View source for Vascular dementia

{{Short description|Dementia resulting from stroke}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Vascular dementia
| image = BrainAtrophy(exvacuo).png
| caption = Brain atrophy from vascular dementia
| image_size = 300px
| synonyms = Dementia due to cerebrovascular disease;<ref name="ICD11" /><br /> Vascular cognitive impairment<ref name="iadecola">{{cite journal |vauthors=Iadecola C, Duering M, Hachinski V, Joutel A, Pendlebury ST, Schneider JA, Dichgans M |title = Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Dementia|journal=Journal of the American College of Cardiology |volume=73 |issue=25 |pages=3326–3344 |date=July 2019 |pmid=31248555 |pmc=6719789 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2019.04.034}}</ref>
| symptoms = [[cognitive deficit|Cognitive impairment]], short-term [[memory loss]]<ref name=nhlb/>
| complications = [[Heart disease]], loss of ability to care for self and [[social interaction|interact]], [[pneumonia]]<ref name="mlp">{{cite web |title=Vascular dementia |url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000746.htm |publisher=MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine |language=en}}</ref>
| onset = 
| duration = 
| types = 
| causes = Conditions that impair blood vessels in the brain and therefore interfere with oxygen delivery to the brain<ref name=nhlb/>
| risks = [[High blood pressure]], [[high cholesterol]], [[atrial fibrillation]], [[diabetes]]<ref name="nhlb">{{cite web |title=Vascular dementia |url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/vascular-dementia |publisher=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, US National Institutes of Health |language=en |date=28 September 2022|access-date=10 April 2024}}</ref>
| diagnosis = Lab test, neuroimaging test, neuropsychological testing<ref name="sanders">{{cite web |vauthors=Sanders AE, Schoo C, Kalish VB|title=Vascular dementia |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430817/ |publisher=StatPearls, US National Library of Medicine |access-date=9 April 2024 |date=22 October 2023|pmid=28613567 }}</ref>
| differential = [[Alzheimer's disease]]<ref name=sanders/>
| prevention = 
| treatment = [[Symptomatic treatment|Symptomatic]]<ref name=nhlb/><ref name=mlp/>
| medication = 
| prognosis = 
| frequency = 15-30% of dementia cases in the United States, Europe, and Asia<ref name=sanders/><ref name=wong/>
| deaths = 
}}

'''Vascular dementia''' is [[dementia]] caused by a series of [[stroke]]s.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=mlp/> Restricted blood flow due to strokes reduces [[oxygen]] and [[glucose]] delivery to the brain, causing cell injury and neurological deficits in the affected region.<ref name="wong">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wong CE, Chui CH |title=Vascular cognitive impairment and dementia |journal=Continuum|volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=750–780 |date=June 2022 |pmid=35678401 |pmc=9833847 |doi=10.1212/CON.0000000000001124}}</ref> Subtypes of vascular dementia include subcortical vascular dementia, multi-infarct dementia, stroke-related dementia, and mixed dementia.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=sanders/>

Subcortical vascular dementia occurs from [[small vessel disease|damage to small blood vessels]] in the brain. Multi-infarct dementia results from a series of small strokes affecting several brain regions. Stroke-related dementia involving successive small strokes causes a more gradual decline in [[cognition]].<ref name=mlp/> Dementia may occur when neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular pathologies are mixed, as in susceptible elderly people (75 years and older).<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=sanders/> Cognitive decline can be traced back to occurrence of successive strokes.<ref name=mlp/>

[[ICD-11]] lists vascular dementia as ''dementia due to cerebrovascular disease''.<ref name="ICD11">{{cite web |title=ICD-11: Dementia due to cerebrovascular disease |url=https://icd.who.int/browse/2024-01/mms/en#1365258270 |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=10 April 2024|date=2024}}</ref> [[DSM-5]] lists vascular dementia as either ''major or mild vascular neurocognitive disorder''.<ref name="DSM5">{{cite book | author = American Psychiatric Association |url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/621|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5|date=2013|publisher=American Psychiatric Association|isbn=978-0-89042-554-1|edition=5th|location=Washington, DC|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/591 591–603]}}</ref>

==Signs and symptoms==
People with vascular dementia present with progressive [[cognitive deficit|cognitive impairment]], acutely or sub-acutely as in [[mild cognitive impairment]], frequently step-wise, after multiple strokes.<ref name=sanders/> 

The disease is described as both a [[mental disorder|mental]] and [[abnormal behaviour|behavioral disorder]] within the [[ICD-11]].<ref name="ICD11A">{{cite web |title=ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics |url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/334423054 |website=icd.who.int |access-date=2022-12-09 |archive-date=2018-08-01 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/334423054 }}</ref> Signs and symptoms are cognitive, motor, behavioral, and for a significant proportion of people, also [[affect (psychology)|affective]]. These changes typically occur over a period of 5–10 years. Signs are typically the same as in other dementias, but mainly include cognitive decline and memory impairment of sufficient severity as to interfere with activities of daily living, sometimes with presence of focal neurological signs, and evidence of features consistent with cerebrovascular disease on brain imaging (CT or MRI).<ref name=mlp/><ref name=sanders/>

The neurological signs localizing to certain areas of the brain that can be observed are [[hemiparesis]], [[bradykinesia]], [[hyperreflexia]], extensor [[plantar reflex]]es, [[ataxia]], [[pseudobulbar palsy]], as well as [[gait (human)|gait]] problems and [[swallowing difficulties]]. People have patchy deficits in terms of cognitive testing. They tend to have better [[free recall]] and fewer [[Memory errors|recall intrusions]] when compared with people having [[Alzheimer's disease]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Alagiakrishnan |first1=Kannayiram |title=Vascular Dementia Clinical Presentation: History, Physical, Causes |url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/292105-clinical#b4 |website=emedicine.medscape.com |access-date=2021-03-19}}</ref> In the more severely affected people, or those affected by infarcts in [[Wernicke's area|Wernicke's]] or [[Broca's area|Broca's]] areas, specific problems with speaking called [[dysarthria]] and [[aphasia]]s may be present.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=sanders/>

In [[microangiopathy|small vessel disease]], the frontal lobes are often affected. Consequently, people with vascular dementia tend to perform worse than their Alzheimer's disease counterparts in [[frontal lobe]] tasks, such as verbal fluency, and may present with frontal lobe problems: [[apathy]], [[abulia]] (lack of will or initiative), problems with attention, orientation, and urinary incontinence. They tend to exhibit more [[Perseveration|perseverative]] behavior. People with vascular dementia may also present with general slowing of processing ability, difficulty [[Task switching (psychology)|shifting sets]], and impairment in abstract thinking. Apathy early in the disease is more suggestive of vascular dementia.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=sanders/>

Rare genetic disorders that cause vascular lesions in the brain have other presentation patterns. As a rule, they tend to occur earlier in life and have a more aggressive course. In addition, infectious disorders, such as [[syphilis]], can cause arterial damage, strokes, and bacterial inflammation of the brain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cannistraro |first1=Rocco J. |last2=Badi |first2=Mohammed |last3=Eidelman |first3=Benjamin H. |last4=Dickson |first4=Dennis W. |last5=Middlebrooks |first5=Erik H. |last6=Meschia |first6=James F. |date=2019-06-11 |title=CNS small vessel disease: A clinical review |journal=Neurology |volume=92 |issue=24 |pages=1146–1156 |doi=10.1212/WNL.0000000000007654 |issn=1526-632X |pmc=6598791 |pmid=31142635}}</ref>

==Causes==
[[File:Fcvm-08-803169-g0001.jpg|thumb|right|400px| Risk factors and clinical characteristics for vascular dementia<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mossanen Parsi |first1=M |last2=Duval |first2=C |last3=Ariëns |first3=RAS |title=Vascular dementia and crosstalk between the complement and coagulation systems |journal=Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine |date=2021 |volume=8 |article-number=803169 |doi=10.3389/fcvm.2021.803169 |pmid=35004913 |pmc=8733168|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]

Vascular dementia can be caused by ischemic or hemorrhagic [[infarct]]s affecting multiple brain areas, including the [[anterior cerebral artery]] territory, the [[parietal lobe]]s, or the [[cingulate gyrus]].<ref name=sanders/> On rare occasions, infarcts in the [[hippocampus]] or [[thalamus]] are the cause of dementia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaur |first1=Mandeep |last2=Sharma |first2=Saurabh |title=Molecular mechanisms of cognitive impairment associated with stroke |journal=Metabolic Brain Disease |date=1 February 2022 |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=279–287 |doi=10.1007/s11011-022-00901-0 |pmid=35029798 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11011-022-00901-0 |language=en |issn=1573-7365|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A history of stroke increases the risk of developing dementia by around 70%, and recent stroke increases the risk by around 120%.<ref name = "Kuźma_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuźma E, Lourida I, Moore SF, Levine DA, Ukoumunne OC, Llewellyn DJ | title = Stroke and dementia risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis | language = English | journal = Alzheimer's & Dementia | volume = 14 | issue = 11 | pages = 1416–1426 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 30177276 | pmc = 6231970 | doi = 10.1016/j.jalz.2018.06.3061 }}</ref> Brain vascular lesions can also be the result of diffuse [[cerebrovascular disease]], such as [[microvascular disease|small vessel disease]].<ref name=sanders/>

===Risk factors===
{{seealso|Brain health and pollution#Cognitive decline and dementia}}
[[Risk factor (epidemiology)|Risk factor]]s for vascular dementia include increasing age, [[hypertension]], smoking, [[hypercholesterolemia]], [[diabetes mellitus]], [[cardiovascular disease]], and [[cerebrovascular disease]].<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=sanders/> Other risk factors include lifestyle, geographic origin, and [[Apolipoprotein E#Polymorphisms|APOE-ε4]] [[genotype]].<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=sanders/>

Vascular dementia can sometimes be triggered by [[cerebral amyloid angiopathy]], which involves accumulation of [[amyloid beta]] plaques in the walls of the cerebral arteries, leading to breakdown and rupture of the vessels.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=sanders/> Since amyloid plaques are a characteristic feature of [[Alzheimer's disease]], vascular dementia may occur as a consequence.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=wong/>

==Diagnosis==
Several specific diagnostic criteria can be used to diagnose vascular dementia, including the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) criteria, the [[International Classification of Diseases]], Tenth Edition (ICD-10) criteria, the [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] criteria, Association Internationale pour la Recherche et l'Enseignement en Neurosciences (NINDS-AIREN) criteria, the Alzheimer's Disease Diagnostic and Treatment Center criteria, and the Hachinski Ischemic Score (after [[Vladimir Hachinski]]).<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=wong/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Louise |last2=Tang |first2=Eugene |last3=Taylor |first3=John-Paul |title=Dementia: timely diagnosis and early intervention |journal=BMJ |date=16 June 2015 |volume=350 |article-number=h3029 |doi=10.1136/bmj.h3029 |pmid=26079686 |pmc=4468575 |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/350/bmj.h3029.abstract |language=en |issn=1756-1833}}</ref>

The recommended investigations for cognitive impairment include: blood tests (for anemia, vitamin deficiency, thyrotoxicosis, infection, among others), chest X-ray, [[ECG]], and neuroimaging, preferably a scan with a functional or metabolic sensitivity beyond a simple CT or MRI.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=mlp/> When available as a diagnostic tool, [[single photon emission computed tomography]] (SPECT) and [[positron emission tomography]] (PET) neuroimaging may be used to confirm a diagnosis of multi-infarct dementia in conjunction with evaluations involving [[mental status examination]].<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=mlp/><ref name=wong/> 

In a person already having dementia, SPECT appears to be superior in differentiating multi-infarct dementia from Alzheimer's disease, compared to the usual mental testing and [[medical history]] analysis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Engelhardt |first1=E |last2=Tocquer |first2=C |last3=André |first3=C |last4=Moreira |first4=DM |last5=Okamoto |first5=IH |last6=Cavalcanti |first6=JLS |last7=Working Group on Alzheimer's Disease and Vascular Dementia of the Brazilian Academy of |first7=Neurology |title=Vascular dementia: Diagnostic criteria and supplementary exams. Recommendations of the Scientific Department of Cognitive Neurology and Aging of the Brazilian Academy of Neurology. Part I. |journal=Dementia & Neuropsychologia |date=October 2011 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=251–263 |doi=10.1590/S1980-57642011DN05040003 |pmid=29213752 |pmc=5619038}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=April 2024}}

The screening blood tests typically include [[full blood count]], [[liver function tests]], [[thyroid function tests]], lipid profile, [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]], [[C reactive protein]], [[syphilis]] serology, calcium serum level, fasting glucose, [[urea]], [[electrolytes]], [[vitamin B-12]], and [[folate]].<ref name=mlp/><ref name=wong/>

===Differential diagnosis===
Differentiating dementia syndromes can be challenging, due to the frequently overlapping clinical features and related underlying pathology. [[Mixed dementia]], involving two types of dementia, can occur. In particular, [[Alzheimer's disease]] often co-occurs with vascular dementia.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=sanders/>

Mixed dementia is diagnosed when people have evidence of [[Alzheimer's disease]] and cerebrovascular disease, either clinically or based on neuro-imaging evidence of ischemic lesions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Custodio|first1=Nilton|last2=Montesinos|first2=Rosa|last3=Lira|first3=David|last4=Herrera-Pérez|first4=Eder|last5=Bardales|first5=Yadira|last6=Valeriano-Lorenzo|first6=Lucía|date=2017|title=Mixed dementia: A review of the evidence|journal=Dementia & Neuropsychologia|volume=11|issue=4|pages=364–370|doi=10.1590/1980-57642016dn11-040005|issn=1980-5764|pmc=5769994|pmid=29354216}}</ref>

===Pathology===
Gross examination of the brain may reveal noticeable lesions and damage to blood vessels.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=wong/> Accumulation of various substances such as lipid deposits and clotted blood appear on microscopic views. The [[white matter]] is substantially affected, with noticeable atrophy (tissue loss), in addition to calcification of the arteries.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=wong/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hase |first1=Yoshiki |last2=Horsburgh |first2=Karen |last3=Ihara |first3=Masafumi |last4=Kalaria |first4=Raj N. |title=White matter degeneration in vascular and other ageing-related dementias |journal=Journal of Neurochemistry |year=2018 |volume=144 |issue=5 |pages=617–633 |doi=10.1111/jnc.14271 |pmid=29210074 |s2cid=33778577 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/780992bd-e933-4715-8099-c4d463070a58 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Microinfarcts may also be present in the gray matter (cerebral cortex), sometimes in large numbers.<ref name=iadecola/>

Although [[atheroma]] of the major cerebral arteries is typical in vascular dementia, smaller vessels and arterioles are mainly affected.<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=wong/>

==Prevention==
Early detection and accurate diagnosis are important, as vascular dementia is at least partially preventable. [[brain ischemia|Ischemic changes in the brain]] are irreversible, but the person with vascular dementia can demonstrate periods of stability or even mild improvement.<ref name="VaD textbook">{{cite book|last1=Erkinjuntti|first1=Timo|editor4-first=John|editor4-last=Geddes|editor3-first=Juan|editor3-last=Lopez-Ibor|editor2-first=Nancy|editor2-last=Andreasen|editor1-first=Michael|editor1-last=Gelder|title=New Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry|date=February 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-969675-8|edition=2|url=http://oxfordmedicine.com/view/10.1093/med/9780199696758.001.0001/med-9780199696758-chapter-48|access-date=2015-09-07|doi=10.1093/med/9780199696758.001.0001}}</ref> Since stroke is an essential part of vascular dementia,<ref name = "Kuźma_2018" /> the goal is to prevent new strokes. This is attempted through reduction of stroke risk factors, such as [[hypertension|high blood pressure]], [[hyperlipidemia|high blood lipid levels]], [[atrial fibrillation]], or [[diabetes mellitus]].<ref name=iadecola/><ref name=sanders/> 

Medications for high blood pressure are used to prevent pre-stroke dementia.<ref name="sant">{{cite journal |vauthors=Santisteban MM, Iadecola C, Carnevale D |title=Hypertension, neurovascular dysfunction, and cognitive impairment |journal=Hypertension |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=22–34 |date=January 2023 |pmid=36129176 |pmc=9742151 |doi=10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.122.18085}}</ref> These medications include [[angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor]]s, [[diuretic]]s, [[calcium channel blocker]]s, sympathetic nerve inhibitors, [[angiotensin II receptor antagonist]]s or [[adrenergic antagonist]]s.{{medcn|date=April 2024}}

A 2023 review found that therapy with [[statin]] drugs was ineffective in treating or preventing stroke or dementia in people without a history of cerebrovascular disease.<ref name="goldstein">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goldstein LB, Toth PP, Dearborn-Tomazos JL, Giugliano RP, Hirsh BJ, Peña JM, Selim MH, Woo D|title=Aggressive LDL-C Lowering and the Brain: Impact on Risk for Dementia and Hemorrhagic Stroke: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association |journal=Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology |volume=43 |issue=10 |pages=e404–e442 |date=October 2023 |pmid=37706297 |doi=10.1161/ATV.0000000000000164|url=https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/ATV.0000000000000164}}</ref>

==Treatment==
As of 2025, there are no medications used specifically for prevention or treatment of vascular dementia.<ref name=mlp/><ref name=nhlb/> However, medicines and other therapies can be used to slow progression of the disease.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-10-23 |title=Vascular dementia |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vascular-dementia/treatment/ |access-date=2025-09-25 |website=[[National Health Service]] |language=en}}</ref>

==Prognosis==
Many studies have been conducted to determine average survival of people with dementia. The studies were frequently small and limited, which caused contradictory results in the connection of mortality to the type of dementia and the person's gender. One 2015 study found that the one-year mortality was three to four times higher in people after their first referral to a day clinic for dementia, when compared to the general population.<ref name="van de vorst prognosis">{{cite journal | vauthors = van de Vorst IE, Vaartjes I, Geerlings MI, Bots ML, Koek HL | title = Prognosis of patients with dementia: results from a prospective nationwide registry linkage study in the Netherlands | journal = BMJ Open | volume = 5 | issue = 10 | article-number = e008897 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26510729 | pmc = 4636675 | doi = 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008897 }} {{open access}}</ref> If the person was hospitalized for dementia, the mortality was even higher than in people hospitalized for [[cardiovascular disease]].<ref name="van de vorst prognosis" />  Vascular dementia was found to have either comparable or worse survival rates when compared to Alzheimer's disease;<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Villarejo A, Benito-León J, Trincado R, Posada IJ, Puertas-Martín V, Boix R, Medrano MR, Bermejo-Pareja F | title = Dementia-associated mortality at thirteen years in the NEDICES Cohort Study | journal = Journal of Alzheimer's Disease | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 543–51 | date = 2011 | pmid = 21694455 | doi = 10.3233/JAD-2011-110443 }}</ref> another 2014 study found that the prognosis for people with vascular dementia was worse for male and older people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Garcia-Ptacek S, Farahmand B, Kåreholt I, Religa D, Cuadrado ML, Eriksdotter M | title = Mortality risk after dementia diagnosis by dementia type and underlying factors: a cohort of 15,209 patients based on the Swedish Dementia Registry | journal = Journal of Alzheimer's Disease | volume = 41 | issue = 2 | pages = 467–77 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24625796 | doi = 10.3233/JAD-131856 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Vascular dementia may be a direct cause of death due to the possibility of a fatal interruption in the brain's blood supply.<ref name="RCP">{{cite web |url=https://www.rcpath.org/profession/medical-examiners/good-practice-series.html |title=Good Practice Series No 11- MEs and Dementia |page = 8|vauthors = Fletcher, A|date= June 2023 |website= The Royal College of Pathologists|publisher= |access-date=March 19, 2024 }}</ref>

==Epidemiology==
Vascular dementia is the second-most-common form of dementia after [[Alzheimer's disease]] in older adults.<ref name=mlp/> The [[prevalence]] of the illness is 1.5% in Western countries and approximately 2.2% in Japan. It accounts for 50% of all dementias in Japan, 20% to 40% in Europe and 15% in Latin America. 25% of people with stroke develop new-onset dementia within one year of their stroke. One study found that in the United States, the prevalence of vascular dementia in all people over the age of 71 is 2.43%, and another found that the prevalence of the dementias doubles with every 5.1 years of age.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}} 

The incidence peaks between the fourth and the seventh decades of life and 80% of people have a history of [[hypertension]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolters |first1=Frank J. |last2=Ikram |first2=M Arfan |title=Epidemiology of Vascular Dementia |journal=Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology |year=2019 |volume=39 |issue=8 |pages=1542–1549 |publisher=Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol |doi=10.1161/ATVBAHA.119.311908 |pmid=31294622 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=April 2024}}

A 2018 [[meta-analysis]] identified 36 studies of prevalent stroke (1.9 million participants) and 12 studies of incident stroke (1.3 million participants).<ref name = "Kuźma_2018" /> For prevalent stroke, the pooled hazard ratio for all-cause dementia was 1.69; for incident stroke, the pooled risk ratio was 2.18.<ref name= "Kuźma_2018" /> Study characteristics did not modify these associations, with the exception of sex, which explained 50.2% of between-study heterogeneity for prevalent stroke. These results confirm that stroke is a strong, independent, and potentially modifiable risk factor for all-cause dementia.<ref name= "Kuźma_2018" />

==See also==
* [[Binswanger's disease]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last1=Paul | first1=Robert H. | last2=Cohen | first2=Ronald | last3=Ott | first3=Brian R. | last4=Salloway | first4=Stephen | title=Vascular Dementia: Cerebrovascular Mechanisms and Clinical Management | publisher=Humana Press | year=2005 | location=Totowa, NJ | doi=10.1385/1592598242 | isbn=978-1-58829-366-4 | oclc=61115464 | lccn=2005044897 }}
* {{cite book | last1=Wahlund | first1=Lars-Olof | last2=Erkinjuntti | first2=Timo | last3=Gauthier | first3=Serge | title=Vascular Cognitive Impairment in Clinical Practice | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2009 | location=Cambridge | doi=10.1017/CBO9780511605425 | doi-broken-date=25 July 2025 | isbn=978-0-521-87537-0 | oclc=22528592 | lccn=2008039237 }}
* {{cite book | last1=Brenna | first1=R. | last2=Tagg | first2=A. | last3=Silknitter | first3=S. | title=Activities for the Family Caregiver: Vascular Dementia – How to Engage/How to Live | publisher=R.O.S. Therapy Systems | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-943285-18-1 |  url=https://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/Alzheimers/VDBookList.pdf }}
{{refend}}
* {{commons category-inline}}
* {{Wikidata-inline}}
{{Mental and behavioural disorders|selected = neurological}}
{{CNS diseases of the nervous system}}
{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB=8393
| ICD11           = {{ICD11|6D81}}
| ICD10={{ICD10|F|01|1|f|00}}
| ICD9={{ICD9|290.4}}
| MedlinePlus=000746
| eMedicineSubj=med
| eMedicineTopic=3150
| eMedicine_mult={{eMedicine2|neuro|227}}
| MeshID=D015161
}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cognitive disorders]]
[[Category:Dementia]]
[[Category:Learning disabilities]]
[[Category:Mental disorders due to brain damage]]