pure vanilla (ground pods or oleoresin) in the mixture] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060929120807/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=169.179 |date=29 September 2006 }}</ref>
* [[vanilla extract|Extract]] (in alcoholic or occasionally [[glycerol]] solution; both pure and imitation forms of vanilla contain at least 35% alcohol)<ref>The [[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] [https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=169.3 requires at least 35% vol. of alcohol and 13.35&nbsp;ounces of pod per gallon] </ref>
* [[Vanilla sugar]], a packaged mix of sugar and vanilla extract

Vanilla flavoring in food may be achieved by adding vanilla extract or by cooking vanilla pods in the liquid preparation. A stronger aroma may be attained if the pods are split in two, exposing more of a pod's surface area to the liquid. In this case, the pods' seeds are mixed into the preparation. Natural vanilla gives a brown or yellow color to preparations, depending on the concentration. Good-quality vanilla has a strong, aromatic flavor, but food with small amounts of low-quality vanilla or artificial vanilla-like flavorings are far more common, since true vanilla is much more expensive.

Regarded as the world's most popular aroma and flavor,<ref name="Rain-2004">{{cite book|author=Rain, Patricia|title=Vanilla: The Cultural History of the World's Most Popular Flavor and Fragrance|isbn=978-1-58542-363-7|publisher=Tarcher|year=2004|url=https://archive.org/details/vanillaculturalh00rain}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Le Cordon Bleu Cuisine Foundations | page = 213 | isbn = 978-1-4354-8137-4 | author = Le Cordon Bleu | author-link = Le Cordon Bleu | publisher = Cengage learning | year = 2009}}</ref><ref name="Parthasarathy-2008">{{cite book | title = Chemistry of Spices | last1 = Parthasarathy | first1 = V. A. | last2 = Chempakam | first2 = Bhageerathy | last3 = Zachariah | first3 = T. John | isbn = 978-1-84593-405-7 | publisher = [[CAB International|CABI]] | year = 2008 | page = 2}}</ref> vanilla is a widely used aroma and flavor compound for foods, beverages and cosmetics, as indicated by its popularity as an [[ice cream]] flavor (as of 2004, around half of vanilla flavor consumed in the US was eaten in ice cream).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.idfa.org/news-views/news-releases/article/2013/07/23/vanilla-remains-top-ice-cream-flavor-with-americans|title=Vanilla remains top ice cream flavor with Americans |publisher=International Dairy Foods Association, Washington, DC|date=23 July 2013|access-date=29 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916103845/http://www.idfa.org/news-views/news-releases/article/2013/07/23/vanilla-remains-top-ice-cream-flavor-with-americans|archive-date=16 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |author-link=Harold McGee |title=[[On Food and Cooking]] |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner]] |year=2004 |isbn=1-4165-5637-0 |location=New York |page=433}}</ref> Although vanilla is a prized flavoring agent on its own, it is also used to enhance the flavor of other substances, to which its own flavor is often complementary, such as [[chocolate]], [[custard]], [[caramel]], [[coffee]], and others. Vanilla is a common ingredient in Western sweet [[baked goods]], such as [[cookies]] and [[cake]]s.<ref name="Parthasarathy-2008"/><ref name="Zhu-2018"/> Despite the expense, vanilla is highly valued for its flavor.<ref>{{cite book | title = The Book of Spices | last1 = Rosengarten | first1 = Frederic | publisher = Pyramid Books | year = 1973 | isbn = 978-0-515-03220-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/bookofspices00fred }}</ref>

The food industry uses [[vanillin|methyl and ethyl vanillin]] as less-expensive substitutes for real vanilla. Ethyl vanillin is more expensive, but has a stronger [[note (perfumery)|note]]. ''[[Cook's Illustrated]]'' ran several taste tests pitting vanilla against vanillin in baked goods and other applications, and to the consternation of the magazine editors, tasters could not differentiate the flavor of vanillin from vanilla;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooksillustrated.com/tastetests/overview.asp?docid=18889 |title=Pure versus Imitation Vanilla Extract |publisher=Cooks Illustrated |date=1 March 2009 |access-date=30 April 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130505092901/http://www.cooksillustrated.com/tastetests/overview.asp?docid=18889 |archive-date=5 May 2013 }}</ref> however, for the case of vanilla ice cream, natural vanilla won out.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooksillustrated.com/tastetests/overview.asp?docid=23742 |title=Tasting lab: Vanilla Ice Cream |publisher=Cooks Illustrated |date=1 May 2010 |access-date=30 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510034538/http://www.cooksillustrated.com/tastetests/overview.asp?docid=23742 |archive-date=10 May 2013 }}</ref> A more recent and thorough test by the same group produced a more interesting variety of results; namely, high-quality artificial vanilla flavoring is best for cookies, while high-quality real vanilla is slightly better for cakes and significantly better for unheated or lightly heated foods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cooksillustrated.com/tastetests/overview.asp?docid=18889|title=Vanilla Extract|date=1 March 2009|access-date=19 June 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627131955/http://www.cooksillustrated.com/tastetests/overview.asp?docid=18889|archive-date=27 June 2012}}</ref>

The liquid extracted from vanilla pods was once believed to have medical properties, helping with various stomach ailments.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Vanilla|last = Jaucourt|first = Louis|date = 1765|journal = Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers|hdl = 2027/spo.did2222.0000.830}}</ref>

==Contact dermatitis==
[[File:Blausen 0014 AllergicDermatitis.png|thumb|Illustration of allergic contact dermatitis]]

The sap of most species of vanilla orchid which exudes from cut stems or where beans are harvested can cause moderate to severe dermatitis if it comes in contact with bare skin. The sap of vanilla orchids contains [[calcium oxalate]] crystals, which are thought to be the main causative agent of [[contact dermatitis]] in vanilla plantation workers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:262578-2|title=Vanilla planifolia Andrews – Plants of the World Online – Kew Science|website=powo.science.kew.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122013549/http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:262578-2|archive-date=22 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{PFAF |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033211/http://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Vanilla+planifolia |archivedate=1 December 2017}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Vanilla plantation dsc01187.jpg|A vanilla planting in an open field on Réunion
File:Vanilla plantation in shader dsc01168.jpg|A vanilla planting in a "shader" (''ombrière'') on Réunion
File:Vanilla_planifolia_1.jpg|Flower
File:Vanilla fragrans 2.jpg|Green fruits
</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[Vanilla extract]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Ecott, Tim (2004). ''Vanilla: Travels in Search of the Luscious Substance''. London: Penguin, New York: Grove Atlantic.
* Jennings, Eric T. (2025). ''Vanilla: The History of an Extraordinary Bean''. New Haven: Yale University Press. 
* Rain, Patricia (2004). ''Vanilla: The Cultural History of the World's Favorite Flavor and Fragrance''. New York: J. P. Tarcher/Penguin.
* {{Cite book |last=Sampeck |first=Kathryn E |title=Seeds: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2018 |publisher=[[Marion Boyars Publishers#Prospect Books|Prospect Books]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-909-248-65-6 |location=Great Britain |chapter=Chocolate and Vanilla: Seeds of Taste |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BmmWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA240}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|auto=1|s=y|wikt=vanilla}}
* {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Vanilla |short=x}}
* [http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:262578-2 Kew Species Profile: ''Vanilla planifolia'' (vanilla)]
* [http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2009/ruud_kirs/ History, Classification and Lifecycle of ''Vanilla planifolia''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225044953/http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2009/ruud_kirs/ |date=25 February 2012 }}
* [https://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/index.cfm?displayID=27 ''Spices'' at UCLA History & Special Collections]
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4397/view/1/27/ "The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the Several Powers in Europe"] by [[Thomas Kitchin]], 1778, in which Kitchin discusses vanilla
* [https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2019-economics-of-vanilla-markets-madagascar/ "Vanillanomics – Watching global market forces at work in the far reaches of Madagascar"] by ''Bloomberg Businessweek'', December 2019

{{Herbs & spices}}
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[[Category:Vanilla| ]]
[[Category:Crops originating from indigenous Americans]]
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[[Category:Crops originating from Pre-Columbian North America]]
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