View source for Vietnam

{{Short description|Country in Southeast Asia}}
{{About|the country|other uses|Vietnam (disambiguation)}}
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{{Use British English|date=September 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
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{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Socialist Republic of Vietnam
| common_name            = Vietnam
| native_name            = {{native name|vi|Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt&nbsp;Nam}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Vietnam.svg
| image_coat             = Emblem of Vietnam.svg
| symbol_type            = Emblem
| national_motto         = {{native phrase|vi|Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc|paren=omit}}
| englishmotto           = "Independence – Freedom – Happiness"
| national_anthem        = {{lang|vi|[[Tiến Quân Ca|Tiến quân ca]]}}<br />"The Song of the Marching Troops"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Quoc ca Viet Nam.ogg]]}}
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:Vietnam (orthographic projection).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Vietnam ASEAN.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show ASEAN|default=1}}
| map_caption            = {{map caption |location_color= green |region= [[Southeast Asia]] |region_color= none}}
| capital                = [[Hanoi]]
| coordinates            = {{coord|21|2|N|105|51|E|type:city}}
| largest_settlement     = [[Ho Chi Minh City]]<br />{{coord|10|48|N|106|39|E|type:city}}
| largest_settlement_type = city {{normal|by urban population}}
| admin_center_type      = Largest city {{normal|by municipal boundary}}
| admin_center           = [[Da Nang]]<br />{{coord|16|20|N|107|35|E|type:city}}
| languages_type         = Official language
| languages              = [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]<ref name="Vietnam"/>
| ethnic_groups          = {{vunblist
 | 85.32% [[Kinh Vietnamese]]
 | 14.68% [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam|other]]{{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}}}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2019
| religion               = {{unbulleted list |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |86.32% [[Irreligion|no religion]] / [[Vietnamese folk religion|folk]] |6.1% [[Catholic Church in Vietnam|Catholicism]]|4.79% [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Buddhism]]|1.02% [[Hòa Hảo|Hoahaoism]] |1% [[Protestantism in Vietnam|Protestantism]]  |0.58% [[Caodaism]]  |0.07% [[Islam]] |0.12% [[Religion in Vietnam|other]]{{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}}}}{{efn|The census data was also cited in the United States Department of State's 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom regarding Vietnam. However, the report indicated that this figure did not include the potentially significant number of individuals who engage in Buddhist practices to a certain extent without formally participating in a Buddhist religious group.<ref>{{cite report |date=2022 |title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Vietnam |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/vietnam/ |publisher=Office of International Religious Freedom, United States Department of State|access-date=11 February 2024|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211024605/https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/vietnam/ |archive-date=11 February 2024}}</ref> An earlier United States Department of State report from 2019 revealed that 26.4 per cent of the population identified with an organised religion. This breakdown included 14.9 per cent identifying as Buddhist, 7.4 per cent as Roman Catholic, 1.5 per cent as Hòa Hảo Buddhist, 1.2 per cent as Cao Đài, and 1.1 per cent as Protestant. The remainder did not identify with any religious group or observed beliefs such as animism or the reverence of ancestors, tutelary and protective saints, national heroes, or esteemed local figures.<ref>Vietnam Government Committee for Religious Affairs, 2018, cited in {{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-report-on-international-religious-freedom/vietnam/|title=2019 Report on International Religious Freedom: Vietnam|publisher=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=12 October 2020|archive-date=26 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926185352/https://www.state.gov/reports/2019-report-on-international-religious-freedom/vietnam/|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| religion_year          = 2019
| demonym                = [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]]<br />Viet (colloquial)
| government_type        = Unitary [[communist state]]
| leader_title1          = [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam|General Secretary]]{{efn|The most powerful political position is [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam]], not [[President of Vietnam|President]]. The general secretary controls the [[Politburo of the Communist Party of Vietnam|Politburo]] and the [[Secretariat of the Communist Party of Vietnam|Secretariat]], Vietnam's top decision-making bodies, making the officeholder the ''de facto'' leader of Vietnam.}}
| leader_name1           = [[Tô Lâm]]
| leader_title2          = [[President of Vietnam|President]]
| leader_name2           = [[Lương Cường]]
| leader_title3          = [[Prime Minister of Vietnam|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3           = [[Phạm Minh Chính]]
| leader_title4          = [[Chairman of the National Assembly of Vietnam|National Assembly Chairman]]
| leader_name4           = [[Trần Thanh Mẫn]]
| legislature            = [[National Assembly of Vietnam|National Assembly]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of Vietnam|Formation]]
| sovereignty_note       = 
| established_event1     = [[Văn Lang]]
| established_date1      = 7th century BC
| established_event2     = [[Âu Lạc]]
| established_date2      = 3rd century BC
| established_event3     = [[Han conquest of Nanyue|Han's annexation]]
| established_date3      = 111 BC
| established_event4     = [[Ngô dynasty|Independence from China]]
| established_date4      = 939
| established_event5     = [[Lê dynasty|Regaining independence]]
| established_date5      = 1428
| established_event6     = [[Nguyễn dynasty|Nguyễn]]'s unification
| established_date6      = 1802
| established_event7     = [[Treaty of Huế (1883)|Protectorate Treaty]]
| established_date7      = 25 August 1883
| established_event8     = [[Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam|Declaration of Independence]]
| established_date8      = 2 September 1945
| established_event9     = [[1954 Geneva Conference|North–South partition]]
| established_date9      = 21 July 1954
| established_event10    = [[Fall of Saigon|End of Vietnam War]]
| established_date10     = 30 April 1975
| established_event11    = [[National Assembly of Vietnam#Since 1976|Reunification]]
| established_date11     = 2 July 1976
| established_event12    = {{lang|vi|[[Đổi Mới]]|italic=no}}
| established_date12     = 18 December 1986
| established_event13    = [[Constitution of Vietnam#Current constitution|Current constitution]]
| established_date13     = 28 November 2013{{efn|In effect since 1 January 2014{{sfn|''Viet Nam News''|2014}}}}
| area_km2               = 331,344.82<ref name="area_2022">{{cite act|index=3048/QĐ-BTNMT|title=Phê duyệt và công bố kết quả thống kê diện tích đất đai năm 2022|language=vi|trans-title=Approval and announcement of land area statistics for 2022|url=https://monre.gov.vn/VanBan/Lists/VanBanChiDao/Attachments/3012/3048-qd-btnmt_Signed.pdf|legislature=[[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Vietnam)]]|date=18 October 2023|type=Decision}}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>{{efn|The area of Vietnam mentioned here is based on the land area statistics provided by the Vietnamese government. However, alternative figures exist. According to the CIA World Factbook, Vietnam's total area is 331,210 square kilometres,<ref name="Vietnam">{{cite web |title=Vietnam |date=17 January 2024 |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/vietnam/ |access-date=23 January 2024 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-date=10 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610173010/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/vietnam/ |url-status=live}}</ref> while the BBC cites a slightly different measurement of 331,699 square kilometres.<ref name="Vietnam country profile">{{cite web |title=Vietnam country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16567315 |website=BBC News |access-date=27 January 2021 |date=24 February 2020 |archive-date=28 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528080124/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16567315 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| area_rank              = 66th
| area_sq_mi             = 
| percent_water          = 6.38
| population_estimate    = 100,300,000<ref name="gso-pop">{{cite report |date=29 December 2023 |title=Socio-economic situation in the fourth quarter and 2023 |url=https://www.gso.gov.vn/en/data-and-statistics/2024/02/socio-economic-situation-in-the-fourth-quarter-and-2023/ |publisher= [[General Statistics Office of Vietnam]]|access-date=12 February 2024|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212112046/https://www.gso.gov.vn/en/data-and-statistics/2024/02/socio-economic-situation-in-the-fourth-quarter-and-2023/ |archive-date=12 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author=An Chi |date=31 December 2023 |title=Dân số trung bình của Việt Nam năm 2023 đạt 100,3 triệu người |trans-title=Vietnam's Average Population Reaches 100.3 Million People in 2023 |url=https://nhandan.vn/dan-so-trung-binh-cua-viet-nam-nam-2023-dat-1003-trieu-nguoi-post789936.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212111948/https://nhandan.vn/dan-so-trung-binh-cua-viet-nam-nam-2023-dat-1003-trieu-nguoi-post789936.html |archive-date=12 February 2024 |access-date=12 February 2024 |work=[[Nhân Dân]] |language=vi}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2023
| population_estimate_rank = 15th
| population_census      = 96,208,984{{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}}
| population_census_year = 2019
| population_density_km2 = 298
| population_density_sq_mi = 770
| population_density_rank = 49th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $1.786 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.VN" >{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april/weo-report?c=582,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2024&ey=2030&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 23rd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $17,484<ref name="IMFWEO.VN" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 104th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $490.970&nbsp;billion<ref name="IMFWEO.VN" />
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 33rd
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $4,806<ref name="IMFWEO.VN" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 119th
| Gini                   = 36.1 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year              = 2022
| Gini_change            = decrease
| Gini_ref               = <ref>{{cite web|title=Gini index - Viet Nam|publisher=[[World Bank Group]]|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=VN|access-date=17 October 2018|archive-date=27 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927073033/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=VN|url-status=live}}</ref>
| Gini_rank              = 
| HDI                    = 0.766<!--number only-->
| HDI_year               = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change             = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="UNHDR">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 93rd
| currency               = [[Vietnamese đồng]] (₫)
| currency_code          = VND
| time_zone              = [[UTC+07:00|Vietnam Standard Time]]
| utc_offset             = +07:00
| utc_offset_DST         = 
| time_zone_DST          = 
| drives_on              = right
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Vietnam|+84]]
| cctld                  = [[.vn]]
| today                  = 
}}
{{Contains special characters|Vietnamese}}

'''Vietnam''',{{efn|{{langx|vi|Việt Nam}} {{IPA|vi|vîət nāːm||Vietnam.ogg|help=no}}}}{{efn|The spelling "Viet Nam" or the full marked-Vietnamese form "Việt Nam" is sometimes used in English by local and government-operated media. "Viet Nam" is, in fact, formally designated and recognised by the [[Government of Vietnam]], the [[United Nations]] and the [[International Organization for Standardization]] as the standardised country name. See also [[Names of Vietnam#Other spellings|other spellings]].}} officially the '''Socialist Republic of Vietnam''' ('''SRV'''),{{efn|{{langx|vi|Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam}}}}{{efn|Also seen with the alternate spelling as ''Socialist Republic of Viet Nam'', or ''Socialist Republic of Việt Nam''.}} is a country at the eastern edge of [[Mainland Southeast Asia]]. With an area of about {{Convert|331000|km2|sqmi}} and a population of over 100&nbsp;million, it is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by population|15th-most populous country]]. One of two [[communist state]]s in [[Southeast Asia]],{{efn|The other one being [[Laos]].}}  Vietnam is bordered by [[China]] to the north, [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]] to the west, the [[Gulf of Thailand]] to the southwest, and the [[South China Sea]] to the east; it also shares [[Maritime boundary|maritime border]]s with [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Indonesia]] to the south and southwest, the [[Philippines]] to the east, and China to the northeast. Its capital is [[Hanoi]], while its [[List_of_cities_in_Vietnam#Largest_cities_by_population|largest city]] is [[Ho Chi Minh City]].

Vietnam was inhabited by the [[Paleolithic]] age, with states established in the first millennium BC on the [[Red River Delta]] in modern-day [[northern Vietnam]].<ref>Seah, A., & Nair, C. M. (2004). ''Vietnam''. Marshall Cavendish.</ref> The [[Han dynasty]] annexed northern and central Vietnam, which were subsequently under [[Vietnam under Chinese rule|Chinese rule]] from 111 BC until the [[Ngô dynasty|first dynasty]] emerged in 939. Successive [[List of Vietnamese dynasties|monarchical dynasties]] absorbed Chinese influences through [[Confucianism]] and [[Buddhism]], and [[Nam tiến|expanded southward]] to the [[Mekong Delta]], [[History of the Cham–Vietnamese wars|conquering]] [[Champa]]. During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Vietnam was effectively divided into two domains of [[Đàng Trong]] and [[Đàng Ngoài]]. The [[Nguyễn dynasty|Nguyễn]]—the last imperial dynasty—surrendered to [[French Third Republic|France]] in 1883. In 1887, its territory was integrated into [[French Indochina]] as three separate regions. In the immediate aftermath of [[World War II]], the [[Viet Minh]], a coalition front led by the communist revolutionary [[Ho Chi Minh]], launched the [[August Revolution]] and [[Declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam|declared]] Vietnam's independence from the [[Empire of Japan]] in 1945.

Vietnam went through [[Indochina wars|prolonged warfare]] in the 20th century. After [[French Indochina in World War II|World War II]], France returned to reclaim colonial power in the [[First Indochina War]], from which Vietnam emerged victorious in 1954. As a result of the [[1954 Geneva Conference|treaties signed]] between the Viet Minh and France, Vietnam was also separated into two parts. The [[Vietnam War]] began shortly after, between the communist [[North Vietnam]], supported by the [[Soviet Union]] and [[China in the Vietnam War|China]], and the anti-communist [[South Vietnam]], supported by the [[United States in the Vietnam War|United States]]. Upon the [[fall of Saigon|North Vietnamese victory]] in 1975, Vietnam reunified as a [[unitary state|unitary]] [[communist state]] that self-designated as a [[Socialist state (communism)|socialist state]] under the [[Communist Party of Vietnam]] (CPV) in 1976. An ineffective [[planned economy]], a trade embargo by the [[Western world|West]], and wars with [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War|Cambodia]] and [[Sino-Vietnamese War|China]] crippled the country further. In 1986, the CPV launched [[Đổi Mới|economic and political reforms]] similar to the [[Reform and opening up|Chinese economic reform]], transforming the country to a [[socialist-oriented market economy]]. The reforms facilitated Vietnamese reintegration into the [[global economy]] and [[global politics|politics]].

Vietnam is a [[developing country]] with a upper-middle-income economy. It has [[Corruption in Vietnam|high levels of corruption]], [[Censorship in Vietnam|censorship]], [[Environmental issues in Vietnam|environmental issues]], and a poor [[human rights in Vietnam|human rights record]]. It is part of international and intergovernmental institutions, including the [[ASEAN]], the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|OIF]], and the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]. It has assumed a seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]] twice.

== Etymology ==
{{Main|Names of Vietnam}}
The name {{lang|vi|Việt Nam}} ({{IPA|vi|viə̂tˀ nāːm|pron}}, [[chữ Hán]]: {{Vi-nom|{{linktext|越南}}}}), literally "Viet South", means per Vietnamese word order "Viet of the South";<ref name="Brindley 2015 p27">{{cite book|title=Ancient China and the Yue Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE|first=Erica Fox|last=Brindley|date=2015|page=27|publisher=Cambridge University Press|quote=The term "Yue" survives today in the name of the Vietnamese state (yue nan 越南, or, "Viet south") – "Viet of the South", – as the Vietnamese likely took it; or "South of the Viet" – as the Chinese likely took it}}</ref> meanwhile, per [[Classical Chinese]] word order, "Việt Nam" ambiguously means either "South of the Viet"<ref name="Brindley 2015 p27"/><ref name = "AC">{{cite journal|journal= Kiến thức ngày nay|trans-journal= Knowledge Today|number= 426|date= 10 June 2002|author= An Chi|title= Chuyện Đông chuyện Tây|trans-title= Eastern and Western Matters}} Reprinted as {{cite book|language= vi|author= An Chi|year= 2006|title= Chuyện Đông chuyện Tây|chapter= Tại sao ta không tự gọi mình là người Keo (Giao)?|trans-chapter= Why Don't We Call Ourselves Keo (Giao) People?|page= 157 of 154–158|quote= Vua Gia Long ở trong một cái thế muốn hòa hoãn nên đã chấp nhận quốc hiệu "Việt Nam" nhưng cả nhà vua lẫn dân chúng đều có thể mặc nhiên hiểu rằng Việt Nam là "nước Nam của người Việt" chứ không phải "vùng đất phía Nam đất Việt".}}</ref> or "Viet people's Southern country".<ref name = "AC"/>

A variation of the name, [[Nanyue]] (or Nam Việt, {{Vi-nom|[[wikt:南越|南越]]}}), was first documented in the 2nd century BC.{{sfn|Woods|2002|p=38}} The term "{{linktext|Việt}}" (Yue) ({{CJKV|t={{linktext|越}}|s={{linktext|越}}|p=Yuè|w=Yüeh<sup>4</sup>|cy=Yuht|v={{linktext|Việt}}}}) in [[Early Middle Chinese]] was first written using the [[logogram|logograph]] "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in [[oracle bone]] and bronze inscriptions of the late [[Shang dynasty]] ({{circa|lk=no|1200}} BC), and later as "越".{{sfn|Norman|Mei|1976}} At that time, it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.{{sfn|Meacham|1996}} In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle [[Yangtze]] were called the [[Yangyue]], a term later used for peoples further south.{{sfn|Meacham|1996}}{{efn|According to Ye Wenxian, as cited by Wan, the ethnonym of the Yue in northwestern China is not associated with that of the Yue in southeastern China.<ref>Wan, Xiang (2013) [https://www.academia.edu/3206564/A_Reevaluation_of_Early_Chinese_Script_The_Case_of_Yu%C3%A8_%E6%88%89_and_Its_Cultural_Connotations "A Reevaluation of Early Chinese Script: The Case of Yuè 戉 and Its Cultural Connotations: Speech at The First Annual Conference of Society for the Study of Early China"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719015120/https://www.academia.edu/3206564/A_Reevaluation_of_Early_Chinese_Script_The_Case_of_Yu%C3%A8_%E6%88%89_and_Its_Cultural_Connotations |date=19 July 2022 }} Slide 36 of 70</ref>}}

Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, 'Yue'/'Việt' referred to the [[Yue (state)|State of Yue]] in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.{{sfn|Norman|Mei|1976}}{{sfn|Meacham|1996}} From the 3rd century BC, the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of southern China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called [[Minyue]], [[Ouyue]], Luoyue (Vietnamese: [[Lạc Việt]]), etc., collectively called the [[Baiyue]] (Bách Việt, {{CJKV|t={{linktext|百越}}|s={{linktext|百越}}|p=Bǎiyuè|cy=Baak Yuet|v=Bách Việt|l=Hundred Yue/Viet}}).{{sfn|Norman|Mei|1976}}{{sfn|Meacham|1996}}{{sfn|Yue Hashimoto|1972|p=1}}

The term 'Baiyue'/'Bách Việt' first appeared in the book ''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' compiled around 239 BC.{{sfn|Knoblock|Riegel|2001|p=510}} By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese apparently referred to themselves as ''người Việt'' (Viet people) or ''người Nam'' (southern people).{{sfn|Lieberman|2003|p=405}}

[[File:𠊛越.png|thumb|Người Việt 𠊛越 written in chữ Nôm]]

The form {{lang|vi|Việt Nam}} ({{Vi-nom|{{linktext|越南}}}}) is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem ''[[Sấm Trạng Trình]]''. The name has also been found on 12 [[stele]]s carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in [[Haiphong|Hải Phòng]] that dates to 1558.{{sfn|Phan|1976|p=510}} In 1802, [[Nguyễn Phúc Ánh]] (who later became Emperor Gia Long) established the [[Nguyễn dynasty]]. In the second year of his rule, Gia Long asked the [[Jiaqing Emperor]] of the [[Qing dynasty]] to confer on him the title 'King of Nam Việt / Nanyue' ({{lang|zh|南越}} in Chinese character) after seizing power in Annam. Emperor Jiaqing refused because the name was related to [[Zhao Tuo]]'s Nanyue, which included the regions of [[Guangxi]] and [[Guangdong]] in southern China, so he decided to call the area "Việt Nam" instead,{{sfn|Woods|2002|p=38}}{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=932}}{{sfn|Shaofei|Guoqing|2016}} meaning per [[Classical Chinese]] word order "land to the south of the Viet land" ([[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: {{lang|vi|vùng đất phía Nam đất Việt}}) but the Vietnamese just understood "Việt Nam" as either, also per Classical Chinese word-order, "Viet people's Southern country" ([[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: {{lang|vi|nước Nam của người Việt}})<ref name = "AC"/> or even "Viet of the South", per Vietnamese word order.<ref name="Brindley 2015 p27"/> Between 1804 and 1813, the name Vietnam was used officially by Emperor Gia Long. It was revived in the early 20th century in [[Phan Bội Châu]]'s ''[[History of the Loss of Vietnam]]'', and later by the [[Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng|Vietnamese Nationalist Party]] (VNQDĐ).{{sfn|Tonnesson|Antlov|1996|p=117}} The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when the [[Empire of Vietnam|imperial government]] in [[Huế]] adopted {{lang|vi|Việt Nam}}.{{sfn|Tonnesson|Antlov|1996|p=126}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of Vietnam}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Vietnamese history}}

=== Prehistory and early history ===
Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the [[Paleolithic]] age. Stone artefacts excavated in [[Gia Lai province]] have been claimed to date to 780,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Derevianko |first1=A. P. |last2=Kandyba |first2=A. V. |last3=Nguyen |first3=Khac Su |last4=Gladyshev |first4=S. A. |last5=Nguyen |first5=Gia Doi |last6=Lebedev |first6=V. A. |last7=Chekha |first7=A. M. |last8=Rybalko |first8=A. G. |last9=Kharevich |first9=V. M. |last10=Tsybankov |first10=A. A. |title=The Discovery of a Bifacial Industry in Vietnam |journal=Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia |date=21 September 2018 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=3–21 |doi=10.17746/1563-0110.2018.46.3.003-021 |s2cid=229297187 |doi-access=free |issn=1531-832X}}</ref> based on associated find of [[tektite]]s, however this claim has been challenged because tektites are often found in archaeological sites of various ages in Vietnam.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marwick |first1=Ben |last2=Pham |first2=Son Thanh |last3=Brewer |first3=Rachel |last4=Wang |first4=Li-Ying |title=Tektite geoarchaeology in mainland Southeast Asia |journal=PCI Archaeology |date=14 August 2021 |doi=10.31235/osf.io/93fpa |s2cid=243640447 |url=https://osf.io/93fpa/ |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117221810/https://osf.io/93fpa/ |url-status=live}}</ref>  ''[[Homo erectus]]'' fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in [[Lạng Sơn province|Lạng Sơn]] and [[Nghệ An province|Nghệ An]] provinces in northern Vietnam.{{sfn|McKinney|2009}} The oldest ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of [[Middle Pleistocene]] provenance, and include isolated tooth fragments from Tham Om and Hang Hum.{{sfn|Akazawa|Aoki|Kimura|1992|p=321}}{{sfn|Rabett|2012|p=109}}{{sfn|Dennell|Porr|2014|p=41}} Teeth attributed to ''Homo sapiens'' from the [[Late Pleistocene]] have been found at Dong Can,{{sfn|Matsumura|Yoneda|Yukio|Oxenham|2008|p=12}} and from the Early [[Holocene]] at Mai Da Dieu,{{sfn|Matsumura|Lan Cuong|Kim Thuy|Anezaki|2001}}{{sfn|Oxenham|Tayles|2006|p=36}} Lang Gao{{sfn|Nguyen|1985|p=16}}{{sfn|Karlstrom|Kallen|2002|p=83}} and Lang Cuom.{{sfn|Oxenham|Buckley|2015|p=329}} Areas comprising what is now Vietnam participated in the Maritime Jade Road, as ascertained by archaeological research.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tsang |first=Cheng-hwa |date=24 January 2008 |title=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan |url=http://journals.lib.washington.edu/index.php/JIPA/article/view/11751 |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |volume=20 |doi=10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751 |doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 |issn=1835-1794}}</ref><ref>Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan's relations with the Philippines date back millennia, so it's a mystery that it's not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.</ref><ref>Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.</ref><ref>Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.</ref>

By about 1,000 BC, the development of wet-[[rice]] cultivation in the [[Ma River]] and [[Red River (Asia)|Red River]] floodplains led to the flourishing of [[Đông Sơn culture]],{{sfn|Higham|1984}}{{sfn|Nang Chung|Giang Hai|2017|p=31}} notable for its [[bronze]] casting used to make elaborate bronze [[Đông Sơn drums]].{{sfn|de Laet|Herrmann|1996|p=408}}{{sfn|Calo|2009|p=51}}{{sfn|Kiernan|2017|p=31}} This culture spread to the rest of [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], throughout the first millennium BC.{{sfn|Calo|2009|p=51}}{{sfn|Cooke|Li|Anderson|2011|p=46}}

=== Dynastic Vietnam ===
{{For timeline|Timeline of Vietnam under Chinese rule}}
[[File:Southeast Asian history - 13th century.png|thumb|[[Đại Việt]], [[Champa]], [[Khmer Empire|Angkor Empire]] and their neighbours, late 13th century]]
[[File:Nguyen Dynasty, administrative divisions map (1838).svg|thumb|Vietnam's territories around 1838, during the [[Vietnamese invasions of Cambodia|Vietnamese occupation of Cambodia]]]]
According to Vietnamese legends, the [[Hồng Bàng dynasty]] of the [[Hùng kings]], first established in 2879 BC, is considered the first state established in Vietnam (then known as Xích Quỷ and later [[Văn Lang]]).{{sfn|Pelley|2002|p=151}} Văn Lang was established by [[Lạc Việt]] tribes,{{sfn|Kiernan|2017|p=53}} who were likely a confederacy of multilingual [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] and [[Kra-Dai languages|Kra-Dai]] speakers who occupied the [[Red River Delta]] in northern Vietnam.{{sfn|Kiernan|2017|p=42}}<ref>{{citation |surname1=Kelley |given1=Liam C. |title=Vietnam at the Vanguard: New Perspectives Across Time, Space, and Community |pages=88–107 |year=2021 |editor-surname1=Gillen |editor-given1=Jamie |editor-surname2=Kelley |editor-given2=Liam C. |editor-surname3=Le |editor-given3=Ha Pahn |chapter=Competing Imagined Ancestries: The Lạc Việt, the Vietnamese, and the Zhuang |publisher=Springer Singapore |isbn=978-9-81165-055-0 |surname2=Hong |given2=Hai Dinh}}</ref>

In 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán. He consolidated the [[Lạc Việt]] and [[Âu Việt]] tribes, who came from southern China,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chapuis |first1=Oscar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jskyi00bspcC&pg=PA13 |title=A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc |date=1995-01-01 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-313-29622-2}}</ref> to form the [[Âu Lạc]], proclaiming himself [[An Dương Vương]].{{sfn|Duc Tran|Thu Ha|2000|p=8}}

In 179 BC, a Chinese general named [[Zhao Tuo]] ("Triệu Đà") defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into [[Nanyue]].{{sfn|Nang Chung|Giang Hai|2017|p=31}} However, Nanyue was itself [[Southward expansion of the Han dynasty|incorporated into the empire]] of the Chinese [[Han dynasty]] in 111 BC after the [[Han–Nanyue War]].{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=932}}{{sfn|Yao|2016|p=62}} Before the Han dynasty's invasion, Vietnam was marked by a vibrant mix of religion, culture, and social norms.<ref>Nguyen, Nhu Thi; Nguyen, Quyet Thi (2024). "The Religious Aspect of Confucianism During The Ly-Tran Dynasties, Vietnam". ''Griot: Revista de Filosofia'', '''24''' (2), 234–246.</ref> For the next thousand years, what is now northern Vietnam remained mostly under [[Chinese domination of Vietnam|Chinese rule]].{{sfn|Holmgren|1980}}{{sfn|Taylor|1983|p=30}}{{sfn|Buttinger|1968|p=18, Ch.2}} Early independence movements, such as those of the [[Trưng Sisters]] and [[Lady Triệu]],{{sfn|Pelley|2002|p=177}} were temporarily successful,{{sfn|Cottrell|2009|p=15}} though the region gained a longer period of independence as Vạn Xuân under the [[Anterior Lý dynasty]] between AD 544 and 602.{{sfn|Thai Nguyen|Mung Nguyen|1958|p=33}}{{sfn|Chesneaux|1966|p=20}}{{sfn|University of California|1972|p=24}}{{verify source|date=December 2024}} By the early 10th century, northern Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not sovereignty, under the [[Khúc family]].{{sfn|Tuyet Tran|Reid|2006|p=32}}

In AD 938, the Vietnamese lord [[Ngô Quyền]] defeated the forces of the Chinese [[Southern Han]] state at [[Battle of Bạch Đằng (938)|Bạch Đằng River]] and achieved full independence for Vietnam in 939 after a millennium of Chinese domination.{{sfn|Hien Le|2003|p=65}}{{sfn|Hong Lien|Sharrock|2014|p=55}}{{sfn|Kiernan|2017|p=226}} By the 960s, the dynastic [[Đại Việt]] (''Great Viet'') kingdom was established, and Vietnamese society enjoyed a golden era under the Lý and [[Trần dynasty|Trần]] dynasties. During the rule of the Trần dynasty, Đại Việt repelled three [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam|Mongol invasions]].{{sfn|Cottrell|2009|p=16}}{{sfn|Hong Lien|Sharrock|2014|p=95}} Meanwhile, the [[Mahāyāna]] branch of [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Buddhism]] flourished and became the state religion.{{sfn|Kiernan|2017|p=226}}{{sfn|Keyes|1995|p=183}} Following the 1406–7 [[Ming–Hồ War]], which overthrew the [[Hồ dynasty]], Vietnamese independence was [[Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam|interrupted briefly]] by the Chinese [[Ming dynasty]], but was restored by [[Lê Lợi]], the founder of the [[Lê dynasty]].{{sfn|Hong Lien|Sharrock|2014|p=111}} The Vietnamese polity reached their zenith in the Lê dynasty of the 15th century, especially during the reign of emperor [[Lê Thánh Tông]] (1460–1497).{{sfn|Hong Lien|Sharrock|2014|p=120}}{{sfn|Kiernan|2017|p=265}} Between the 11th and 18th centuries, the Vietnamese polity expanded southward in a gradual process known as {{lang|vi|[[Nam tiến]]}} ("Southward expansion"),{{sfn|Anderson|Whitmore|2014|p=158}} eventually conquering the kingdom of [[Champa]] and part of the [[Post-Angkor Period|Khmer Kingdom]].{{sfn|Vo|2011|p=13}}{{sfn|Ooi|Anh Tuan|2015|p=212}}{{sfn|Phuong Linh|2016|p=39}}

From the 16th century onward, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Đại Việt. First, the Chinese-supported [[Mạc dynasty]] challenged the Lê dynasty's power.{{sfn|Anderson|Whitmore|2014|p=174}} After the Mạc dynasty was defeated, the Lê dynasty was nominally reinstalled. Actual power, however, was divided between the northern [[Trịnh lords]] and the southern [[Nguyễn lords]], who engaged in a [[Trịnh–Nguyễn War|civil war]] for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s.{{sfn|Leonard|1984|p=131}} Vietnam was divided into North (Trịnh) and South (Nguyễn) from 1600 to 1777. During this period, the Nguyễn expanded into the [[Mekong Delta]], annexing the [[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Central Highlands]] and the Khmer lands in the Mekong Delta.{{sfn|Vo|2011|p=13}}{{sfn|Phuong Linh|2016|p=39}}{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=356}} The division of the country ended a century later when the [[Tây Sơn]] brothers helped Trịnh to end Nguyễn; they also established a new dynasty and ended Trịnh. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn lords, led by [[Gia Long|Nguyễn Ánh]]. Nguyễn Ánh unified Vietnam, and established the [[Nguyễn dynasty]], ruling under the name [[Gia Long]].{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=356}}

=== French Indochina ===
{{Further|Cochinchina campaign|Tonkin campaign|Sino-French War|French Indochina}}

In the 1500s, the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] explored the Vietnamese coast and reportedly erected a [[stele]] on the [[Chàm Islands]] to mark their presence.{{sfn|Hoang|2007|p=50}} By 1533, they began landing in the Vietnamese delta but were forced to leave because of local turmoil and fighting. They also had less interest in the territory than they did in China and Japan.{{sfn|Hoang|2007|p=50}} After they had settled in [[Portuguese Macau|Macau]] and [[Portuguese Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] to begin the profitable Macau–Japan trade route, the Portuguese began to involve themselves in trade with [[Hội An]].{{sfn|Hoang|2007|p=50}} Portuguese traders and [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries under the ''[[Padroado]]'' system were active in both Vietnamese realms of ''[[Đàng Trong]]'' ([[Cochinchina]] or Quinan) and ''[[Đàng Ngoài]]'' ([[Tonkin]]) in the 17th century.{{sfn|Tran|2018}} The [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] also tried to establish contact with Quinan in 1601 but failed to sustain a presence there after several violent encounters with the locals. The [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) only managed to establish official relations with Tonkin in the spring of 1637 after leaving [[Dejima]] in Japan to establish trade for [[silk]].{{sfn|Hoang|2007|p=52}} Meanwhile, in 1613, the first [[Kingdom of England|English]] attempt to establish contact with Hội An failed following a violent incident involving the [[East India Company]]. By 1672, the English did establish relations with Tonkin and were allowed to reside in [[Hưng Yên|Phố Hiến]].{{sfn|Hoang|2007|p=53}}
[[File:Prise de Saigon 18 Fevrier 1859 Antoine Morel-Fatio.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Siege of Saigon|Capture of Saigon]] by [[Charles Rigault de Genouilly]] on 18 February 1859]]
Between 1615 and 1753, French traders also engaged in trade in Vietnam.{{sfn|Li|1998|p=89}}{{sfn|Lockard|2010|p=479}} The first French missionaries<!--Joseph Francis Tissanier and Pierre Jacques Albier, SJ--> arrived in 1658, under the Portuguese ''Padroado''. From its foundation, the [[Paris Foreign Missions Society]] under [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples|''Propaganda Fide'']] actively sent missionaries to Vietnam, entering Cochinchina first<!--Louis Chevreuil--> in 1664 and Tonkin first<!--François Deydier--> in 1666.{{sfn|Tran|2017|p=27}} Spanish [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] joined the Tonkin mission in 1676, and [[Franciscans]] were in Cochinchina from 1719 to 1834. The Vietnamese authorities began{{when|date=October 2020}} to feel threatened by continuous [[Christianisation]] activities.{{sfn|McLeod|1991|p=22}} After several Catholic missionaries were detained, the [[French Navy]] intervened in 1843 to free them, as the kingdom was perceived as [[xenophobic]].{{sfn|Woods|2002|p=42}} In a series of conquests from 1859 to 1885, [[French colonial empire|France eroded]] Vietnam's sovereignty.{{sfn|Cortada|1994|p=29}} At the [[siege of Tourane]] in 1858, France was aided by [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] (with Filipino, [[Latin American Asian|Latin American]], and Spanish troops from the [[Philippines]])<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/03/10/opinion/columnists/the-day-the-filipinos-conquered-saigon/701612|title=The day the Filipinos conquered Saigon|first=Jorge|last=Mojarro|work=The Manila Times|date=10 March 2020|access-date=12 April 2021|archive-date=21 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121192614/https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/03/10/opinion/columnists/the-day-the-filipinos-conquered-saigon/701612|url-status=live}}</ref> and perhaps some Tonkinese Catholics.{{sfn|Keith|2012|p=46}} After the [[Treaty of Saigon (1862)|1862 Treaty]], and especially after France completely conquered [[Southern Vietnam|Lower Cochinchina]] in 1867, the [[Văn Thân movement]] of scholar-gentry class arose and committed violence against [[Catholic Church|Catholics]] across central and northern Vietnam.{{sfn|Keith|2012|pp=49–50}}

Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the [[French Cochinchina|French colony of Cochinchina]].{{sfn|McLeod|1991|p=61}} By 1884, the entire country was under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]] and [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]]. The three entities were formally integrated into the union of [[French Indochina]] in 1887.{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=520}}{{sfn|Cook|2001|p=396}} The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.{{sfn|Frankum|2011|p=172}} A Western-style system of modern education introduced new [[humanism|humanist]] values.{{sfn|Nhu Nguyen|2016|p=37}} Most French settlers in Indochina were concentrated in Cochinchina, particularly in [[Saigon]], and in [[Hanoi]], the colony's capital.{{sfn|Richardson|1876|p=269}}

During the early colonial period, guerrillas of the royalist [[Cần Vương movement]] rebelled against French rule and massacred around a third of [[Christianity in Vietnam|Vietnam's Christian]] population.{{sfn|Keith|2012|p=53}} Anti-Catholic violence persisted in Nam Định, Quảng Trị, and Bình Định during the 1880s.{{sfn|Ramsay|2008|p=171}} The French strategy for pacification in Vietnam relied more on alliances with local notables than on Christian missions to establish control and manage resistance.{{sfn|Quach-Langlet|1991|p=361}} The French developed a [[plantation economy]] to promote export of [[tobacco]], [[indigo dye|indigo]], [[tea]] and [[coffee]].{{sfn|Lim|2014|p=33}} However, they largely ignored the increasing demands for civil rights and [[self-government]]. An increasing dissatisfaction even led to half-hearted, badly coordinated, and still worse executed plots to oust the French, like the infamous [[Hanoi Poison Plot]] of 1908. Another large-scale rebellion, the [[Thái Nguyên uprising]] in 1917, was also suppressed heavily.{{sfn|Zinoman|2000}} 
[[File:ExpositionHanoi1902 GrandPalais (1).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Photograph of the Grand Palais building in Hanoi|The [[Grand Palais (Hanoi)|Grand Palais]] built for the [[Hanoi exhibition|1902–1903 world's fair]], when [[Hanoi]] became French Indochina's capital]]
A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders like [[Phan Bội Châu]], [[Phan Châu Trinh]], [[Phan Đình Phùng]], Emperor [[Hàm Nghi]], and [[Ho Chi Minh]] fighting or calling for independence.{{sfn|Largo|2002|p=112}} This resulted in the 1930 [[Yên Bái mutiny]] by the [[Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng|Vietnamese Nationalist Party]] (VNQDĐ), which the French quashed. The mutiny split the independence movement, as many leading members converted to [[communism]].{{sfn|Khanh Huynh|1986|p=98}}{{sfn|Odell|Castillo|2008|p=82}}{{sfn|Thomas|2012}}

The French maintained full control of their colonies until World War II, when the [[Pacific War|war in the Pacific]] led to the [[Japanese invasion of French Indochina]] in 1940. Afterwards, the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]] was allowed to station its troops in Vietnam while the pro-[[Vichy France|Vichy French]] colonial administration continued.{{sfn|Miller|1990|p=293}}{{sfn|Gettleman|Franklin|Young|Franklin|1995|p=4}} Japan exploited Vietnam's natural resources to support its military campaigns, culminating in a [[Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina|full-scale takeover of the country]] in March 1945. This led to the [[Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945]], which killed up to two million people.{{sfn|Thanh Nien|2015}}{{sfn|''Vietnam Net''|2015}}

=== First Indochina War ===
{{Further|Civil conflicts in Vietnam (1945–1949)|First Indochina War|1954 Geneva Conference}}
In 1941, the [[Viet Minh|Việt Minh]], a communist-led national liberation movement, emerged under [[Ho Chi Minh]]'s leadership.{{sfn|Joes|1992|p=95}}{{sfn|Pike|2011|p=192}} Mass political mobilization intensified during the [[French Indochina in World War II|Japanese military occupation of Indochina]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nguyễn Thế Anh |date=2002 |title=The Formulation of the National Discourse in 1940–45 Vietnam |journal=Journal of International and Area Studies |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=57–75 |jstor=43107057}}</ref> and nationalist parties fostered a stronger sense of national identity.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Guillemot |first=François |date=2019 |title=The Lessons of Yên Bái, or the "Fascist" Temptation: How the Đại Việt Parties Rethought Anticolonial Nationalist Revolutionary Action, 1932–1945  |journal=Journal of Vietnamese Studies |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=43–78 |doi=10.1525/vs.2019.14.3.43 }}</ref> After Japan's defeat in World War II, the Việt Minh seized Hanoi and Huế in August 1945, dissolved the [[Empire of Vietnam]], and established a provisional government that declared national independence on 2 September.{{sfn|Pike|2011|p=192}} In the south, Saigon's administrative services collapsed, and chaos, riots, and murder were widespread.{{sfn|Gunn|2014|p=270}} 

In August 1945, the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] had decided to divide Indochina at the [[16th parallel north|16th parallel]] to allow [[Chiang Kai-shek]] of the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] to [[Chinese occupation of northern Vietnam, 1945–1946|receive the Japanese surrender in the north]] while Britain's [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Louis Mountbatten]] received their surrender in the south. The Allies agreed that Indochina still belonged to France.{{sfn|Neville|2007|p=175}}{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=6}}

[[File:French Indochina post partition.png|thumb|left|alt=Map showing the partition of French Indochina following the 1954 Geneva Conference | [[Partition (politics)|Partition]] of French Indochina after the [[1954 Geneva Conference]]]]
But as the French were weakened by the [[German military administration in occupied France during World War II|German occupation]], [[British Raj|British-Indian]] forces and the remaining Japanese [[Southern Expeditionary Army Group]] were used to maintain order and help France reestablish control through the [[War in Vietnam (1945–1946)|1945–1946 War in Vietnam]], south of the 16th parallel.{{sfn|Neville|2007|p=124}} The Viet Minh sought to consolidate power by terrorizing and purging rival Vietnamese [[Vietnamese nationalism|nationalist groups]] and [[Trotskyism in Vietnam|Trotskyist leaders]].{{sfn|Guillemot|2004}}{{sfn|Kort|2017|pages=62–63, 81–85}}{{sfn|Tran|2022|pages=24–30}}{{sfn|Marr|2013|pages=383–441}} In 1946, the Franco-Chinese and [[Ho–Sainteny Agreement]]s enabled French forces to replace the Chinese north of the 16th parallel and facilitated a coexistence between the DRV and the French that strengthened the Viet Minh while undermining the nationalists.{{sfn|Goscha|2016|pages=204–208}}{{sfn|Holcombe |2020|pages=35, 38–44}} That summer, the Viet Minh, in collaboration with French forces, eliminated rival nationalist parties.{{sfn|Kort|2017|pages=83–84}}{{sfn|Reilly|2018|pages=175–177}}{{sfn|Guillemot|2004|pages=205–207}}{{sfn|Tran|2023|pages=699–700}} Hồ chose to take a compromising stance to avoid military conflict with France, asking the French to withdraw their colonial administrators and for French professors and engineers to help build a modern independent Vietnam.{{sfn|Pike|2011|p=192}} But [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|France]] did not act on these requests, including the idea of independence, and dispatched the [[French Far East Expeditionary Corps]] to restore colonial rule. With negotiations having broken down,{{sfn|Asselin|2024|pages=73–81}} tensions between the Viet Minh and French authorities erupted into the full-scale [[First Indochina War]] in December 1946.{{sfn|Joes|1992|p=95}}{{sfn|Pike|2011|p=192}}{{sfn|Tonnesson|2011|p=66}} Surviving nationalist partisans and politico-religious groups rallied behind the exiled [[Bảo Đại]] to reopen negotiations with [[French Fourth Republic|France]], ultimately establishing the [[State of Vietnam]] in opposition to communist domination.{{sfn|Goscha|2016|pages=238–247}} The defeat of [[French Union]] forces in the 1954 [[Battle of Điện Biên Phủ]] allowed Hồ to negotiate a ceasefire from a favourable position at the subsequent [[1954 Geneva Conference|Geneva Conference]].{{sfn|Pike|2011|p=192}}{{sfn|Waite|2012|p=89}}

The colonial administration was thereby ended and French Indochina was dissolved under the Geneva Accords of 21 July 1954 into three countries—Vietnam, and the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–1970)|Cambodia]] and [[Kingdom of Laos|Laos]]. Vietnam was further divided into North and South administrative regions at the [[Vietnamese Demilitarised Zone|Demilitarised Zone]], roughly along the [[17th parallel north]] (pending elections scheduled for July 1956{{efn|Neither the American government nor Ngô Đình Diệm's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. The non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam; however, the French accepted the Việt Minh proposal{{sfn|Gravel|1971|p=134}} that Vietnam be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions".{{sfn|Gravel|1971|p=119}} The United States, with the support of [[South Vietnam]] and the United Kingdom, countered with the "American Plan",{{sfn|Gravel|1971|p=140}} which provided for [[United Nations]]-supervised unification elections. The plan, however, was rejected by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and other communist delegations.{{sfn|Kort|2017|p=96}}}}). 300 days of free movement were permitted, during which almost a million northerners, including at least 500,000 Catholics and approximately 200,000 Buddhists, moved south,{{sfn|Goscha|2016|pages=280}} fearing persecution by the communists. This migration was in large part aided by the United States military through [[Operation Passage to Freedom]].{{sfn|Olson|2012|p=43}}{{sfn|DK|2017|p=39}} The [[partition of Vietnam]] by the Geneva Accords was not intended to be permanent, and stipulated that Vietnam would be reunited after the elections.{{sfn|van Dijk|Gray|Savranskaya|Suri|2013|p=68}} In July 1955, the State of Vietnam's prime minister [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm]] announced in a broadcast that South Vietnam would not participate in the elections, as they had not signed the accords and therefore were not bound by them.<ref name="cđcn">{{Cite book |title=Con đường Chính nghĩa: Độc lập, Dân chủ |volume=II |year=1956 |location=Saigon |publisher=Sở Báo chí Thông tin, Phủ Tổng thống |chapter=Lời tuyên bố truyền thanh của Thủ tướng Chánh phủ ngày 16-7-1955 về hiệp định Genève và vấn đề thống nhất đất nước"; "Tuyên ngôn của Chánh phủ Quốc gia Việt Nam ngày 9-8-1955 về vấn đề thống nhất lãnh thổ |lang=vi |url= |pages=11–13}}</ref><ref name="Cheng1997p11">{{Cite book |last=Ang Cheng Guan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ONOHIXGnrEC |title=Vietnamese Communists' Relations with China and the Second Indochina War (1956–62) |publisher=McFarland |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7864-0404-9 |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2ONOHIXGnrEC&pg=PA11 11] |access-date=5 August 2016 }}</ref> In October 1955, Ngô Đình Diệm toppled [[Bảo Đại]] in a fraudulent [[1955 State of Vietnam referendum|referendum]] organised by his brother [[Ngô Đình Nhu]], and proclaimed himself president of the [[Republic of Vietnam]].{{sfn|van Dijk|Gray|Savranskaya|Suri|2013|p=68}}

=== Vietnam War ===
{{Main|Vietnam War}}
From 1953 to 1956, the [[North Vietnam]]ese government instituted [[Agrarianism|agrarian]] reforms including "[[Rent regulation|rent reduction]]" and "[[Land reform in Vietnam|land reform]]", which resulted in significant [[political repression]].{{sfn|Moise|2017|p=56}} This included 13,500 to as many as 100,000 executions.{{sfn|Vu|2007}}{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=143}} In the South, Diệm countered North Vietnamese subversion (including the assassination of over 450 South Vietnamese officials in 1956) by detaining tens of thousands of suspected communists in "political reeducation centres".{{sfn|Heneghan|1969|p=160}}{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=177}} This programme incarcerated many non-communists, but was successful at curtailing [[communism|communist]] activity in the country, if only for a time.{{sfn|Crozier|1955}} The North Vietnamese government claimed that 2,148 people were killed in the process by November 1957.{{sfn|Turner|1975|pp=174–178}} The pro-Hanoi [[Viet Cong]] began a guerrilla campaign in [[South Vietnam]] in the late 1950s to overthrow Diệm's government.{{sfn|Gilbert|2013|p=292}} From 1960, the Soviet Union and North Vietnam signed treaties providing for further Soviet military support.{{sfn|Jukes|1973|p=209}}{{sfn|Olsen|2007|p=92}}{{sfn|Khoo|2011|p=27}} The [[South Vietnam|Republic of Vietnam]] in the south was supported by the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[South Korea]], [[Thailand]], and [[Kingdom of Laos|Laos]] while the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] in the north was supported by the [[Soviet Union]], [[China|People's Republic of China]],{{sfn|van Dijk|Gray|Savranskaya|Suri|2013|p=68}} [[Khmer Rouge]], and later, [[Sweden]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Guttman |first=John |title=Why did Sweden support the Viet Cong? |url=http://www.historynet.com/why-did-sweeden-support-the-viet-cong.htm |website=History Net |access-date=25 September 2019 |date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=17 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517034834/http://www.historynet.com/why-did-sweeden-support-the-viet-cong.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Agent Orange Cropdusting.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Three US Fairchild UC-123B aircraft pictured spraying Agent Orange  | Three US [[Fairchild C-123 Provider|Fairchild UC-123B]] aircraft spraying [[Agent Orange]] during the [[Operation Ranch Hand]] as part of a [[herbicidal warfare]] operation depriving the food and vegetation cover of the [[Việt Cộng]], {{circa|1962–1971}}]]
In 1963, Buddhist discontent with Diệm's perceived pro-Catholic bias erupted into [[Buddhist crisis|mass demonstrations]], leading to a violent government crackdown.{{sfn|Muehlenbeck|Muehlenbeck|2012|p=221}} This led to the [[Cable 243|collapse of Diệm's relationship with the United States]], and ultimately to a [[1963 South Vietnamese coup|1963 coup]] in which [[Arrest and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm|he and Nhu were assassinated]].{{sfn|Willbanks|2013|p=53}} The Diệm era was followed by more than a dozen successive military governments, before the pairing of Air Marshal [[Nguyễn Cao Kỳ]] and General [[Nguyễn Văn Thiệu]] took control in mid-1965.{{sfn|Duy Hinh|Dinh Tho|2015|p=238}} Thiệu gradually outmaneuvered Kỳ and cemented his grip on power in fraudulent elections in 1967 and 1971.{{sfn|Isserman|Bowman|2009|p=46}} During this political instability, the communists began to gain ground. To support South Vietnam's struggle against the communist insurgency, the United States used the 1964 [[Gulf of Tonkin incident]] as a pretext for increasing its contribution of military advisers.{{sfn|Alterman|2005|p=213}} US forces became involved in ground combat operations by 1965, and at their peak several years later, numbered more than 500,000.{{sfn|Lewy|1980}}{{sfn|Gibbons|2014|p=166}} The US also engaged in [[Operation Rolling Thunder|sustained aerial bombing]]. Meanwhile, China and the Soviet Union provided North Vietnam with significant material aid and 15,000 combat advisers.{{sfn|Jukes|1973|p=209}}{{sfn|Olsen|2007|p=92}}{{sfn|Li|2012|p=67}} Communist forces supplying the Việt Cộng carried supplies along the [[Ho Chi Minh trail]], which passed through [[Kingdom of Laos|Laos]].{{sfn|Gillet|2011}}

The communists attacked South Vietnamese targets during the 1968 [[Tết Offensive]]. The campaign failed militarily, but shocked the American establishment and turned US public opinion against the war.{{sfn|Dallek|2018}} During the offensive, communist troops [[Massacre at Huế|massacred over 3,000 civilians]] at [[Huế]].{{sfn|Turner|1975|p=251}}{{sfn|Frankum|2011|p=209}} Facing an increasing casualty count, [[Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|rising domestic opposition]] to the war, and growing international condemnation, the US began [[Nixon Doctrine|withdrawing from ground combat roles]] in the early 1970s. This also entailed an unsuccessful effort to [[Vietnamisation|strengthen and stabilise South Vietnam]].{{sfn|Eggleston|2014|p=1}} Following the [[Paris Peace Accords]] of 27 January 1973, all American combat troops were withdrawn by 29 March 1973.{{sfn|History|2018}} In December 1974, North Vietnam [[Battle of Phước Long|captured]] the province of [[Phước Long province|Phước Long]] and started a [[1975 Spring Offensive|full-scale offensive]], culminating in the [[fall of Saigon]] on 30 April 1975.{{sfn|Tucker|2011|p=749}} South Vietnam was ruled by a [[Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam|provisional government]] for 14 months under North Vietnamese control.{{sfn|Brigham|1998|p=86}}

=== Reunification and reforms ===
{{further|Re-education camp (Vietnam)|Vietnamese boat people|Đổi Mới}}

On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.{{sfn|''The New York Times''|1976}} The war had devastated Vietnam and killed 966,000 to 3.8&nbsp;million people.{{sfn|Hirschman|Preston|Manh Loi|1995}}{{sfn|Shenon|1995}}{{sfn|Obermeyer|Murray|Gakidou|2008}} A 1974 US Senate subcommittee estimated nearly 1.4&nbsp;million [[Vietnam War casualties|Vietnamese civilians]] were killed or wounded between 1965 and 1974—including 415,000 killed.{{sfn|Dohrenwend|Turse|Wall|Yager|2018|p=69}}<ref>{{Cite news|date=26 January 1975|title=Vietnam Refugees Put at 1.4 Million|work=The New York Times |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/01/26/archives/vietnam-refugees-put-at-14-million.html|access-date=9 August 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809171647/https://www.nytimes.com/1975/01/26/archives/vietnam-refugees-put-at-14-million.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In its aftermath, under [[Lê Duẩn]]'s administration, there were no mass executions of South Vietnamese who had collaborated with the US or the defunct South Vietnamese government, confounding Western fears,{{sfn|Elliott|2010|pp=499, 512–513}} but up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to [[Re-education camp (Vietnam)|reeducation camps]], where many endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to perform hard labour.{{sfn|Sagan|Denny|1982}} The government embarked on a mass campaign of [[collectivisation]] of farms and factories.{{sfn|Spokesman-Review|1977|p=8}} Many fled the country following the conclusion of the war.{{Sfn|Moise|1988|p=12}} In 1978, in response to the [[Khmer Rouge]] government of Cambodia ordering massacres of Vietnamese residents in the border villages in the districts of [[An Giang province|An Giang]] and [[Kiên Giang province|Kiên Giang]],{{sfn|Kissi|2006|p=144}} the Vietnamese military [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War|invaded Cambodia]] and removed them from power after occupying [[Phnom Penh]].{{sfn|Meggle|2004|p=166}} The intervention was a success, resulting in the establishment of a new, pro-Vietnam socialist government, the [[People's Republic of Kampuchea]], which ruled until 1989.{{sfn|Hampson|1996|p=175}} However, this worsened relations with China, which had supported the Khmer Rouge. China later launched a [[Sino-Vietnamese War|brief incursion into northern Vietnam]] in 1979, causing Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid, while mistrust of the [[Government of China|Chinese government]] escalated.{{sfn|Khoo|2011|p=131}}

At the [[6th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam|Sixth National Congress]] of the [[Communist Party of Vietnam]] (CPV) in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the "old guard" government with new leadership.{{sfn|BBC News|1997}}{{sfn|Van Phuc|2014}} The reformers were led by 71-year-old [[Nguyễn Văn Linh]], who became the party's new general secretary.{{sfn|BBC News|1997}} He and the reformers implemented a series of market reforms known as {{lang|vi|[[Đổi Mới]]}} ("Renovation") that carefully managed the transition from a [[planned economy]] to a "[[socialist-oriented market economy]]".{{sfn|Murray|1997|pp=24–25}}{{sfn|Bich Loan|2007}} Although the authority of the state remained unchallenged under ''Đổi Mới'', the government encouraged [[private ownership]] of farms and factories, economic deregulation, and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries.{{sfn|Bich Loan|2007}}{{sfn|Howe|2016|p=20}} Subsequently, Vietnam's economy achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports, and foreign investment, although these reforms also resulted in a rise in income inequality and gender disparities.{{sfn|Goodkind|1995}}{{sfn|Gallup|2002}}{{sfn|Wagstaff|van Doorslaer|Watanabe|2003}}

In 2021, [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam]], [[Nguyễn Phú Trọng]], was re-elected for his third term in office, meaning he was Vietnam's most powerful leader in decades.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vietnam's ruling Communist Party re-elects chief Trong for rare third term |url=https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20210131-vietnam-s-ruling-communist-party-re-elects-chief-trong-for-rare-third-term |work=France 24 |date=31 January 2021 |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131074452/https://www.france24.com/en/asia-pacific/20210131-vietnam-s-ruling-communist-party-re-elects-chief-trong-for-rare-third-term |url-status=live}}</ref> He died 19 July 2024, and was followed by [[Tô Lâm]] as General Secretary of the Communist Party.

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Vietnam}}
[[File:Geography of Vietnam.jpg|thumb|left|alt= Images showing Hạ Long Bay, the Yến River and the Bản-Giốc Waterfalls | Nature attractions in Vietnam, clockwise from top: [[Hạ Long Bay]], Yến River, and [[Ban Gioc–Detian Falls|Bản-Giốc Waterfalls]]]]
Vietnam is located on the eastern [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Indochinese Peninsula]] between the latitudes [[8th parallel north|8°]] and [[24th parallel north|24°N]], and the longitudes [[102nd meridian east|102°]] and [[110th meridian east|110°E]]. It covers a total area of {{convert|331210|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}<ref name="Vietnam"/> or {{convert|331,699|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Vietnam country profile"/> The combined length of the country's land boundaries is {{convert|4639|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}, and its coastline is {{convert|3444|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} long.{{sfn|Nasuchon|2008|p=7}} At its narrowest point in the central [[Quảng Bình province]], the country is as little as {{convert|50|km|mi}} across, though it widens to around {{convert|600|km|mi}} in the north.{{sfn|Protected Areas and Development Partnership|2003|p=13}} Vietnam's land is mostly hilly and densely forested, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the country's land area,{{sfn|Frohlich|Schreinemachers|Stahr|Clemens|2013|p=5}} and tropical forests cover around 42%.{{sfn|Natural Resources and Environment Program|1995|p=56}} The Red River Delta in the north, a flat, roughly triangular region covering {{convert|15000|km2|0|abbr=on}},{{sfn|''AgroViet Newsletter''|2007}} is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than the [[Mekong River Delta]] in the south. Once an inlet of the [[Gulf of Tonkin]], it has been filled in over the millennia by riverine [[alluvial deposits]].{{sfn|Huu Chiem|1993|p=180}}{{sfn|Minh Hoang|van Lap|Kim Oanh|Jiro|2016}} The delta, covering about {{convert|40000|km2|0|abbr=on}}, is a low-level plain no more than {{convert|3|m|ft|1}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]] at any point. It is criss-crossed by a maze of rivers and canals, which carry so much sediment that the delta advances {{convert|60|to|80|m|ft|1}} into the sea every year.{{sfn|Huu Chiem|1993|p=183}}{{sfn|Hong Truong|Ye|Stive|2017|p=757}} The [[exclusive economic zone of Vietnam]] covers {{convert|417663|km²|sqmi|abbr=on}} in the [[South China Sea]].{{sfn|Vietnamese Waters Zone}}

[[File:I'm coming, PXP.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Image of the Hoàng Liên Sơn mountain range | Hoàng Liên Sơn [[mountain range]], the range that includes [[Fansipan]], which is the highest summit on the Indochinese Peninsula]]
Southern Vietnam is divided into coastal lowlands, the mountains of the [[Annamite Range]], and extensive forests. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of [[basalt]] soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country's [[arable land]] and 22% of its total forested land.{{sfn|Cosslett|Cosslett|2017|p=13}} The soil in much of the southern part of Vietnam is relatively low in nutrients as a result of intense cultivation.{{sfn|Van De|Douglas|McMorrow|Lindley|2008}} Several minor [[earthquake]]s have been recorded.{{sfn|Hong Phuong|2012|p=3}}{{sfn|''Viet Nam News''|2016}} The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the Red River Delta. [[Fansipan]] (also known as Phan Xi Păng), which is located in [[Lào Cai province]], is the highest mountain in Vietnam, standing {{convert|3143|m|adj=on|abbr=on}} high.{{sfn|''Vietnam National Administration of Tourism''|2014}} From north to south Vietnam, the country also has [[List of islands of Vietnam|numerous islands]]; [[Phú Quốc]] is the largest.{{sfn|Boobbyer|Spooner|2013|p=173}} The [[Hang Sơn Đoòng]] Cave is considered the largest known cave passage in the world since its discovery in 2009. The [[Ba Bể Lake]] and [[Mekong]] River are the largest lake and longest river in the country.{{sfn|Cosslett|Cosslett|2013|p=13}}{{sfn|Anh|2016a}}{{sfn|''The Telegraph''}}

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Vietnam}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map v2 VNM 1991–2020.svg|thumb|alt= An image of the Köppen climate classification map of Vietnam|[[Köppen climate classification]] map of Vietnam]]
[[File:Nha Trang (43635463040).jpg|alt=Photograph of Nha Trang beach with many high rise buildings behind it|thumb|230x230px|[[Nha Trang]], a popular beach destination, has a [[tropical savanna climate]].]]
Due to differences in latitude and the marked variety in [[topographical relief]], Vietnam's climate tends to vary considerably for each region.{{sfn|Vu|1979|p=66}} During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, the [[monsoon]] winds usually blow from the northeast along the Chinese coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture.{{sfn|Riehl|Augstein|1973|p=1}} The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains, especially in southern Vietnam compared to the north. The northern region experiences a monsoonal and humid subtropical climate with four distinct seasons (spring, summer, autumn, and winter), with winters typically dry and summers ranging from hot to mild.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worlddata.info/asia/vietnam/climate.php |title=Vietnam Climate |website=WorldData.info |access-date=2023-11-24}}</ref> In southern and central areas, the climate is tropical monsoon with only two seasons (rainy and dry).<ref name=vietnamkhihau>{{cite web |url=http://www.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/chinhphu/NuocCHXHCNVietNam/ThongTinTongHop/dialy |title=MỘT SỐ THÔNG TIN VỀ ĐỊA LÝ VIỆT NAM |publisher=Viet Nam Government Portal |language=vi |access-date=9 November 2018 |archive-date=11 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111190550/http://www.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/chinhphu/NuocCHXHCNVietNam/ThongTinTongHop/dialy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=vietnamiaea2012>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109190416/https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/CNPP2012_CD/countryprofiles/Vietnam/Vietnam.htm |archive-date=9 November 2018 |url=https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/CNPP2012_CD/countryprofiles/Vietnam/Vietnam.htm |title=Vietnam |work=Country Nuclear Power Profiles: 2012 Edition |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref><ref name=VNATclimate>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109203934/http://www.vietnamtourism.com/en/index.php/about/items/1752 |archive-date=9 November 2018 |url=http://www.vietnamtourism.com/en/index.php/about/items/1752 |title=Climate |publisher=Vietnam National Administration of Tourism |access-date=9 November 2018}}</ref> Temperatures vary less in the southern plains around Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta, ranging from between {{convert|21|and|35|°C|°F}} over the year.{{sfn|Buleen|2017}} In Hanoi and the surrounding areas of the Red River Delta, the temperatures are much lower between {{convert|15|and|33|°C|°F}}.{{sfn|Buleen|2017}} Seasonal variations in the mountains, plateaus, and the northernmost areas are much more dramatic, with temperatures varying from {{convert|3|°C}} in December and January to {{convert|37|°C}} in July and August.{{sfn|Vietnam Net|2018a}} During winter, snow occasionally falls over the highest peaks of the far northern mountains near the Chinese border.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vnexpress.net/news/news/vietnamese-amazed-at-snow-capped-northern-mountains-4219248.html|title=Vietnamese amazed at snow-capped northern mountains|date=11 January 2021|publisher=[[VnExpress]]}}</ref> Vietnam receives high rates of [[precipitation]] in the form of rainfall with an average amount from {{cvt|1500|to|2000|mm|-1}} during the monsoon seasons; this often causes flooding, especially in the cities with poor drainage systems.{{sfn|Thi Anh}} The country is also affected by [[tropical depression]]s, [[tropical storm]]s and [[typhoon]]s.{{sfn|Thi Anh}} Vietnam is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, with 55% of its population living in low-elevation coastal areas.{{sfn|Overland|2017}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood|title=Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood|date=29 October 2019|website=climatecentral.org|access-date=3 November 2019|archive-date=2 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102025006/https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Wildlife of Vietnam|Environmental issues in Vietnam|List of endangered species in Vietnam|Protected areas of Vietnam}}

[[File:Wildlife of Vietnam.jpg|thumb|alt=Photographs of Native species in Vietnam, the crested argus; the red-shanked douc, a monkey; the Indochinese leopard and the saola, a bovine. | Native species in Vietnam, clockwise from top-right: [[crested argus]], [[Tonkin snub-nosed monkey]], [[Indochinese leopard]], and [[saola]]]]
As the country is located within the [[Indomalayan realm]], Vietnam is one of twenty-five countries considered to possess a uniquely high level of [[biodiversity]]. This was noted in the country's National Environmental Condition Report in 2005.{{sfn|''Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment''}} It is ranked 16th worldwide in biological diversity, being home to approximately 16% of the world's species. 15,986 species of [[flora]] have been identified in the country, of which 10% are [[Endemism|endemic]]. Vietnam's [[fauna]] includes 307 [[nematode]] species, 200 [[oligochaeta]], 145 [[acarina]], 113 [[springtail]]s, 7,750 insects, 260 reptiles, and 120 amphibians. There are 840 birds and 310 mammals found in Vietnam, of which 100 birds and 78 mammals are endemic.{{sfn|''Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment''}} Vietnam has two [[World Natural Heritage Site]]s—the [[Hạ Long Bay]] and [[Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park]]—together with nine [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves in Asia and the Pacific#Vietnam|biosphere reserves]], including [[Cần Giờ Mangrove Forest]], [[Cát Tiên National Park|Cát Tiên]], [[Cát Bà National Park|Cát Bà]], [[U Minh Thượng National Park|Kiên Giang]], the Red River Delta, Mekong Delta, [[Western Nghệ An]], [[Mũi Cà Mau National Park|Cà Mau]], and [[Cu Lao Cham Marine Park]].{{sfn|UNESCO World Heritage Convention|1994}}{{sfn|UNESCO World Heritage Convention|2003}}

Vietnam is also home to 1,438 species of freshwater [[microalgae]], constituting 9.6% of all microalgae species, as well as 794 aquatic [[invertebrate]]s and 2,458 species of sea fish.{{sfn|''Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment''}} In recent years, 13 [[genera]], 222 species, and 30 [[taxa]] of flora have been newly described in Vietnam.{{sfn|''Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment''}} Six new mammal species, including the [[saola]], [[giant muntjac]], and [[Tonkin snub-nosed monkey]] have also been discovered, along with one new bird species, the endangered [[Edwards's pheasant]].{{sfn|BirdLife International|2016}} In the late 1980s, a small population of [[Javan rhinoceros]] was found in Cát Tiên National Park. However, the last individual of the species in Vietnam was reportedly shot in 2010.{{sfn|Kinver|2011}} In agricultural [[genetic diversity]], Vietnam is one of the world's twelve original [[cultivar]] centres. The Vietnam National Cultivar Gene Bank preserves 12,300 cultivars of 115 species.{{sfn|''Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment''}} The Vietnamese government spent US$49.07&nbsp;million on the preservation of biodiversity in 2004 alone and has established 126 conservation areas, including 30 [[List of national parks of Vietnam|national parks]].{{sfn|''Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment''}}

[[File:Sa Pa mountain hills with agricultural activities.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of the Sa Pa mountain hills with agricultural activity shiwn in the foreground | [[Sa Pa (town)|Sa Pa]] mountain hills with [[Agriculture in Vietnam|agricultural activities]]]]
In Vietnam, wildlife [[poaching]] has become a major concern. In 2000, a [[non-governmental organisation]] (NGO), Education for Nature – Vietnam, was founded to instill in the population the importance of wildlife conservation in the country.{{sfn|Dall|2017}} In the years that followed, another NGO called GreenViet was formed by Vietnamese youngsters for the enforcement of wildlife protection. Through collaboration between the NGOs and local authorities, many local poaching syndicates were crippled by their leaders' arrests.{{sfn|Dall|2017}} A study released in 2018 revealed Vietnam is a destination for the illegal export of [[rhinoceros]] horns from [[South Africa]] due to the demand for them as a medicine and a status symbol.{{sfn|Dang Vu|Nielsen|2018}}{{sfn|Nam Dang|Nielsen|2019}}

The main environmental concern that persists in Vietnam today is the legacy of the use of the chemical [[herbicide]] [[Agent Orange]], which continues to cause [[birth defect]]s and many health problems in the Vietnamese population. In the southern and central areas affected most by the chemical's use during the Vietnam War, nearly 4.8&nbsp;million Vietnamese people have been exposed to it and suffered from its effects.{{sfn|Banout|Urban|Musil|Szakova|2014}}{{sfn|Cerre|2016}}{{sfn|Brown|2018}} In 2012, approximately 50 years after the war,{{sfn|AFP staff|2016}} the US began a US$43&nbsp;million joint clean-up project in the former chemical storage areas in Vietnam to take place in stages.{{sfn|Cerre|2016}}{{sfn|MacLeod|2012}} Following the completion of the first phase in [[Đà Nẵng]] in late 2017,{{sfn|''United States Agency for International Development''}} the US announced its commitment to clean other sites, especially in the heavily impacted site of [[Biên Hòa]].{{sfn|Stewart|2018}}

The Vietnamese government spends over [[Vietnamese đồng|VNĐ]]10&nbsp;trillion each year ($431.1&nbsp;million) for monthly allowances and the physical rehabilitation of victims of the chemicals.{{sfn|''Viet Nam News''|2018a}} In 2018, the Japanese engineering group [[Shimizu Corporation]], working with the Vietnamese military, built a plant for the treatment of soil polluted by Agent Orange. Plant construction costs were funded by the company itself.{{sfn|''Nikkei Asian Review''|2018}}{{sfn|NHK World-Japan|2018}} One of the long-term plans to restore southern Vietnam's damaged [[ecosystem]]s is through the use of [[reforestation]] efforts. The Vietnamese government began doing this at the end of the war. It started by replanting [[mangrove forest]]s in the Mekong Delta regions and in [[Cần Giờ district|Cần Giờ]] outside Ho Chi Minh City, where mangroves are important to ease (though not eliminate) flood conditions during monsoon seasons.{{sfn|Agent Orange Record}} The country had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 5.35/10, ranking it 104th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G}}</ref>

Apart from herbicide problems, [[arsenic poisoning|arsenic]] in the [[ground water]] in the Mekong and Red River Deltas has also become a major concern.{{sfn|Berg|Stengel|Pham|Pham|2007}}{{sfn|Merola|Hien|Quyen|Vengosh|2014}} And most notoriously, [[unexploded ordnance]]s (UXO) pose dangers to humans and wildlife—another bitter legacy from the long wars.{{sfn|Miguel|Roland|2005}} As part of the continuous campaign to [[demining|demine]]/remove UXOs, several international [[mine clearance agency|bomb removal agencies]] from the United Kingdom,{{sfn|''Government of the United Kingdom''|2017}} Denmark,{{sfn|LM Report|2000}} [[South Korea]]{{sfn|United Nations Development Programme|2018}} and the US{{sfn|''United States Department of State''|2006}} have been providing assistance. The Vietnamese government spends over VNĐ1&nbsp;trillion ($44&nbsp;million) annually on demining operations and additional hundreds of billions of đồng for treatment, assistance, rehabilitation, vocational training, and resettlement of the victims of UXOs.{{sfn|Van Thanh|2016}}
{{wide image|Halong Bay panorama.jpg|1000px|Panoramic view of [[Hạ Long Bay]]}}

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Vietnam|Government of Vietnam}}

Vietnam is a [[unitary state|unitary]] [[communist state]] that self-designates as a [[socialist state (communism)|socialist]] [[republic]], one of the two communist states (the other being [[Laos]]) in [[Southeast Asia]].{{sfn|''Government of Vietnam (II)''}} Although Vietnam remains officially committed to [[socialism]] as its defining creed, its economic policies have grown increasingly [[capitalism|capitalist]],{{sfn|Greenfield|1994|p=204}}{{sfn|Baccini|Impullitti|Malesky|2017}} with ''[[The Economist]]'' characterising its leadership as "ardently capitalist communists".{{sfn|''The Economist''|2008}} Under the [[Constitution of Vietnam|constitution]], the [[Communist Party of Vietnam]] (CPV) asserts their role in all sectors of the country's politics.{{sfn|''Government of Vietnam (II)''}} The [[President of Vietnam|president]] is the elected [[head of state]] and the [[commander-in-chief]] of the military, serving as the chairman of the Council of Supreme Defence and Security, and holds the second highest office in Vietnam as well as performing executive functions and state appointments and setting policy.{{sfn|''Government of Vietnam (II)''}}

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| image1            = To Lam on May 10, 2025 (cropped).jpg
| width1            = 110
| alt1              = Tô Lâm
| caption1          = [[Tô Lâm]]<br /><small>[[General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam]]</small>
| image2            = Lương Cường in Chile.jpg
| width2            = 106
| alt2              = Lương Cường
| caption2          = [[Lương Cường]]<br /><small>[[President of Vietnam|President]]</small>
| image3            = Pham Minh Chinh 2021.jpg
| width3            = 100
| alt3              = Phạm Minh Chính
| caption3          = [[Phạm Minh Chính]]<br /><small>[[Prime Minister of Vietnam|Prime Minister]]</small>
| image4            = Tran Thanh Man JP2024.jpg
| width4            = 110
| alt4              = Trần Thanh Mẫn
| caption4          = [[Trần Thanh Mẫn]]<br /><small>[[Chairperson of the National Assembly of Vietnam|Chairman of the National Assembly]]</small>
}}
The [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam|general secretary]] of the CPV performs numerous key administrative functions, controlling the party's national organisation.{{sfn|''Government of Vietnam (II)''}} The [[Prime Minister of Vietnam|prime minister]] is the [[head of government]], presiding over a council of ministers composed of five deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions. Only political organisations affiliated with or endorsed by the CPV are permitted to contest elections in Vietnam. These include the [[Vietnamese Fatherland Front]] and worker and [[trade union]]ist parties.{{sfn|''Government of Vietnam (II)''}}

[[File:National Assembly of Vietnam.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Photograph of the National Assembly of Vietnam in Hanoi | The [[National Assembly of Vietnam]] building in Hanoi]]
The [[National Assembly of Vietnam]] is the [[unicameral]] [[supreme state organ of power]] composed of 500 members.{{sfn|Embassy of Vietnam in USA}} Headed by a [[List of Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the National Assembly of Vietnam|chairman]], it holds the [[unified power|unified powers of the state]] (meaning that it is superior to both the executive and judicial organs), with all central state officials being appointed from members of the National Assembly.{{sfn|''Government of Vietnam (II)''}} The [[Supreme People's Court of Vietnam]], headed by a chief justice, is the country's highest [[court of appeal]], though it is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand the [[Provincial Municipal Courts of Vietnam|provincial municipal courts]] and many [[Local Courts of Vietnam|local courts]]. [[Military Courts of Vietnam|Military courts]] possess special jurisdiction in matters of [[National security|state security]]. Vietnam maintains the [[Capital punishment in Vietnam|death penalty]] for numerous offences.{{sfn|''Ministry of Justice''|1999}}

In 2023, a three-person collective leadership was responsible for governing Vietnam. President [[Võ Văn Thưởng]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Vietnam parliament elects new president Vo Van Thuong |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/2/vietnam-parliament-elects-new-president-vo-van-thuong |work=www.aljazeera.com |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=5 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240205121637/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/2/vietnam-parliament-elects-new-president-vo-van-thuong |url-status=live}}</ref> Prime Minister [[Phạm Minh Chính]] (since 2021)<ref>{{cite news |title=Vietnam picks new PM and president for next 5 years |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Vietnam-picks-new-PM-and-president-for-next-5-years |work=Nikkei Asia |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240326083506/https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Vietnam-picks-new-PM-and-president-for-next-5-years |url-status=live}}</ref> and the most powerful leader [[Nguyễn Phú Trọng]] (since 2011) as the Communist Party of Vietnam's General Secretary.<ref>{{cite news |title=New president of Vietnam nominated by Communist Party: Report |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/1/new-president-of-vietnam-nominated-by-communist-party-report |work=www.aljazeera.com |access-date=19 September 2023 |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327040649/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/1/new-president-of-vietnam-nominated-by-communist-party-report |url-status=live}}</ref> On 22 May 2024, [[Tô Lâm]], who previously served as the [[Ministry of Public Security (Vietnam)|Minister of Public Security]], was voted as the president of Vietnam by the National Assembly, after Võ Văn Thưởng resigned in March of the same year due to corruption charges against him.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/5/22/vietnams-security-chief-to-lam-becomes-new-president|title=Vietnam's security chief To Lam becomes new president|newspaper=Al Jazeera|date=22 May 2024|access-date=22 May 2024|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522074413/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/5/22/vietnams-security-chief-to-lam-becomes-new-president|url-status=live}}</ref> On 3 August 2024, Tô Lâm, who is also serving as the president, was elected by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam as the general secretary following the death of Nguyễn Phú Trọng on 19 July 2024.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/asia/vietnam-nguyen-phu-trong-leader-dies-4491331|title=Vietnam's Nguyen Phu Trong, longtime leader and advocate of 'bamboo diplomacy', dies|newspaper=Channel NewsAsia|date=19 July 2024|access-date=21 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/8/3/vietnam-president-to-lam-gets-top-job-as-communist-party-chief|title=Vietnam President To Lam gets top job as Communist Party chief|newspaper=Al Jazeera|date=3 August 2024|access-date=3 August 2024}}</ref> On 21 October 2024, the National Assembly appointed [[People's Army of Vietnam|army]] general [[Lương Cường]] as president, succeeding Tô Lâm.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/asia/vietnam-parliament-military-general-luong-cuong-president-political-turmoil-4694031|title=Vietnam parliament elects military general Luong Cuong as president after months of political turmoil|newspaper=Channel NewsAsia|first1=Tung|last1=Ngo|first2=Calvin|last2=Yang|date=22 October 2024|access-date=24 October 2024|archive-date=22 October 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241022094149/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/asia/vietnam-parliament-military-general-luong-cuong-president-political-turmoil-4694031|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Vietnam}}

Vietnam is divided into 28 [[Provinces of Vietnam|provinces]] ({{langx|vi|tỉnh|link=no}}, [[chữ Hán]]: {{wikt-lang|vi-Hani|省}}) and 6 [[Municipalities of Vietnam|municipalities]] ({{langx|vi|thành phố trực thuộc trung ương|link=no}}), which are administratively on the same level as provinces.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-12 |title=Quốc hội thông qua Nghị quyết về việc sắp xếp đơn vị hành chính cấp tỉnh, từ ngày 12/6, cả nước còn 34 tỉnh, thành phố |url=https://quochoi.vn/tintuc/Pages/tin-hoat-dong-cua-quoc-hoi.aspx?ItemID=94522 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250612070723/https://quochoi.vn/tintuc/Pages/tin-hoat-dong-cua-quoc-hoi.aspx?ItemID=94522 |archive-date=2025-06-12 |access-date=2025-06-12 |website=[[National Assembly of Vietnam]] |language=vi}}</ref>
{{col-begin|width=auto}}
{{col-break}}
{{Provinces of Vietnam|align=none}}
{{col-break|gap=2em}}
{| style="margin:auto;"
| style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;" |
<div class="center">'''[[Municipalities of Vietnam|Municipalities]]'''</div>
----
1. [[Hanoi|Hà Nội]]<br />
2. [[Ho Chi Minh City]]<br />
3. [[Hai Phong|Hải Phòng]]<br />
4. [[Da Nang|Đà Nẵng]]<br />
5. [[Cần Thơ]]<br />
6. [[Huế]]
| style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;" |
<div class="center">'''[[Northwest (Vietnam)|Northwest]]'''</div>
----
7. [[Điện Biên province|Điện Biên]]<br />
8. [[Lai Châu province|Lai Châu]]<br />
9. [[Lào Cai province|Lào Cai]]<br />
14. [[Sơn La province|Sơn La]]
| style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;" |
<div class="center">'''[[Northeast (Vietnam)|Northeast]]'''</div>
----
10. [[Cao Bằng province|Cao Bằng]]<br />
11. [[Lạng Sơn province|Lạng Sơn]]<br />
12. [[Tuyên Quang province|Tuyên Quang]]<br />
13. [[Thái Nguyên province|Thái Nguyên]]<br />
15. [[Phú Thọ province|Phú Thọ]]<br />
17. [[Quảng Ninh province|Quảng Ninh]]
| style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;" |
<div class="center">'''[[Red River Delta]]'''</div>
----
16. [[Bắc Ninh province|Bắc Ninh]]<br />
18. [[Hưng Yên province|Hưng Yên]]<br />
19. [[Ninh Bình province|Ninh Bình]]
|-
| style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;" |
<div class="center">'''[[North Central Coast]]'''</div>
----
20. [[Thanh Hóa province|Thanh Hóa]]<br />
21. [[Nghệ An province|Nghệ An]]<br />
22. [[Hà Tĩnh province|Hà Tĩnh]]<br />
23. [[Quảng Trị province|Quảng Trị]]
| style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;" |
<div class="center">'''[[South Central Coast]]'''</div>
----
24. [[Quảng Ngãi province|Quảng Ngãi]]<br />
25. [[Gia Lai province|Gia Lai]]<br />
26. [[Đắk Lắk province|Đắk Lắk]]<br />
27. [[Khánh Hòa province|Khánh Hòa]]<br />
28. [[Lâm Đồng province|Lâm Đồng]]
|-
| style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;" |
<div class="center">'''[[Southeast (Vietnam)|Southeast]]'''</div>
----
29. [[Tây Ninh province|Tây Ninh]]<br />
30. [[Đồng Nai province|Đồng Nai]]
| style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;" |
<div class="center">'''[[Mekong Delta]]'''</div>
----
31. [[Đồng Tháp province|Đồng Tháp]]<br />
32. [[An Giang province|An Giang]]<br />
33. [[Vĩnh Long province|Vĩnh Long]]<br />
34. [[Cà Mau province|Cà Mau]]
|}
{{col-end}}
[[File:Tay Ho Communist propaganda posters in 2015 11.jpg|thumb|alt=A Tay Ho Communist propaganda poster | A [[Communist Party of Vietnam|Communist Party]] poster in Hanoi]]

Both provinces and centrally controlled municipalities are subdivided into [[Ward (Vietnam)|wards]] (''phường''), [[Commune (Vietnam)|communes]] (''xã'') and [[Special administrative region (Vietnam)|special administrative regions]] (''đặc khu'').

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Vietnam}}

{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| image1            = 2023-12-13 Xi Jinping and Nguyễn Phú Trọng.png
| alt1              = Nguyễn Phú Trọng and Xi Jinping
| caption1          = General Secretary [[Nguyễn Phú Trọng]] with Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]] on 13 December 2023
| image2            = Vladimir Putin and Nguyen Phu Trong (2024-06-20) 02.jpg
| alt2              = Nguyễn Phú Trọng and Vladimir Putin
| caption2          = General Secretary Nguyễn Phú Trọng with Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] on 20 June 2024
| image3            = Secretary Tillerson Joins Commercial Deals Signing Ceremony at the Presidential Palace in Vietnam (38322247422).jpg
| alt3              = Secretary Tillerson at the Presidential Palace
| caption3          = US Secretary of State [[Rex Tillerson]] accompanies US President [[Donald Trump]] to a commercial deal signing ceremony with the Vietnamese President on 12 November 2017.
}}

Throughout its history, Vietnam's main foreign relationship has been with various Chinese dynasties.{{sfn|Thayer|1994}} Following the partition of Vietnam in 1954, North Vietnam maintained relations with the [[Eastern Bloc]], South Vietnam maintained relations with the [[Western Bloc]].{{sfn|Thayer|1994}} Despite these differences, Vietnam's sovereign principles and insistence on cultural independence have been laid down in numerous documents over the centuries before its independence. These include the 11th-century patriotic poem "''[[Nam quốc sơn hà]]''" and the 1428 proclamation of independence "''[[Bình Ngô đại cáo]]''". Though China and Vietnam are now formally at peace,{{sfn|Thayer|1994}} [[Spratly Islands#Military conflicts and diplomatic dialogues|significant territorial tensions]] remain between the two countries over the South China Sea.{{sfn|Thanh Hai|2016|p=177}} The two countries maintain extensive economic and political ties.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Garlick |first=Jeremy |title=Advantage China: Agent of Change in an Era of Global Disruption |date=2024 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-350-25231-8}}</ref>{{Rp|page=102}} Vietnam holds membership in 63 international organisations, including the [[United Nations]] (UN), [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM), [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|International Organisation of the Francophonie]] (La Francophonie), and [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO). It also maintains relations with over 650 non-governmental organisations.{{sfn|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''|2018}} As of 2010, Vietnam had established diplomatic relations with 178 countries.{{sfn|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''|2013}}

Vietnam's current foreign policy is to consistently implement a policy of independence, self-reliance, peace, co-operation, and development, as well as openness, diversification, [[multilateralism|multilateralisation]] with international relations.{{sfn|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''|2007}}{{sfn|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''|2014}} The country declares itself a friend and partner of all countries in the international community, regardless of their political affiliation, by actively taking part in international and regional cooperative development projects.{{sfn|Bich Loan|2007}}{{sfn|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''|2007}} Since the 1990s, Vietnam has taken several key steps to restore diplomatic ties with capitalist [[Western countries]]. It already had relations with communist Western countries in the decades prior.{{sfn|Dayley|2018|p=98}} Relations with the United States [[United States–Vietnam relations|began improving]] in August 1995 with both states upgrading their ''[[:wikt:liaison|liaison]]'' offices to embassy status.{{sfn|Mitchell|1995}} In May 2016, US President [[Barack Obama]] further normalised relations with Vietnam after he announced the lifting of an arms [[United States embargoes|embargo]] on sales of lethal arms to Vietnam.{{sfn|Garamone|2016}} Despite its historical past, today Vietnam is considered to be a potential ally of the United States, especially in the geopolitical context of the [[territorial disputes in the South China Sea]] and in the containment of [[Chinese expansionism]].{{sfn|Hutt|2020}}{{sfn|Tran|2020}} Vietnam also maintains close military and security relations with Russia.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-10-27 |title=Is the U.S. Losing in Vietnam? Russia, North Korea, and China Are Gaining. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2025/10/27/world/asia/vietnam-russia-relations.html |access-date=2025-10-28 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Vietnam People's Armed Forces}}

The [[Vietnam People's Armed Forces]] consists of the [[Vietnam People's Army]] (VPA), the [[Vietnam People's Public Security]], and the Vietnam Self-Defence Militia. The VPA is the official name for the active military services of Vietnam, and is subdivided into the [[Vietnam People's Ground Forces]], the [[Vietnam People's Navy]], the [[Vietnam People's Air Force]], the [[Vietnam Border Guard]], and the [[Vietnam Coast Guard]]. The VPA has an active manpower of around 450,000, but its total strength, including paramilitary forces, may be as high as 5,000,000.{{sfn|Taylor|Rutherford|2011|p=50}} In 2015, Vietnam's [[List of countries by military expenditures|military expenditure]] totalled approximately US$4.4&nbsp;billion, equivalent to around 8% of its total government spending.{{sfn|Yan|2016}} Joint military exercises and war games have been held with [[Brunei]],{{sfn|Voice of Vietnam|2016}} China,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Việt Nam, China conclude first joint military training exercise |url=https://vietnamnews.vn/politics-laws/1722397/viet-nam-china-conclude-first-joint-military-training-exercise.html |access-date=2025-10-28 |website=vietnamnews.vn |language=en}}</ref> India,{{sfn|''The Economic Times''|2018}} Japan,{{sfn|''The Japan Times''|2015}} Laos,{{sfn|Voice of Vietnam|2018b}} Russia,{{sfn|''Ministry of Defence'' Russia|2018}} [[Singapore]]{{sfn|Voice of Vietnam|2016}} and the US.{{sfn|''The Telegraph''|2012}}

=== Human rights and sociopolitical issues ===
{{See also|Human rights in Vietnam}}
Vietnam's pre-1986 communist system has been described either as [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]]<ref name="tot2"/> or not totalitarian but autocratic.<ref>{{cite book|title=Transitions and Non-Transitions from Communism: Regime Survival in China, Cuba, North Korea, and Vietnam|author=Steven Saxonberg|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2013|page=97|isbn=978-1-139-61998-1|quote=This make Vietnam rather similar to Poland as a country that never succeeded in establishing totalitarian rule.}}</ref> Since 1986, Vietnam retreated from totalitarianism to authoritarianism.<ref name="tot1">{{cite news|last=Morris|first=Stephen J.|date=1 May 2005|title=The War We Could Have Won|url-access=subscription|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/01/opinion/the-war-we-could-have-won.html|work=The New York Times|access-date=11 December 2024|archive-date=13 December 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213233908/https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/01/opinion/the-war-we-could-have-won.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="tot2">{{cite journal|first=Thuy|last=Nguyen|title=Exploiting Ideology and Making Higher Education Serve Vietnam's Authoritarian Regime|year=2022|journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies|volume=55|issue=4|pages=83–104|doi=10.1525/cpcs.2022.1819231|doi-access=free}}</ref> Under the current constitution, the CPV is the only party allowed to rule, the operation of all other political parties being outlawed. Other human rights issues concern [[freedom of association]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of religion]], and [[freedom of the press]]. In 2009, Vietnamese lawyer [[Lê Công Định]] was arrested and charged with the capital crime of [[subversion]]; several of his associates were also arrested.{{sfn|BBC News|2009}}{{sfn|Mydans|2009}} [[Amnesty International]] described him and his arrested associates as [[prisoners of conscience]].{{sfn|BBC News|2009}} Vietnam has also suffered from human trafficking and related issues.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://un-act.org/vietnam/|title=VIET NAM – UN ACT|newspaper=Un Act |access-date=27 March 2020|archive-date=10 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410095348/http://un-act.org/vietnam/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Women,-children-and-babies:-human-trafficking-to-China-is-on-the-rise-47513.html|title=Women, children and babies: human trafficking to China is on the rise|date=11 July 2019|website=Asia News|access-date=27 March 2020|archive-date=20 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220040153/http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Women,-children-and-babies:-human-trafficking-to-China-is-on-the-rise-47513.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{cite web|url=https://thediplomat.com/2019/11/vietnams-human-trafficking-problem-is-too-big-to-ignore/|title=Vietnam's Human Trafficking Problem Is Too Big to Ignore|date=8 November 2019|website=The Diplomat|access-date=27 March 2020|archive-date=28 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428161005/https://thediplomat.com/2019/11/vietnams-human-trafficking-problem-is-too-big-to-ignore/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Vietnam}}

[[File:GDP per capita development in Vietnam.svg|thumb|right|Historical GDP per capita development of Vietnam]]
{|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px"
! style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;" colspan="2" |Share of world [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]])<ref name="IMFWEO.VN" />
|-
! style="background:#cfb;"|Year
! style="background:#cfb;"|Share
|-
| 1980 || style="text-align:right;" |0.21%
|-
| 1990 || style="text-align:right;" |0.28%
|-
| 2000 || style="text-align:right;"|0.39%
|-
| 2010 || style="text-align:right;"|0.52%
|-
| 2020 || style="text-align:right;"|0.80%
|}

Throughout the history of Vietnam, its economy has been based largely on [[agriculture]]—primarily [[Rice production in Vietnam|wet rice cultivation]].{{sfn|Cornell University}} [[bauxite mining in Vietnam|Bauxite]], an important material in the production of [[aluminium]], is mined in central Vietnam.{{sfn|Kim Phuong|2014|p=1}} Since reunification, the country's economy is shaped primarily by the CPV through [[Five-Year Plans of Vietnam| Five-Year Plans]] decided upon at the plenary sessions of the Central Committee and national congresses.{{sfn|Kimura|1986}} The [[collectivisation]] of farms, factories, and capital goods was carried out as part of the establishment of central planning, with millions of people working for state enterprises. Under strict state control, Vietnam's economy continued to be plagued by inefficiency, [[Corruption in Vietnam|corruption in state-owned enterprises]], poor quality, and underproduction.{{sfn|Adhikari|Kirkpatrick|Weiss|1992|p=249}}{{sfn|Van Tho|2003|p=11}} With the decline in economic aid from its main trading partner, the Soviet Union, following the erosion of the [[Eastern bloc]] in the late 1980s, and the subsequent [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse of the Soviet Union]], as well as the negative impacts of the post-war [[economic sanctions|trade embargo]] imposed by the United States,{{sfn|Litvack|Litvack|Rondinelli|1999|p=31}}{{sfn|Freeman|2002}} Vietnam began to liberalise its trade by [[devaluation|devaluing]] its exchange rate to increase exports and embarked on a policy of economic development.{{sfn|Litvack|Litvack|Rondinelli|1999|p=33}}
[[File:The Landmark 81 at night.jpg|alt=Photograph of Vietnam's tallest skyscraper, the Landmark 81, located in Bình Thạnh District in Ho Chi Minh City|thumb|Vietnam's tallest skyscraper, the [[Landmark 81]], located in [[Bình Thạnh district]], [[Ho Chi Minh City]].]]
In 1986, the [[6th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam|Sixth National Congress]] of the CPV introduced [[Socialist-oriented market economy|socialist-oriented market]] economic reforms as part of the {{lang|vi|[[Đổi Mới]]}} reform programme. [[Private ownership]] began to be encouraged in industry, commerce, and agriculture, and state enterprises were [[Corporatisation|restructured]] to operate under market constraints.{{sfn|Van Tho|2003|p=5}}{{sfn|Hoang Vuong|Dung Tran|2009}} This led to the five-year economic plans being replaced by the socialist-oriented market mechanism.{{sfn|Hoang Vuong|2014}} As a result of these reforms, Vietnam achieved approximately 8% annual [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) growth between 1990 and 1997.{{sfn|Largo|2002|p=66}}{{sfn|International Monetary Fund|1999|p=23}} The United States ended its economic embargo against Vietnam in early 1994.{{sfn|Cockburn|1994}} Although the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]] caused an economic slowdown to 4–5% growth per year, its economy began to recover in 1999,{{sfn|Van Tho|2003|p=5}} and grew at around 7% per year from 2000 to 2005, one of the fastest in the world.<ref name=Pincus2015>{{harvnb|Pincus|2015|p=27}}; this article refers to the so-called "[[Vent for surplus]]" theory of international trade.</ref>{{sfn|Quang Vinh|p=13}} On 11 January 2007,  Vietnam became the 150th member of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] (World Trade Organization).<ref>{{cite web |title=WTO {{!}} Accessions: Viet Nam |url=https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/acc_e/a1_vietnam_e.htm |website=www.wto.org |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=27 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927211950/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/acc_e/a1_vietnam_e.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> According to the [[General Statistics Office of Vietnam]] (GSO), growth remained strong despite the [[late-2000s global recession]], holding at 6.8% in 2010. Vietnam's year-on-year inflation rate reached 11.8% in December 2010, and the currency, the [[Vietnamese đồng]], was devalued three times.{{sfn|Asian Development Bank|2010|p=388}}{{sfn|Thanh Nien|2010}}

Deep [[poverty]], defined as the percentage of the population living on less than $1 per day, has declined significantly in Vietnam, and the relative poverty rate is now less than that of China, India, and the [[Philippines]].{{sfn|Vierra|Vierra|2011|p=5}} This decline can be attributed to [[Equity (economics)|equitable economic policies]] aimed at improving [[living standards]] and preventing the rise of [[Economic inequality|inequality]].{{sfn|Vandemoortele|Bird|2010}} These policies have included egalitarian land distribution during the initial stages of the ''Đổi Mới'' programme, investment in poorer remote areas, and subsidising of education and healthcare.{{sfn|Cuong Le|Kubo|Fujino|Minh Pham|2010|p=23}}{{sfn|H. Dang|Glewwe|2017|p=9}} Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has applied sequenced trade liberalisation, a two-track approach opening some sectors of the economy to international markets.{{sfn|Vandemoortele|Bird|2010}}{{sfn|Vandemoortele|2010}} Manufacturing, [[information technology]] and high-tech industries now form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Although Vietnam is a relative newcomer to the [[oil industry]], it is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia with a total 2011 output of {{convert|318000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}}.{{sfn|UPI.com|2013}} In 2010, Vietnam was ranked as the eighth-largest crude [[petroleum]] producer in the Asia and Pacific region.{{sfn|Fong-Sam|2010|p=26}} The US bought the biggest share of Vietnam's exports,{{sfn|''Viet Nam News''|2018b}} while [[goods]] from China were the most popular Vietnamese import.{{sfn|Vietnam News Agency|2018}}

Based on findings by the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) in 2022, the [[unemployment]] rate in Vietnam was 2.3%, the [[nominal GDP]] US$406.452&nbsp;billion, and a nominal [[GDP per capita]] $4,086.<ref name="IMFWEO.VN" />{{sfn|Tuoi Tre News|2012}} Besides the [[Primary sector of the economy|primary sector economy]], [[Tourism in Vietnam|tourism]] has contributed significantly to Vietnam's economic growth with 7.94&nbsp;million foreign visitors recorded in 2015.{{sfn|''Vietnam Net''|2016a}}

=== Agriculture ===
[[File:Terraced fields Sa Pa 3.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Photograph of terraced rice fields in Sa Pa | Terraced rice fields in [[Sa Pa]]]]
As a result of several [[market liberalization]] measures, Vietnam has become a major exporter of agricultural products. It is now the world's largest producer of [[cashew]] nuts, with a one-third global share;{{sfn|Mai|2017}} the largest producer of [[black pepper]], accounting for one-third of the world's market;{{sfn|Voice of Vietnam|2018c}} and the second-largest [[rice]] exporter in the world after [[Thailand]] since the 1990s.{{sfn|Nielsen|2007|p=1}} Subsequently, Vietnam is also the world's second largest exporter of [[coffee]].{{sfn|Summers|2014}} The country has the highest proportion of land use for [[permanent crop]]s together with other states in the [[Greater Mekong Subregion]].{{sfn|Truong|Vo|Nguyen|2018|p=172}} Other primary exports include [[tea]], [[rubber]] and fishery products. Agriculture's share of Vietnam's GDP has fallen in recent decades, declining from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006 as production in other sectors of the economy has risen.

====Seafood====
The overall fisheries production of Vietnam from capture fisheries and [[aquaculture]] was 5.6 million MT in 2011 and 6.7 million MT in 2016. The output of Vietnam's fisheries sector has seen strong growth, which could be attributed to the continued expansion of the aquaculture sub-sector.<ref>{{cite web
 | url =http://www.seafdec.org/fisheries-country-profile-viet-nam/
 | title =Fisheries Country Profile: Vietnam
 | date =June 2018
 | website =Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
 | access-date =24 April 2021
| archive-date =24 April 2021
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20210424155301/http://www.seafdec.org/fisheries-country-profile-viet-nam/
 | url-status =live
}}</ref>

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in Vietnam}}

[[File:TOPIO 3.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Photograph of a TOPIO humanoid ping-pong-playing robot | A Vietnamese-made [[TOPIO]] 3.0 [[humanoid robot|humanoid]] [[ping-pong]]-playing robot displayed during the 2009 [[International Robot Exhibition]] (IREX) in Tokyo{{sfn|DigInfo|2007}}{{sfn|Borel|2010}}]]

In 2010, Vietnam's total state spending on science and technology amounted to roughly 0.45% of its GDP.{{sfn|''Viet Nam News''|2010}} Vietnamese scientists have made many significant contributions in various fields of study, most notably in [[mathematics]]. [[Hoang Tuy|Hoàng Tụy]] pioneered the [[applied mathematics]] field of [[global optimisation]] in the 20th century,{{sfn|Koblitz|2009|p=198}} while [[Ngô Bảo Châu]] won the 2010 [[Fields Medal]] for his proof of [[Fundamental lemma (Langlands program)|fundamental lemma in the theory of automorphic forms]].{{sfn|CNRS|2010}}{{sfn|Koppes|2010}} Since the establishment of the [[Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology]] (VAST) by the government in 1975, the country is working to develop its first national [[space flight]] programme especially after the completion of the infrastructure at the Vietnam Space Centre (VSC) in 2018.{{sfn|Vietnam National Space Centre|2016}}{{sfn|Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology|2017}} Vietnam has also made significant advances in the development of [[robot]]s, such as the [[TOPIO]] humanoid model.{{sfn|DigInfo|2007}}{{sfn|Borel|2010}} One of Vietnam's main [[messaging apps]], [[Zalo]], was developed by Vương Quang Khải, a Vietnamese [[hacker]] who later worked with the country's largest [[information technology]] service company, the [[FPT Group]].{{sfn|Raslan|2017}}

[[File:Svhutech nckh4.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Vietnamese science students working on an [[experiment]] in their university lab.|Vietnamese science students working on an [[experiment]] in their university lab]]
According to the [[UNESCO Institute for Statistics]], Vietnam devoted 0.19% of its GDP to science research and development in 2011.{{sfn|UNESCO Media Services|2016}} Vietnam was ranked 44th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025. It has increased its ranking considerably since 2012, when it was ranked 76th.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/viet-nam |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=28 October 2013|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2 September 2021|website=INSEAD Knowledge|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930}}</ref> Between 2005 and 2014, the number of Vietnamese scientific publications recorded in Thomson Reuters' [[Web of Science]] increased at a rate well above the average for Southeast Asia, albeit from a modest starting point.{{sfn|UNESCO Publishing|pp=713–714}} Publications focus mainly on [[life science]]s (22%), [[:wikt:physic|physics]] (13%), and [[engineering]] (13%), which is consistent with recent advances in the production of diagnostic equipment and shipbuilding.{{sfn|UNESCO Publishing|pp=713–714}}

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Vietnam}}

[[File:Pont-pagode "japonais" de Hoi-an, vue de nuit.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Photograph of Hội An, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination |[[Hội An]], a [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[List of World Heritage Sites in Southeast Asia|World Heritage Site]], is a major tourist destination. The photo is [[Japanese Bridge]]. ]]
Tourism is an important element of economic activity in the nation, contributing 7.5% of the total GDP. Vietnam hosted roughly 13 million tourists in 2017, an increase of 29.1% over the previous year, making it one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations in the world. The vast majority of the tourists in the country, some 9.7&nbsp;million, came from Asia; namely China (4&nbsp;million), [[South Korea]] (2.6&nbsp;million), and Japan (798,119).{{sfn|''Vietnam National Administration of Tourism''|2018}} Vietnam also attracts large numbers of visitors from Europe, with almost 1.9&nbsp;million visitors in 2017; most European visitors came from Russia (574,164), followed by the United Kingdom (283,537), France (255,396), and Germany (199,872). Other significant international arrivals by nationality include the United States (614,117) and Australia (370,438).{{sfn|''Vietnam National Administration of Tourism''|2018}}

The most visited destinations in Vietnam are the largest city, Ho Chi Minh City, with over 5.8&nbsp;million international arrivals, followed by Hanoi with 4.6&nbsp;million and [[Hạ Long]], including Hạ Long Bay with 4.4&nbsp;million arrivals. All three are ranked in the top 100 most-visited cities in the world.{{sfn|Quy|2018}} Vietnam is home to eight [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Sites]]. In 2018, ''[[Travel + Leisure]]'' ranked [[Hội An]] as one of the world's top 15 best destinations to visit.{{sfn|Terzian|2018}}

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Vietnam|Rail transport in Vietnam|List of airports in Vietnam}}

Much of Vietnam's modern transportation network can trace its roots to the French colonial era, when it was used to facilitate the transportation of [[raw material]]s to its main ports. It was extensively expanded and modernised following the partition of Vietnam.{{sfn|Crook|2014|p=7}} Vietnam's road system includes national roads administered at the central level, provincial roads managed at the provincial level, district roads managed at the district level, urban roads managed by cities and towns, and commune roads managed at the commune level.{{sfn|''General Statistics Office of Vietnam''|2010}} In 2010, Vietnam's road system had a total length of about {{convert|188744|km|mi|0}} of which {{convert|93535|km|mi|0}} are [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]] roads comprising national, provincial and district roads.{{sfn|''General Statistics Office of Vietnam''|2010}} The length of the national road system is about {{convert|15370|km|mi|0}} with {{convert|15085|km|mi|0}} of its length paved. The provincial road system has around {{convert|27976|km|mi|0}} of paved roads, while {{convert|50474|km|mi|0}} district roads are paved.{{sfn|''General Statistics Office of Vietnam''|2010}}
[[File:Cầu Long Thành, Đường cao tốc TP.HCM - Long Thành - Dầu Giây.JPG|thumb|right|alt=Photograph of Ho Chi Minh City's North–South Expressway | [[Ho Chi Minh City–Long Thanh–Dau Giay Expressway|HCMC–LT–DG]] section of the [[North–South Expressway East|North–South Expressway]]]]
[[File:Tan Son Nhat International Airport.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Photograph of Tan Son Nhat International Airport | [[Tan Son Nhat International Airport]] is the busiest airport in the country.]]

Bicycles, motorcycles, and [[motor scooter]]s remain the most popular forms of road transport in the country, a legacy of the French, though the number of privately owned cars has been increasing in recent years.{{sfn|Huu Duc|Mai Hoa|Thien Huong|Ngoc Bao|2013|p=2080}} Public buses operated by private companies are the main mode of long-distance travel for much of the population. [[Traffic collision]]s remain the major safety issue of Vietnamese transportation, with an average of 30 people losing their lives daily.{{sfn|''General Statistics Office of Vietnam''|2011}} [[Traffic congestion]] is a growing problem in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, especially with the growth of individual car ownership.{{sfn|Linh Le|Anh Trinh|2016}}{{sfn|Sohr|Brockfeld|Sauerlander|Melde|2016|p=220}} Vietnam's primary cross-country rail service is the [[North–South railway (Vietnam)|Reunification Express]] from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi, a distance of nearly {{convert|1726|km|mi}}.{{sfn|Chin|2018}} From Hanoi, railway lines branch out to the northeast, north, and west; the eastbound line runs from Hanoi to Hạ Long Bay, the northbound line from Hanoi to [[Thái Nguyên]], and the northeast line from Hanoi to Lào Cai. In 2009, Vietnam and Japan signed a deal to build a high-speed railway—[[shinkansen]] (bullet train)—using Japanese technology.{{sfn|''The Japan Times''|2009}} Vietnamese engineers were sent to Japan to receive training in the operation and maintenance of high-speed trains.{{sfn|Vietnam+|2008}} The planned railway will be a {{convert|1545|km|mi|0}}-long express route serving a total of 23 stations, including Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, with 70% of its route running on bridges and through tunnels.{{sfn|''The New York Times''|2018}}{{sfn|''Vietnam Net''|2018b}} The trains will travel at a maximum speed of {{convert|350|km|mi}} per hour.{{sfn|''Vietnam Net''|2018b}}{{sfn|South East Asia Iron and Steel Institute|2009}} Plans for the high-speed rail line, however, have been postponed after the Vietnamese government decided to prioritise the development of both the [[Hanoi Metro|Hanoi]] and [[HCMC Metro|Ho Chi Minh City]] metros and expand road networks instead.{{sfn|Chin|2018}}{{sfn|Chi|2017}}{{sfn|Tatarski|2017}}

[[File:Chùa Vẽ Terminal, Port of Hải Phòng.JPG|thumb|alt=Photograph of a crane at the Port of Hai Phong | The port of [[Hai Phong]] is one of the largest and busiest container ports in Vietnam.]]
Vietnam operates 20 major civil airports, including three international gateways: [[Noi Bai]] in Hanoi, [[Da Nang International Airport]] in Đà Nẵng, and [[Tan Son Nhat]] in Ho Chi Minh City. Tan Son Nhat is the country's largest airport, handling the majority of international passenger traffic.{{sfn|Hoang|2016|p=1}} According to a government-approved plan, Vietnam will have another seven international airports by 2025, including [[Vinh International Airport]], [[Phu Bai International Airport]], [[Cam Ranh International Airport]], [[Phu Quoc International Airport]], [[Cat Bi International Airport]], [[Can Tho International Airport]], and [[Long Thanh International Airport]]. The planned Long Thanh International Airport will have an annual service capacity of 100&nbsp;million passengers once it becomes fully operational in 2025.{{sfn|''Vietnam Investment Review''|2018}} [[Vietnam Airlines]], the state-owned national airline, maintains a fleet of 86 passenger aircraft and aims to operate 170 by 2020.{{sfn|Ha|Giang|Denslow|2012}} Several private airlines also operate in Vietnam, including [[Air Mekong]], [[Bamboo Airways]], [[Jetstar Pacific Airlines]], [[Vietnam Air Service Company|VASCO]] and [[VietJet Air]]. As a coastal country, Vietnam has many major sea ports, including [[Cam Ranh]], Đà Nẵng, [[Haiphong|Hải Phòng]], Ho Chi Minh City, [[Hạ Long]], [[Qui Nhơn]], [[Vũng Tàu]], [[Cửa Lò]], and [[Nha Trang]]. Further inland, the country's extensive network of rivers plays a key role in rural transportation with over {{convert|47130|km|mi}} of navigable [[waterway]]s carrying ferries, barges, and [[water taxi]]s.{{sfn|Index Mundi|2018}}

=== Energy ===
{{Main|Energy in Vietnam|List of power stations in Vietnam}}

[[File:Sơn La Dam.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Photograph of the Sơn La Dam | [[Sơn La Dam]] in northern Vietnam, the [[List of largest hydroelectric power stations|largest hydroelectric dam]] in Southeast Asia{{sfn|''Intellasia''|2010}}]]
Vietnam's energy sector is dominated largely by the state-controlled [[Vietnam Electricity|Vietnam Electricity Group]] (EVN). As of 2017, EVN made up about 61.4% of the country's power generation system with a total power capacity of 25,884 [[Megawatt|MW]].{{sfn|Electricity of Vietnam|2017|p=10}} Other energy sources are [[PetroVietnam]] (4,435 MW), [[Vinacomin]] (1,785 MW) and 10,031 MW from [[build–operate–transfer]] (BOT) investors.{{sfn|Electricity of Vietnam|2017|p=12}}

Most of Vietnam's power is generated by either [[hydropower]] or [[fossil fuel power station|fossil fuel power]] such as [[coal]], [[oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]], while [[diesel fuel|diesel]], [[small hydropower]] and renewable energy supplies the remainder.{{sfn|Electricity of Vietnam|2017|p=12}} The Vietnamese government had planned to develop a [[nuclear reactor]] as the path to establish [[Nuclear energy in Vietnam|another source for electricity]] from [[nuclear power]]. The plan was abandoned in late 2016 when a majority of the National Assembly voted to oppose the project due to widespread public concern over [[radioactive contamination]].{{sfn|Nguyen|Binh Minh|Pham|Burmistrova|2016}}

The household gas sector in Vietnam is dominated by PetroVietnam, which controls nearly 70% of the country's domestic market for [[liquefied petroleum gas]] (LPG).{{sfn|''Nikkei Asian Review''}} Since 2011, the company has also operated five renewable energy power plants, including the Nhơn Trạch 2 Thermal Power Plant (750 MW), Phú Quý Wind Power Plant (6 MW), Hủa Na Hydro-power Plant (180 MW), Dakdrinh Hydro-power Plant (125 MW), and Vũng Áng 1 Thermal Power Plant (1,200 MW).{{sfn|Viet Trung|Quoc Viet|Van Chat|2016|p=70}}

According to statistics from [[BP]], Vietnam is listed among the 52 countries that have [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|proven crude oil reserves]]. In 2015, the reserve was approximately 4.4&nbsp;billion barrels, ranking Vietnam in first place in Southeast Asia, while the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|proven gas reserves]] were about 0.6&nbsp;trillion cubic metres (tcm) and ranking it third in Southeast Asia after [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]].{{sfn|Viet Trung|Quoc Viet|Van Chat|2016|p=64}}

=== Telecommunication ===
{{Main|Telecommunications in Vietnam}}

Telecommunications services in Vietnam are wholly provided by the Vietnam Post and Telecommunications General Corporation (now the [[VNPT]] Group), which is a [[state-owned]] company.{{sfn|Pham|2015|p=6}} The VNPT retained its monopoly until 1986. The telecom sector was reformed in 1995 when the Vietnamese government began to implement a competitive policy with the creation of two domestic telecommunication companies, the Military Electronic and Telecommunication Company ([[Viettel]], which is wholly owned by the Vietnamese Ministry of Defence) and the Saigon Post and Telecommunication Company (SPT or SaigonPostel), with 18% of it owned by VNPT.{{sfn|Pham|2015|p=6}} VNPT's monopoly was finally ended by the government in 2003 with the issuance of a decree.{{sfn|Pham|2015|p=7}} By 2012, the top three telecom operators in Vietnam were Viettel, [[Vinaphone]], and [[MobiFone]]. The remaining companies included: [[EVNTelecom]], Vietnammobile and [[S-Fone]].{{sfn|''Viet Nam News''|2012}} With the shift towards a more [[market economy| market-oriented economy]], Vietnam's telecommunications market is continuously being reformed to attract [[Foreign direct investment|foreign investment]], which includes the supply of services and the establishment of nationwide telecom infrastructure.{{sfn|''Oxford Business Group''|2017}}

=== Water supply and sanitation ===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Vietnam}}

[[File:Village vietnam sapa bridge.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Stream flowing down a hill with a bridge crossing it | In rural areas of Vietnam, [[water supply|piped water systems]] are operated by a wide variety of institutions including a national organisation, people committees (local government), community groups, co-operatives and private companies.]]
Vietnam has 2,360 rivers with an average annual discharge of 310&nbsp;billion [[cubic metre|m<sup>3</sup>]]. The rainy season accounts for 70% of the year's discharge.{{sfn|''British Business Group Vietnam''|2017|p=1}} Most of the country's urban [[water supply]] systems have been developed without proper management within the last 10 years. Based on a 2008 survey by the Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA), existing water production capacity exceeded demand, but service coverage is still sparse. Most of the clean water supply infrastructure is not widely developed. It is only available to a small proportion of the population, with about one-third of 727 district towns having some form of piped water supply.{{sfn|''British Business Group Vietnam''|2017|p=2}} There is also concern over the safety of existing water resources for urban and rural water supply systems. Most industrial factories release their untreated [[wastewater]] directly into the water sources. Where the government does not take measures to address the issue, most domestic wastewater is discharged, untreated, back into the environment and pollutes the [[surface water]].{{sfn|''British Business Group Vietnam''|2017|p=2}}

In recent years, there have been some efforts and collaboration between local and foreign universities to develop access to safe water in the country by introducing [[water filter|water filtration systems]]. There is a growing concern among local populations over the serious public health issues associated with water contamination caused by pollution as well as the [[arsenic contamination of groundwater|high levels of arsenic]] in [[groundwater]] sources.{{sfn|University of Technology Sydney|2018}} The government of Netherlands has been providing aid focusing its investments mainly on water-related sectors including [[water treatment]] projects.{{sfn|''Government of the Netherlands''|2016}}{{sfn|''Government of the Netherlands''|2018}}{{sfn|Anh|2018}} Regarding [[sanitation]], 78% of Vietnam's population has access to [[Improved sanitation|"improved" sanitation]]—94% of the urban population and 70% of the rural population. However, there are still about 21&nbsp;million people in the country lacking access to "improved" sanitation according to a survey conducted in 2015.{{sfn|UNICEF|2015}} In 2018, the construction ministry said the country's water supply and drainage industry had been applying hi-tech methods and [[information technology]] (IT) to sanitation issues but faced problems like limited funding, climate change, and pollution.{{sfn|''Viet Nam News''|2018c}} The health ministry has also announced that water inspection units will be established nationwide beginning in June 2019. Inspections are to be conducted without notice, since there have been many cases involving health issues caused by poor or polluted water supplies, as well as unhygienic conditions reported every year.{{sfn|''Viet Nam News''|2018d}}

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Vietnam|Vietnamese people|Ethnic groups in Vietnam}}

[[File:Vietnam population pyramid 01.04.2019.png|350px|alt=|thumb|upright=1.4|Vietnam population pyramid in 2019]]
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Ethnic groups of Vietnam{{sfn|Jones|1998|p=21}}
|label1 = [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]]
|value1 =85.32
|color1 = #e3ffff
|label2 = [[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam|Other]]
|value2 =14.68
|color2 = grey
}}

{{As of|{{UN Population|Year}}}}, the population of Vietnam stands at approximately {{#expr:{{replace|{{UN Population|Viet Nam}}|,||}}/1e6 round 1}} million people.{{sfn|United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs}} The population had grown significantly from the 1979 census, which showed the total population of reunified Vietnam to be 52.7&nbsp;million.{{sfn|Fraser|1980}} According to the 2019 census, the country's population was 96,208,984.{{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}} Based on the 2019 census, 65.6% of the Vietnamese population lives in rural areas while only 34.4% live in urban areas. The average growth rate of the urban population has recently increased, which is attributed mainly to migration and rapid urbanisation.{{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}} The dominant [[Viet people|Viet]] or Kinh ethnic group constitute 82,085,826 people or 85.32% of the population.{{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}} Most of their population is concentrated in the country's [[alluvial fans|alluvial deltas]] and coastal plains. As the majority ethnic group, the Kinh possess significant political and economic influence over the country.{{sfn|Jones|1998|p=21}} Despite this, Vietnam is also home to various ethnic groups, of which [[Ethnic groups in Vietnam|54 are officially recognised]], including the [[Hmong people|Hmong]], [[Yao people|Dao]], [[Tay people|Tày]], [[Thai people in Vietnam|Thái]] and [[Nùng people|Nùng]].{{sfn|''Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration''|2013|p=1}} Many ethnic minorities, such as the [[Muong people|Muong]], who are closely related to the Kinh, dwell in the highlands, which cover two-thirds of Vietnam's territory.{{sfn|''Government of Vietnam (I)''}}

Since the partition of Vietnam, the population of the [[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Central Highlands]] was almost exclusively [[Degar]] (including more than 40 tribal groups); however, the South Vietnamese government at the time enacted a programme of resettling Kinh in indigenous areas.{{sfn|Cultural Orientation Resource Centre|p=7}}{{sfn|Montagnard Human Rights Organisation}} The [[Hoa people|Hoa]] (ethnic [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]) and [[Khmer Krom]] people are mainly lowlanders.{{sfn|Jones|1998|p=21}}{{sfn|Koskoff|2008|p=1316}} Throughout Vietnam's history, many Chinese people, largely from [[South China]], migrated to the country as administrators, merchants, and even refugees.{{sfn|Dodd|Lewis|2003|p=531}} Since the reunification in 1976, an increase in communist policies nationwide resulted in the nationalisation and confiscation of property, especially from the Hoa in the south and the wealthy in cities. This led many of them to leave Vietnam.{{sfn|Amer|1996}}{{sfn|Feinberg|2016}}

=== Urbanisation ===
{{See also|List of cities in Vietnam}}

[[File:Ho Chi Minh City Skyline (night).jpg|thumb|right|300x300px|alt=Ho Chi Minh City's District 1 skyline photographed at night | [[District 1, Ho Chi Minh City|District 1]], Ho Chi Minh City]]
The number of people who live in urbanised areas in 2019 was 33,122,548 people (with the urbanisation rate at 34.4%).{{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}} Since 1986, Vietnam's urbanisation rates have surged rapidly after the Vietnamese government implemented the Đổi Mới economic programme, changing the system into a socialist one and liberalising property rights. As a result, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (the two major cities in the Red River Delta and Southeast regions, respectively) increased their share of the total urban population from 8.5% and 24.9% to 15.9% and 31% respectively.{{sfn|United Nations Population Fund|2009|p=117}} The Vietnamese government, through its [[Ministry of Construction (Vietnam)|construction ministry]], forecasts the country will have a 45% urbanisation rate by 2020, although it was confirmed to only be 34.4% according to the 2019 census.{{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}} Urbanisation is said to have a positive correlation with economic growth. Any country with higher urbanisation rates has a higher GDP growth rate.{{sfn|World Bank|2002}} Furthermore, the urbanisation movement in Vietnam is mainly between the rural areas and the country's Southeast region. Ho Chi Minh City has received a large number of migrants due mainly to better weather and economic opportunities.{{sfn|United Nations Population Fund|2009|p=102}}

A study also shows that rural-to-urban area migrants have a higher standard of living than both non-migrants in rural areas and non-migrants in urban areas. This results in changes to economic structures. In 1985, agriculture made up 37.2% of Vietnam's GDP; in 2008, that number had declined to 18.5%.{{sfn|Cira|Dastur|Kilroy|Lozano|2011|p=194}} In 1985, industry made up only 26.2% of Vietnam's GDP; by 2008, that number had increased to 43.2%. Urbanisation also helps to improve basic services, which increase people's standards of living. Access to electricity grew from 14% of total households with electricity in 1993 to above 96% in 2009.{{sfn|Cira|Dastur|Kilroy|Lozano|2011|p=194}} In terms of access to fresh water, data from 65 utility companies show that only 12% of households in the area covered by them had access to the water network in 2002; by 2007, more than 70% of the population was connected. Though urbanisation has many benefits, it has some drawbacks since it creates more traffic, and air and water pollution.{{sfn|Cira|Dastur|Kilroy|Lozano|2011|p=194}}

Many Vietnamese use [[moped]]s for transportation, since they are relatively cheap and easy to operate. Their large numbers have been known to cause traffic congestion and air pollution in Vietnam. In the capital city alone, the number of mopeds increased from 0.5&nbsp;million in 2001 to 4.7&nbsp;million in 2013.{{sfn|Cira|Dastur|Kilroy|Lozano|2011|p=194}} With rapid development, factories have sprung up which indirectly pollute the air and water, for example, in the [[2016 Vietnam marine life disaster]].{{sfn|Tiezzi|2016}} The government is intervening and attempting solutions to decrease air pollution by decreasing the number of motorcycles while increasing public transportation. It has introduced more regulations for [[waste]] handling. The amount of solid waste generated in urban areas of Vietnam has increased by more than 200% from 2003 to 2008. Industrial solid waste accounted for 181% of that increase. One of the government's efforts includes attempting to promote campaigns that encourage locals to sort [[municipal solid waste|household waste]], since [[waste sorting]] is still not practised by most of Vietnamese society.{{sfn|Truong|2018|p=19}}
{{Largest cities of Vietnam|class=info}}

=== Languages ===
The [[national language]] of the country is [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], a tonal [[Vietic languages|Vietic]] language in the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic language family]] (Mon–Khmer), which is spoken by the majority of the population.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=K. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2HP31kOSA4C&dq=Vietic+peoples&pg=PA51 |title=A History of the Vietnamese |date=2013-05-09 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-87586-8 |page=51 |language=en}}</ref> Vietnam's minority groups speak a variety of languages, including: [[Tày language|Tày]], [[Muong language|Mường]], [[Cham language|Cham]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], Chinese, [[Nung language (Tai)|Nùng]], and [[Hmong language|Hmong]]. The [[Montagnard (Vietnam)|Montagnard]] peoples of the [[Central Highlands (Vietnam)|Central Highlands]] also speak many distinct languages, some belonging to the Austroasiatic and others to the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]] language families.{{sfn|Cultural Orientation Resource Centre|p=10}} In recent years, a number of [[Vietnamese sign languages|sign languages]] have developed in the major cities.

[[File:Vietnamese calligraphy.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A sample of traditional Vietnamese calligraphy | [[Vietnamese calligraphy]] in Latin alphabet]]
The French language, a legacy of colonial rule, is spoken by many educated Vietnamese as a second language, especially among those educated in the former [[South Vietnam]], where it was a principal language in administration, education, and commerce.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kirkpatrick |first1=Andy |last2=Liddicoat |first2=Anthony J. |title=The Routledge International Handbook of Language Education Policy in Asia |date=17 April 2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-35449-9 |pages=187, 192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQuWDwAAQBAJ |archive-date=16 July 2025 |access-date=22 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250716033232/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQuWDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> Vietnam remains a full member of the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|International Organisation of the Francophonie]] ({{lang|fr|La Francophonie}}) and education has revived some interest in the language.{{sfn|''French Senate''|1997}} [[Russian language|Russian]], and to a lesser extent German, [[Czech language|Czech]], and [[Polish language|Polish]] are known among some northern Vietnamese whose families had ties with the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.{{sfn|Van Van|p=8}} With improved relations with Western countries and recent reforms in Vietnamese administration, English has been increasingly used as a second language, and the study of English is now obligatory in most schools either alongside or in place of French.{{sfn|Van Van|p=9}}{{sfn|''Government of the United Kingdom''|2018}} The popularity of Japanese, [[Korean language|Korean]], and [[Mandarin Chinese]] has also grown as the country's ties with other East Asian nations have strengthened.{{sfn|Wai-ming|2002|p=3}}{{sfn|Anh Dinh|2016|p=63}}{{sfn|Hirano|2016}} Third-graders can choose one of seven languages (English, Russian, French, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, German) as their first foreign language.<ref>{{Cite news |author=Thống Nhất |title=Nhà trường chọn 1 trong 7 thứ tiếng làm ngoại ngữ 1 |work=Hànộimới |url=http://www.hanoimoi.com.vn/ban-in/Giao-duc/992650/nha-truong-chon-1-trong-7-thu-tieng-lam-ngoai-ngu-1 |url-status=live |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621032914/http://www.hanoimoi.com.vn/ban-in/Giao-duc/992650/nha-truong-chon-1-trong-7-thu-tieng-lam-ngoai-ngu-1 |archive-date=21 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Nguyễn |first=Tuệ |date=8 March 2021 |title=Vì sao tiếng Hàn, tiếng Đức là ngoại ngữ 1 trong trường phổ thông? |work=Thanh Niên |url=https://thanhnien.vn/vi-sao-tieng-han-tieng-duc-la-ngoai-ngu-1-trong-truong-pho-thong-post1043764.html |url-status=live |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621032913/https://thanhnien.vn/vi-sao-tieng-han-tieng-duc-la-ngoai-ngu-1-trong-truong-pho-thong-post1043764.html |archive-date=21 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author=Ngọc Diệp |date=4 March 2021 |title=Tiếng Hàn, tiếng Đức được đưa vào chương trình phổ thông, học sinh được tự chọn |work=Tuổi Trẻ |url=https://tuoitre.vn/tieng-han-tieng-duc-duoc-dua-vao-chuong-trinh-pho-thong-hoc-sinh-duoc-tu-chon-20210304094821994.htm |url-status=live |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621032925/https://tuoitre.vn/tieng-han-tieng-duc-duoc-dua-vao-chuong-trinh-pho-thong-hoc-sinh-duoc-tu-chon-20210304094821994.htm |archive-date=21 June 2022}}</ref> In Vietnam's [[Education in Vietnam|high school graduation examinations]], students can take their foreign language exam in one of the above-mentioned languages.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Phạm |first=Mai |date=20 April 2022 |title=Các trường hợp được miễn thi ngoại ngữ kỳ thi tốt nghiệp THPT 2022 |trans-title=Exemption from the foreign language test in the high school graduation exam|url=https://www.vietnamplus.vn/cac-truong-hop-duoc-mien-thi-ngoai-ngu-ky-thi-tot-nghiep-thpt-2022/784750.vnp|work=VietnamPlus|url-status=live |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621025024/https://www.vietnamplus.vn/cac-truong-hop-duoc-mien-thi-ngoai-ngu-ky-thi-tot-nghiep-thpt-2022/784750.vnp |archive-date=21 June 2022}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Vietnam}}

{{Pie chart
| caption = Religion in Vietnam (2019){{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}}
| label1 = [[Vietnamese folk religion]] or no religion
| value1 = 86.32
| color1 = #e3ffff
| label2 = [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Buddhism]]
| value2 = 4.79
| color2 = #ffdab0
| label3 = [[Catholic Church in Vietnam|Catholicism]]
| value3 = 6.1
| color3 = #edb7e9
| label4 = [[Protestantism in Vietnam|Protestantism]]
| value4 = 1.0
| color4 = #87CEFA
| label5 = [[Hòa Hảo|Hoahaoism]]
| value5 = 1.02
| color5 = #fffa75
| label6 = [[Caodaism]]
| value6 = 0.58
| color6 = #b3ff9e
| label7 = Islam
| value7 = 0.07
| color7 = #FF6600
| label8 = Others
| value8 = 0.12
| color8 = #fcf7f7
}}

Under Article 70 of the 1992 Constitution of Vietnam, all citizens enjoy [[freedom of religion|freedom of belief and religion]].{{sfn|''Ministry of Justice''|1992}} All religions are equal before the law and each [[place of worship]] is protected under Vietnamese state law. Religious beliefs cannot be misused to undermine state law and policies.{{sfn|''Ministry of Justice''|1992}}{{sfn|''Ministry of Justice''|2004b}} According to a 2007 survey 81% of Vietnamese people [[Atheism|did not believe in a god]].{{sfn|Zuckerman|2007|p=11}} Based on government findings in 2009, the number of religious people increased by 932,000.{{sfn|''General Statistics Office of Vietnam''|2009}} The official statistics, presented by the Vietnamese government to the [[United Nations special rapporteur]] in 2014, indicate the overall number of followers of recognised religions is about 24&nbsp;million of a total population of almost 90&nbsp;million.{{sfn|Bielefeldt|2014}} According to the General Statistics Office of Vietnam in 2019, [[Buddhism in Vietnam|Buddhists]] account for 4.79% of the total population, [[Catholic Church in Vietnam|Catholics]] 6.1%, [[Protestantism in Vietnam|Protestants]] 1.0%, [[Hòa Hảo|Hoahao Buddhists]] 1.02%, and [[Caodaism]] followers 0.58%.{{sfn|General Statistics Office of Vietnam|2019}} Other religions include [[Islam]], [[Baháʼí Faith|Bahaʼís]], and [[Hinduism]], representing less than 0.2% of the population.

The majority of Vietnamese do not follow any organised religion, though many of them observe some form of [[Vietnamese folk religion]]. [[Confucianism]] as a system of social and ethical philosophy still has certain influences in modern Vietnam. [[Mahāyāna Buddhism|Mahāyāna]] is the dominant branch of Buddhism, while [[Theravada]] is practised mostly by the Khmer minority. About 8 to 9% of the population is Christian, made up of Roman Catholics and Protestants. Catholicism was introduced to Vietnam in the 16th century and was firmly established by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] missionaries (mainly Portuguese and Italian) in the 17th century from nearby [[Portuguese Macau]].{{sfn|Tran|2018}} French missionaries (from the [[Paris Foreign Missions Society]]) together with Spanish missionaries (from the [[Dominican Order]] of the neighbouring [[Spanish East Indies]]) actively sought converts in the 18th, 19th, and first half of the 20th century.{{sfn|Woods|2002|p=34}}{{sfn|Keith|2012|pp=42, 72}}{{sfn|Lamport|2018|p=898}} A significant number of Vietnamese people, especially in the South, are also adherents of two indigenous religions of syncretic [[Caodaism]] and quasi-Buddhist [[Hòa Hảo|Hoahaoism]].{{sfn|Largo|2002|p=168}} Protestantism was only recently spread by American and Canadian missionaries in the 20th century;{{sfn|Van Hoang|2017|p=1}} the largest Protestant denomination is the Evangelical Church of Vietnam. Around 770,000 of the country's Protestants are members of ethnic minorities,{{sfn|Van Hoang|2017|p=1}} particularly the highland [[Montagnard (Vietnam)|Montagnards]]{{sfn|Cultural Orientation Resource Centre|pp=5, 7}} and [[Hmong people]]. Although it is one of the country's minority religions, Protestantism is the [[fastest-growing religion]] in Vietnam, expanding at a rate of 600% in recent decades.{{sfn|Van Hoang|2017|p=1}}{{sfn|''United States Department of State''|2005}} Several other minority faiths exist in Vietnam, these include: Bani, [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Non-denominational Muslim|non-denominational]] sections of Islam which is practised primarily among the ethnic [[Chams|Cham]] minority.{{sfn|Ky Phuong|Lockhart|2011|p=35}} There are also a few Kinh adherents of Islam, other minority adherents of Baha'i, as well as [[Hinduism in Southeast Asia#Vietnam|Hindus among the Cham]]'s.{{sfn|Levinson|Christensen|2002|p=89}}{{sfn|Sharma|2009|p=48}}

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Vietnam}}

Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges, and universities, and a growing number of privately run and partially privatised institutions. General education in Vietnam is divided into five categories: [[kindergarten]], [[elementary school]]s, [[middle school]]s, [[high school]]s, and [[universities]]. A large number of public schools have been constructed across the country to raise the national [[literacy rate]], which stood at 90% in 2008.{{sfn|UNICEF}} Most universities are located in major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, with the country's education system continuously undergoing a series of reforms by the government. [[Basic education]] in the country is relatively free for the poor, although some families may still have trouble paying tuition fees for their children without some form of public or private assistance.{{sfn|Ha Tran|2014}} Regardless, Vietnam's school enrolment is among the highest in the world.{{sfn|World Bank|2013}}{{sfn|World Bank|2015}} The number of colleges and universities increased dramatically in the 2000s from 178 in 2000 to 299 in 2005. In higher education, the government provides subsidised loans for students through the national bank, although there are deep concerns about access to the loans as well as the burden on students to repay them.{{sfn|Pham|2012}}{{sfn|Chapman|Liu|2013}} Since 1995, enrolment in higher education has grown tenfold to over 2.2&nbsp;million with 84,000 lecturers and 419 institutions of higher education.{{sfn|de Mora|Wood|2014|p=55}} Many foreign universities operate private campuses in Vietnam, including [[Harvard University]] (United States) and the [[Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology Vietnam|Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology]] (Australia). The government's strong commitment to education has fostered significant growth, but it still needs to be sustained to retain academics. In 2018, a decree on university autonomy allowing them to operate independently without ministerial control was in its final stages of approval. The government will continue investing in education, especially for the poor, to have access to basic education.{{sfn|''Vietnam Net''|2016b}}

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Vietnam}}

[[File:Life expectancy in Vietnam.svg|thumb|Development of life expectancy in Vietnam since 1950]]
By 2015, 97% of the population had access to improved water sources.{{sfn|Index Mundi|2016}} In 2016, Vietnam's national [[life expectancy]] stood at 80.9 years for women and 71.5 for men, and the [[infant mortality]] rate was 17 per 1,000 live births.{{sfn|World Bank|2016b}} Since the partition, North Vietnam has established a public health system that has reached down to the [[Hamlet (place)|hamlet]] level.{{sfn|''The Harvard Crimson''|1972}} After the national reunification in 1975, a nationwide health service was established.{{sfn|Wagstaff|van Doorslaer|Watanabe|2003}} In the late 1980s, the quality of healthcare declined to some degree as a result of budgetary constraints, a shift of responsibility to the provinces, and the introduction of charges.{{sfn|Cuong Le|Kubo|Fujino|Minh Pham|2010|p=23}} Inadequate funding has also contributed to a shortage of [[nurses]], [[midwives]] and hospital beds; in 2000, Vietnam had only 24.7 hospital beds per 10,000 people before declining to 23.7 in 2005 as stated in the annual report of [[Ministry of Health (Vietnam)|Vietnamese Health Ministry]].{{sfn|Trung Chien|2006|p=65}} The controversial use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by the [[United States Armed Forces|US military]] during the war left tangible, long-term [[Effects of Agent Orange on the Vietnamese people|impacts upon the Vietnamese people]] that persist in the country today.{{sfn|BBC News|2005}}{{sfn|Haberman|2014}} For instance, it led to three million Vietnamese people suffering health problems, one million birth defects caused directly by exposure to the chemical, and 24% of Vietnam's land being defoliated.{{sfn|Gustafsson|2010|p=125}}

Since the early 2000s, Vietnam has made significant progress in combating [[malaria]]. The malaria mortality rate fell to about five per cent of its 1990s equivalent by 2005 after the country introduced improved antimalarial drugs and treatment.{{sfn|Van Nam|de Vries|Van Toi|Nagelkerke|2005}} [[Tuberculosis]] (TB) cases, however, are on the rise. TB has become the second most infectious disease in the country after [[respiratory disease|respiratory-related illness]].{{sfn|Trinh|Nguyen|Do|Nguyen|2016}} With an intensified vaccination programme, better hygiene, and foreign assistance, Vietnam hopes to reduce sharply the number of TB cases and new TB infections.{{sfn|McNeil|2016}} In 2004, government subsidies covered about 15% of health care expenses.{{sfn|Lieberman|Wagstaff|2009|p=40}} That year, the United States announced Vietnam would be one of 15 states to receive funding as part of its global AIDS relief plan.{{sfn|Manyin|2005|p=4}} By the following year, Vietnam had diagnosed 101,291 [[human immunodeficiency virus]] (HIV) cases, of which 16,528 progressed to [[acquired immune deficiency syndrome]] (AIDS); 9,554 had died.{{sfn|Vietnam Women's Union|2005}} The actual number of HIV-positive individuals is estimated to be much higher. On average, between 40 and 50 new infections are reported daily in the country. In 2007, 0.4% of the population was estimated to be infected with HIV, and the figure has remained stable since 2005.{{sfn|World Bank|2018a}} More global aid is being delivered through [[The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria]] to fight the spread of the disease in the country.{{sfn|McNeil|2016}} In September 2018, the Hanoi People's Committee urged the citizens of the country to stop eating [[dog meat|dog]] and [[cat meat]] as it can cause diseases like [[rabies]] and [[leptospirosis]]. More than 1,000 stores in the capital city of Hanoi were found to be selling both meats. The decision prompted positive comments among Vietnamese on [[social media]], though some noted that the consumption of dog meat will remain an ingrained habit among many people.{{sfn|BBC News|2018}}

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Vietnam}}

{{multiple image
| align             = left
| direction         = vertical
| image1            = Hanoi Temple of Litterature.jpeg
| alt1              = The Temple of Literature in Hanoi
| caption1          = The [[Temple of Literature, Hanoi|Temple of Literature]] in Hanoi
| image2            = Hue Vietnam Citadel-of-Huế-01.jpg
| alt2              = The [[Meridian Gate (Huế)]]
| caption2          = The [[Imperial City of Huế]]
| image3            = Ópera, Ciudad Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam, 2013-08-14, DD 02.JPG
| alt3              = The Municipal Theatre in Ho Chi Minh City
| caption3          = The [[Municipal Theatre, Ho Chi Minh City|Municipal Theatre]] (Saigon Opera House) in Ho Chi Minh City
}}

Vietnamese culture is considered part of the [[Sinosphere]]. Vietnam's culture has developed over the centuries from the indigenous ancient [[Đông Sơn culture]] with wet rice cultivation as its economic base.{{sfn|Higham|1984}}{{sfn|Calo|2009|p=51}} Some elements of the nation's culture have Chinese origins, drawing on elements of [[Confucianism]], [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna Buddhism]], and [[Taoism]] in its traditional political system and philosophy.{{sfn|Tung Hieu|2015|p=71}}{{sfn|Nhu Nguyen|2016|p=32}} Vietnamese society is structured around {{lang|vi|làng}} (ancestral villages);{{sfn|Endres|2001}} all Vietnamese mark a [[Giỗ Tổ Hùng Vương|common ancestral anniversary]] on the tenth day of the third [[lunar calendar|lunar month]].{{sfn|Grigoreva|2014|p=4}}{{sfn|UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage|2012}} The influence of [[Chinese culture]] such as the [[Cantonese culture|Cantonese]], [[Hakka culture|Hakka]], [[Hokkien culture|Hokkien]], and [[Hainan]]ese cultures is more evident in the north where Buddhism is strongly entwined with popular culture.{{sfn|Zhu|Ren|Collins|Warner|2017|p=142}} Despite this, there are [[Chinatown]]s in the south, such as in {{lang|vi|[[Chợ Lớn]]|italic=no}}, where many Chinese have [[interracial marriage|intermarried]] with Kinh and are indistinguishable among them.{{sfn|McLeod|Thi Dieu|2001|p=8}} In the central and southern parts of Vietnam, traces of Champa and [[Khmer culture]] are evidenced through the remains of ruins, artefacts, as well as within their population as the successor of the ancient [[Sa Huỳnh culture]].{{sfn|Momoki|1996|p=36}}{{sfn|Ky Phuong|Lockhart|2011|p=84}} In recent centuries, Western cultures have become popular among recent generations of Vietnamese.{{sfn|Nhu Nguyen|2016|p=32}}

[[File:Ao-dai-xu-Hue-2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Photograph of two girls wearing a traditional Vietnamese white school uniform, the áo dài—both are holding the nón lá, a conical hat|Vietnamese traditional white [[school uniforms by country#Vietnam|school uniform]] for girls in the country, the {{lang|vi|[[áo dài]]}} with the addition of {{lang|vi|[[Asian conical hat|nón lá]]}}, a conical hat]]
The traditional focuses of Vietnamese culture are based on humanity ({{lang|vi|nhân nghĩa}}) and harmony ({{lang|vi|hòa}}), in which family and community values are highly regarded.{{sfn|Zhu|Ren|Collins|Warner|2017|p=142}} Vietnam reveres a number of key cultural symbols,{{sfn|Vo|2012|p=96}} such as the [[Vietnamese dragon]] which is derived from [[crocodile]] and [[snake]] imagery; Vietnam's national father, {{lang|vi|[[Lạc Long Quân]]|italic=no}} is depicted as a holy dragon.{{sfn|Grigoreva|2014|p=4}}{{sfn|Gallop|2017}}{{sfn|Vietnamese-American Association}} The {{lang|vi|lạc}} is a holy bird representing Vietnam's national mother {{lang|vi|[[Âu Cơ]]|italic=no}}. Other prominent images that are also revered are the [[turtle]], [[water buffalo|buffalo]], and [[horse]].{{sfn|Chonchirdsin|2016}} Many Vietnamese also believe in the [[supernatural]] and [[Spiritualism (beliefs)|spiritualism]] where illness can be brought on by a [[curse]] or [[Witchcraft|sorcery]] or caused by non-observance of a religious ethic. Traditional medical practitioners, [[amulet]]s, and other forms of spiritual protection and religious practices may be employed to treat the ill person.{{sfn|Waitemata District Health Board|2015|p=2}} In the modern era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and cultural programmes.{{sfn|Nhu Nguyen|2016|p=32}} For many decades, foreign cultural influences, especially those of Western origin, were shunned. But since the recent reformation, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to neighbouring Southeast Asian, East Asian, as well as Western culture and media.{{sfn|Phuong|2012}}

The main Vietnamese formal dress, the {{lang|vi|[[áo dài]]}}, is worn for special occasions such as weddings and religious festivals. White {{lang|vi|áo dài}} is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across the country. Other examples of traditional Vietnamese clothing include the {{lang|vi|[[áo tứ thân]]}}, a four-piece woman's dress; the {{lang|vi|áo ngũ}}, a form of the {{lang|vi|thân}} in five-piece form, mostly worn in the north of the country; the {{lang|vi|[[yếm]]}}, a woman's undergarment; the {{lang|vi|[[áo bà ba]]}}, rural working "[[pyjamas]]" for men and women; the {{lang|vi|[[áo gấm]]}}, a formal brocade tunic for government receptions; and the {{lang|vi|áo the}}, a variant of the {{lang|vi|áo gấm}} worn by grooms at weddings.{{sfn|Lewandowski|2011|p=12}}{{sfn|Howard|2016|p=90}} Traditional headwear includes the standard conical {{lang|vi|[[nón lá]]}}, the "lampshade-like" {{lang|vi|[[nón quai thao]]}}, and the traditional turban, {{lang|vi|[[khăn vấn]]}}.{{sfn|Howard|2016|p=90}}{{sfn|Chico|2013|p=354}} In tourism, many popular cultural destinations include the former [[Imperial City of Huế]], the [[World Heritage Site]]s of [[Phong Nha – Kẻ Bàng National Park]], {{lang|vi|[[Hội An]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|vi|[[Mỹ Sơn]]|italic=no}}, coastal regions such as Nha Trang, the caves of Hạ Long Bay and the [[Marble Mountains (Vietnam)|Marble Mountains]].{{sfn|''Vietnam Net''|2017a}}

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Vietnamese literature|Vietnamese poetry|Vietnamese mythology|Vietnamese fairy tales}}

[[File:Sắc phong cho Bùi Tông Vĩ 裴宗偉.png|alt=A scroll showing a Vietnamese dragon|thumb|250x250px|[[Vietnamese dragon]] on Emperor {{lang|vi|[[Lê Ý Tông|Vĩnh Hựu]]|italic=no}}'s {{circa|1736}} edict conferring a title]]
Vietnamese literature has a centuries-deep history and the country has a rich tradition of [[folk literature]] based on the typical–to-eight-verse poetic form ({{lang|vi|[[lục bát]]}}) called {{lang|vi|ca dao}}, which usually focuses on village ancestors and heroes.{{sfn|Huong|2010}} Written literature has been found dating back to the 10th century [[Ngô dynasty]], with notable ancient authors including {{lang|vi|[[Nguyễn Trãi]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|vi|[[Hồ Xuân Hương]]|italic=no}}, {{lang|vi|[[Nguyễn Du]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|vi|[[Nguyễn Đình Chiểu]]|italic=no}}. Some literary genres play an important role in theatrical performance, such as {{lang|vi|hát nói}} in {{lang|vi|[[ca trù]]}}.{{sfn|Norton|2015}} Some poetic unions have also been formed in Vietnam, such as the {{lang|vi|tao đàn}}. Vietnamese literature has been influenced by Western styles in recent times, with the first literary transformation movement of {{lang|vi|[[thơ mới]]}} emerging in 1932.{{sfn|Le|2008}} Vietnamese folk literature is an intermingling of many forms. It is not only an oral tradition, but a mixing of three media: hidden (only retained in the memory of folk authors), fixed (written), and shown (performed). Folk literature usually exists in many versions, passed down orally, and has unknown authors. [[Myths]] consist of stories about supernatural beings, heroes, and creator gods, and reflect the viewpoint of ancient people about human life.{{sfn|Vo|2012|p=4}} They consist of creation stories, stories about their origins ({{lang|vi|Lạc Long Quân}} and {{lang|vi|Âu Cơ}}), [[culture heroes]] ([[Sơn Tinh – Thủy Tinh|{{lang|vi|Sơn Tinh|nocat=y}} and {{lang|vi|Thủy Tinh|nocat=y}}]]) which are referred to as a mountain and water spirit respectively and many other folklore tales.{{sfn|McLeod|Thi Dieu|2001|p=8}}{{sfn|Tran|Le|2017|p=5}}

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Vietnam}}

[[File:Ca trù performance.jpg|thumb|alt=Three musicians are performing on a stage. | {{lang|vi|[[Ca trù]]}} trio performance in northern Vietnam]]
Traditional Vietnamese music varies between the country's northern and southern regions.{{sfn|Tran|1985}} Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest musical form and is traditionally more formal. The origins of Vietnamese classical opera ({{lang|vi|[[tuồng]]}}) can be traced to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century when the Vietnamese captured a [[Chinese opera]] troupe.{{sfn|Miettinen|1992|p=163}} Throughout its history, Vietnam has been the most heavily impacted by the [[Music of China|Chinese musical tradition]] along with those of Japan, [[Korea]] and [[Mongolia]].{{sfn|Tran|1985}} {{lang|vi|[[Nhã nhạc]]}} is the most popular form of imperial court music, {{lang|vi|[[Chèo]]}} is a form of generally satirical [[musical theatre]], while {{lang|vi|[[Xẩm]]}} or {{lang|vi|hát xẩm}} ({{lang|vi|xẩm}} singing) is a type of Vietnamese [[folk music]]. {{lang|vi|[[Quan họ]]}} (alternate singing) is popular in the former [[Hà Bắc province]] (which is now divided into {{lang|vi|[[Bắc Ninh province|Bắc Ninh]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|vi|[[Bắc Giang province|Bắc Giang]]|italic=no}} provinces) and across Vietnam. Another form of music called {{lang|vi|[[Hat chau van|Hát chầu văn]]}} or {{lang|vi|hát văn}} is used to invoke spirits during ceremonies. {{lang|vi|[[Nhạc dân tộc cải biên]]}} is a modern form of Vietnamese [[folk music]] which arose in the 1950s, while {{lang|vi|[[ca trù]]}} (also known as {{lang|vi|hát ả đào}}) is a popular folk music. {{lang|vi|Hò}} can be thought of as the southern style of {{lang|vi|Quan họ}}. There is a range of traditional instruments, including the {{lang|vi|[[đàn bầu]]}} (a monochord [[zither]]), the {{lang|vi|[[đàn gáo]]}} (a two-stringed [[fiddle]] with coconut body), and the {{lang|vi|[[đàn nguyệt]]}} (a two-stringed fretted moon [[lute]]). In recent times, there have been some efforts at mixing Vietnamese traditional music—especially folk music—with modern music to revive and promote national music in the modern context and educate the younger generations about Vietnam's traditional musical instruments and singing styles.{{sfn|Voice of Vietnam|2018d}} [[Bolero#Vietnam|Bolero]] music has gained popularity in the country since the 1930s, albeit with a different style—a combination of traditional Vietnamese music with Western elements.{{sfn|Duy|2016}} In the 21st century, the modern Vietnamese [[pop music]] industry known as [[V-pop]] incorporates elements of many popular genres worldwide, such as [[electronic music|electronic]], [[dance music|dance]] and [[contemporary R&B|R&B]].{{sfn|Phuong|2018}}{{sfn|Chen|2018|p=194}}

=== Media ===
{{Main|Media of Vietnam}}

[[File:Vietnam Television logo from 2013.svg|thumb|left|alt=Shown is the logo of the state broadcaster Vietnam Television. | [[Vietnam Television]] (VTV), the main [[State media|state television]] station]]
Vietnam's media sector is regulated by the government under the 2004 Law on Publication.{{sfn|''Ministry of Justice''|2004a}} It is generally perceived that the country's media sector is controlled by the government and follows the official communist party line, though some newspapers are relatively outspoken.{{sfn|Xuan Dinh|2000}}{{sfn|Datta|Mendizabal|2018}} The [[Voice of Vietnam]] (VOV) is the official state-run national radio broadcasting service, broadcasting internationally via shortwave using rented transmitters in other countries and providing broadcasts from its website, while [[Vietnam Television]] (VTV) is the national television broadcasting company. Since 1997, Vietnam has regulated public [[internet]] access extensively using both legal and technical means. The resulting lockdown is widely referred to as the "[[Internet censorship in Vietnam|Bamboo Firewall]]".{{sfn|Wilkey|2002}} The collaborative project [[OpenNet Initiative]] classifies Vietnam's level of online political censorship to be "pervasive",{{sfn|OpenNet Initiative|2012}} while [[Reporters Without Borders]] (RWB) considers Vietnam to be one of 15 global "internet enemies".{{sfn|Reporters Without Borders}} Though the government of Vietnam maintains that such censorship is necessary to safeguard the country against obscene or sexually explicit content, many political and religious websites that are deemed to be undermining state authority are also blocked.{{sfn|Berkman Klein Center|2006}}

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Vietnamese cuisine}}

Traditionally, Vietnamese cuisine is based around five fundamental taste "elements" ({{langx|vi|ngũ vị}}): spicy (metal), sour (wood), salty (water), bitter (fire), and sweet (earth).{{sfn|''Vietnam Culture Information Network''|2014}} Common ingredients include [[fish sauce]], [[shrimp paste]], [[soy sauce]], rice, fresh herbs, fruits, and vegetables. Vietnamese recipes use [[cymbopogon|lemongrass]], [[ginger]], [[mentha|mint]], [[Vietnamese mint]], [[eryngium foetidum|long coriander]], [[Saigon cinnamon]], [[bird's eye chilli]], [[lime (fruit)|lime]] and [[basil]] leaves.{{sfn|''Special Broadcasting Service''|2013}} Traditional Vietnamese cooking is known for its fresh ingredients, minimal use of oil, and reliance on herbs and vegetables; it is considered one of the healthiest cuisines worldwide.{{sfn|Corapi|2010}} The use of meats such as pork, beef, and chicken was relatively limited in the past. Instead freshwater fish, [[crustacean]]s (particularly [[crab]]s), and [[mollusc]]s became widely used. Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce, and limes are among the main flavouring ingredients. Vietnam has a strong [[street food]] culture, with 40 popular dishes commonly found throughout the country.{{sfn|Clark|Miller|2017}} Many notable Vietnamese dishes such as {{lang|vi|[[gỏi cuốn]]}} (salad roll), {{lang|vi|[[bánh cuốn]]}} (rice noodle roll), {{lang|vi|[[bún riêu]]}} (rice vermicelli soup) and {{lang|vi|[[phở]]}} noodles originated in the north and were introduced to central and southern Vietnam by northern migrants.{{sfn|Nguyen|2011}}{{sfn|Thaker|Barton|2012|p=170}} Local foods in the north are often less spicy than southern dishes, as the colder northern climate limits the production and availability of spices.{{sfn|Williams|2017}} [[Black pepper]] is frequently used in place of [[chilli pepper|chillis]] to produce spicy flavours. Vietnamese drinks in the south are also usually served cold with [[ice cube]]s, especially during the annual hot seasons; in contrast, in the north, hot drinks are more preferable in a colder climate. Some examples of basic Vietnamese drinks include {{lang|vi|[[Vietnamese iced coffee|cà phê đá]]}} (Vietnamese iced coffee), {{lang|vi|[[egg coffee|cà phê trứng]]}} (egg coffee), {{lang|vi|[[chanh muối]]}} (salted pickled lime juice), {{lang|vi|[[cơm rượu]]}} (glutinous rice wine), {{lang|vi|[[nước mía]]}} (sugarcane juice) and {{lang|vi|[[Vietnamese lotus tea|trà sen]]}} (Vietnamese lotus tea).{{sfn|Batruny|2014}}

=== Holidays and festivals ===
{{Main|Public holidays in Vietnam|List of traditional festivals in Vietnam}}

[[File:Đèn kéo quân.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A large round white fabric band decorated with red figures and images for Tết | Special {{lang|vi|[[Tết]]}} decoration in the country seen during the holiday]]
The country has eleven nationally recognised holidays. These include: [[New Year's Day]] on 1 January; Vietnamese New Year ({{lang|vi|[[Tết Nguyên Đán]]}}) from the last day of the last lunar month to fifth day of the first [[lunar calendar|lunar month]]; [[Hùng Kings' Festival]] on the 10th day of the third lunar month; [[Reunification Day]] on 30 April; [[International Workers' Day]] on 1 May; and [[National Day (Vietnam)|National Day]] on 2 September.{{sfn|''Ministry of Justice''|2012}}{{sfn|Travel|2017|p=37}}{{sfn|Loan|2018}} During {{lang|vi|Tết}}, many Vietnamese from the major cities will return to their villages for family reunions and to pray for dead ancestors.{{sfn|Anh|2016b}}{{sfn|Trieu Dan|2017|p=92}} Older people will usually give the young a {{lang|vi|[[red envelope|lì xì]]}} (red envelope) while special holiday food, such as {{lang|vi|[[bánh chưng]]}} (rice cake) in a square shape together with variety of [[dried fruit]]s, are presented in the house for visitors.{{sfn|Pike|2018}} Many other festivals are celebrated throughout the seasons, including the {{lang|vi|Tết Nguyên Tiêu}}, {{lang|vi|[[Tết Trung Thu]]}}, and various temple and nature festivals.{{sfn|Travel|2017|p=34}} In the highlands, [[Elephant racing|Elephant Race Festivals]] are held annually during the spring; riders will ride their elephants for about {{cvt|1.6|km}} and the winning elephant will be given sugarcane.{{sfn|Englar|2006|p=23}} [[Traditional Vietnamese wedding]]s remain widely popular.{{sfn|Anderson|Lee|2005|p=217}}

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Vietnam|List of Vietnamese traditional games}}

[[File:Khán đài B - Sân vận động Quốc gia Mỹ Đình.jpg|thumb|[[Mỹ Đình National Stadium]] in [[Hanoi]]]]
The [[Vovinam]], {{lang|vi|Kim Kê}} and {{lang|vi|Võ Bình Định}} are widespread in Vietnam,{{sfn|Green|2001|p=548}}{{sfn|Nghia|Luan|2017}} while [[association football|football]] is the country's most popular sport.{{sfn|''FourFourTwo''|2017}} Its [[Vietnam national football team|national team]] won the [[ASEAN Football Championship]] in [[2008 AFF Championship|2008]], [[2018 AFF Championship|2018]] and [[2024 ASEAN Championship|2024]]; and reached the [[2007 AFC Asian Cup]], [[2019 AFC Asian Cup knockout stage#Vietnam vs Japan|quarter-finals]] of [[2019 AFC Asian Cup]],{{sfn|''China Daily''|2008}}{{sfn|''The Saigon Times Daily''|2018}}{{sfn|Gomes|2019}} its junior team of [[Vietnam national under-23 football team|under-23]] became the runners-up of [[2018 AFC U-23 Championship]] and reached fourth place in [[Football at the 2018 Asian Games|2018 Asian Games]], while the [[Vietnam national under-20 football team|under-20]] managed to qualify the [[2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup]] for the first time in their football history. And the [[Vietnam national under-17 football team|under-17]] achieved fourth place among 10 Teams of the [[2000 AFC U-16 Championship]].{{sfn|Rick|2018}}{{sfn|Yan|Jun|Long|2018}} The [[Vietnam women's national football team|women's national football team]] had first appearance at the [[FIFA Women's World Cup]] in [[2023 FIFA Women's World Cup|2023]], became the first 11-a-side national football team to participate in a World Cup tournament, and also traditionally dominates the [[Football at the Southeast Asian Games#Women's tournament|Southeast Asian Games]], along with its chief rival, [[Thailand women's national football team|Thailand]]. Other Western sports such as [[badminton]], [[tennis]], [[volleyball]], [[ping-pong]] and [[chess]] are also widely popular. Vietnam has participated in the [[Summer Olympic Games]] since [[Vietnam at the 1952 Summer Olympics|1952]]. After the partition of the country in 1954, only South Vietnam competed in the games, sending athletes to the [[Vietnam at the 1956 Summer Olympics|1956]] and [[Vietnam at the 1972 Summer Olympics|1972]] Olympics. Since the reunification of Vietnam in 1976, it has competed as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, attending every Summer Olympics from [[1988 Summer Olympics|1988]] onwards. The present Vietnam Olympic Committee was formed in 1976 and recognised by the [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) in 1979.{{sfn|International Olympic Committee|2018}} Vietnam has never participated in the [[Winter Olympic Games]]. In 2016, Vietnam won its first [[gold medal]] at the Olympics.{{sfn|Sims|2016}} Basketball has become an increasingly popular sport in Vietnam, especially in [[Ho Chi Minh City]], [[Hanoi]] and {{lang|vi|[[Sóc Trăng]]|italic=no}}.<ref>[https://www.vietnamonline.com/az/basketball.html Vietnam basketball] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225081641/https://www.vietnamonline.com/az/basketball.html |date=25 February 2020}} Vietnam Online. Accessed 19 February 2020.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Index of Vietnam-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Vietnam]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|24em}}

== Sources ==
===Print===
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* {{cite book |last=Gibbons |first=William Conrad |year=2014 |title=The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War: Executive and Legislative Roles and Relationships, Part III: 1965–1966 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-6153-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Gilbert |first=Adrian |year=2013 |title=Encyclopedia of Warfare: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-135-95697-4}}
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* {{cite book |last=Gravel |first=Mike |year=1971 |title=The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decision-making on Vietnam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7yMQtQEACAAJ&q=the+pentagon+papers+beacon+press+volume+3 |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |isbn=978-0-8070-0526-2 }}
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* {{cite book |last=Heneghan |first=George Martin |year=1969 |title=Nationalism, Communism and the National Liberation Front of Vietnam: Dilemma for American Foreign Policy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tuVCAAAAIAAJ&q=diem+detain+communist+reeducation |publisher=Department of Political Science, Stanford University }}
* {{cite book |last=Hien Le |first=Nang |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXduAAAAMAAJ&q=kh%C3%BAc+autonomy |title=Three victories on the Bach Dang river |publisher=Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa-thông tin }}
* {{cite book |last=Hoang |first=Anh Tuan |year=2007 |title=Silk for Silver: Dutch-Vietnamese Relations, 1637–1700 |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-15601-2}}
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* {{cite book |last=Holmgren |first=Jennifer |year=1980 |title=Chinese colonisation of northern Vietnam: administrative geography and political development in the Tongking Delta, first to sixth centuries A.D. |publisher=Australian National University, Faculty of Asian Studies: distributed by Australian University Press |isbn=978-0-909879-12-9}}
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* {{cite book |last=Howard |first=Michael C. |year=2016 |title=Textiles and Clothing of Việt Nam: A History |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-1-4766-2440-2}}
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* {{cite book |last=Jukes |first=Geoffrey |year=1973 |title=The Soviet Union in Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/sovietunioninasi00geof |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-02393-2 }}
* {{cite conference |last1=Karlstrom |first1=Anna |last2=Kallen |first2=Anna |year=2002 |title=Southeast Asian Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0nFuAAAAMAAJ&q=lang+gao+tooth+vietnam |conference=Östasiatiska Samlingarna (Stockholm, Sweden), European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists. International Conference |publisher=[[Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm]] |isbn=978-91-970616-0-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Keith |first=Charles |year=2012 |title=Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to Nation |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-95382-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Keyes |first=Charles F. |year=1995 |title=The Golden Peninsula: Culture and Adaptation in Mainland Southeast Asia |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-1696-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Khanh Huynh |first=Kim |year=1986 |title=Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-9397-3}}
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* {{cite book |last=Koblitz |first=Neal |year=2009 |title=Random Curves: Journeys of a Mathematician |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-74078-0}}
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* {{cite book |last=Koskoff |first=Ellen |year=2008 |title=The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-99404-0}}
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* {{cite book |last=Lamport |first=Mark A. |year=2018 |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-7157-9}}
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* {{cite book |last=Lewy |first=Guenter |year=1980 |title=America in Vietnam |url=https://archive.org/details/americainvietnam00lewy |url-access=registration |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-991352-7 }}
* {{cite book |last=Li |first=Tana |year=1998 |title=Nguyễn Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries |publisher=[[SEAP Publications]] |isbn=978-0-87727-722-4}}
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* {{cite book |last=Lim |first=David |year=2014 |title=Economic Growth and Employment in Vietnam |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-81859-5}}
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* {{cite book |last=Lockard |first=Craig A. |year=2010 |title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume 2: Since 1450 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-4390-8536-3}}
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* {{cite book |last=McLeod |first=Mark W. |year=1991 |title=The Vietnamese Response to French Intervention, 1862–1874 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-275-93562-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Meggle |first=Georg |year=2004 |title=Ethics of Humanitarian Interventions |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-032773-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Miettinen |first=Jukka O. |year=1992 |title=Classical Dance and Theatre in South-East Asia |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-588595-8}}
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* {{cite book |last=Moise |first=Edwin E. |year=2017 |title=Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-7445-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Muehlenbeck |first1=Philip Emil |last2=Muehlenbeck |first2=Philip |year=2012 |title=Religion and the Cold War: A Global Perspective |publisher=Vanderbilt University Press |isbn=978-0-8265-1852-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Murray |first=Geoffrey |year=1997 |title=Vietnam Dawn of a New Market |url=https://archive.org/details/vietnamdawnofnew00murr |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-17392-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Neville |first=Peter |year=2007 |title=Britain in Vietnam: Prelude to Disaster, 1945–46 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-24476-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Olsen |first=Mari |year=2007 |title=Soviet-Vietnam Relations and the Role of China 1949–64: Changing Alliances |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-17413-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Olson |first=Gregory A. |year=2012 |title=Mansfield and Vietnam: A Study in Rhetorical Adaptation |publisher=MSU Press |isbn=978-0-87013-941-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ooi |first1=Keat Gin |last2=Anh Tuan |first2=Hoang |year=2015 |title=Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1350–1800 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-55919-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Ooi |first=Keat Gin |year=2004 |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Oxenham |first1=Marc |last2=Tayles |first2=Nancy |year=2006 |title=Bioarchaeology of Southeast Asia |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82580-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Pelley |first=Patricia M. |year=2002 |title=Postcolonial Vietnam: New Histories of the National Past |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8223-2966-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Phan |first=Khoang |year=1976 |title=Việt sử: xứ đàng trong, 1558–1777. Cuộc nam-tié̂n của dân-tộc Việt-Nam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5BsaAAAAMAAJ&q=vietnam+1558+bao+lam |language=vi |series=Nhà Sách Khai Trí <!-- maybe? series is just a guess --> |publisher=Xuân thu |access-date=9 May 2020 |archive-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104061400/https://books.google.com/books?id=5BsaAAAAMAAJ&q=vietnam+1558+bao+lam |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Phuong Linh |first=Huynh Thi |year=2016 |title=State-Society Interaction in Vietnam |publisher=[[LIT Verlag]] Münster |isbn=978-3-643-90719-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Pike |first=Francis |year=2011 |title=Empires at War: A Short History of Modern Asia Since World War II |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-0-85773-029-9}}
* {{cite book |author=((Protected Areas and Development Partnership)) |year=2003 |title=Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Four Countries of the Lower Mekong River Region |publisher=ICEM |isbn=978-0-9750332-4-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Rabett |first=Ryan J. |year=2012 |title=Human Adaptation in the Asian Palaeolithic: Hominin Dispersal and Behaviour During the Late Quaternary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-01829-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Ramsay |first=Jacob |year=2008 |title=Mandarins and Martyrs: The Church and the Nguyen Dynasty in Early Nineteenth-century Vietnam |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-7954-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Richardson |first=John |year=1876 |title=A school manual of modern geography. Physical and political |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GHYDAAAAQAAJ&q=french+settled+saigon+cochinchina&pg=PA269 |publisher=Publisher not identified }}
* {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=Gitesh |year=2009 |title=Traces of Indian Culture in Vietnam |publisher=[[Rajkamal Prakashan]] |isbn=978-81-905401-4-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Anthony L. |year=2005 |title=Southeast Asia and New Zealand: A History of Regional and Bilateral Relations |publisher=Victoria University Press |isbn=978-0-86473-519-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=T. |year=2007 |title=Britain and the Origins of the Vietnam War: UK Policy in Indo-China, 1943–50 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0-230-59166-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Keith Weller |year=1983 |title=The Birth of Vietnam |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-04428-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Thai Nguyen |first1=Van |last2=Mung Nguyen |first2=Van |year=1958 |title=A Short History of Viet-Nam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nQ1wAAAAMAAJ&q=early+ly+dynasty+van+xuan+independent+china+544 |publisher=Vietnamese-American Association }}
* {{cite book |last1=Thaker |first1=Aruna |last2=Barton |first2=Arlene |year=2012 |title=Multicultural Handbook of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-35046-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Thanh Hai |first=Do |year=2016 |title=Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics, Security and Legality |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-39820-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tonnesson |first1=Stein |last2=Antlov |first2=Hans |year=1996 |title=Asian Forms of the Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/asianformsofnati0000unse |url-access=registration |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7007-0442-2 }}
* {{cite book |last=Tonnesson |first=Stein |year=2011 |title=Vietnam 1946: How the War Began |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-26993-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Tran |first=Anh Q. |title=Gods, Heroes, and Ancestors: An Interreligious Encounter in Eighteenth-Century Vietnam |year=2017 |volume=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190677602.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-067760-2 |url=https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780190677602.001.0001/oso-9780190677602 |access-date=5 October 2020 |archive-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926040550/https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780190677602.001.0001/oso-9780190677602 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Tran |editor-first1=Nhung Tuyet |editor-last2=Reid |editor-first2=Anthony |editor-link2=Anthony Reid (academic) |year=2006 |title=Viet Nam: Borderless Histories |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=978-0-299-21773-0 |ref={{sfnref|Tuyet Tran|Reid|2006}}}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Tran |first1=Nu-Anh |title=Disunion: Anticommunist Nationalism and the Making of the Republic of Vietnam |date=2022 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |url=https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/disunion-anticommunist-nationalism-and-the-making-of-the-republic-of-vietnam/ |isbn=978-0-8248-8786-5 |archive-date=19 May 2022 |access-date=5 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519090541/https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/disunion-anticommunist-nationalism-and-the-making-of-the-republic-of-vietnam/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Tran |first1=Tri C. |last2=Le |first2=Tram |year=2017 |title=Vietnamese Stories for Language Learners: Traditional Folktales in Vietnamese and English Text (MP3 Downloadable Audio Included) |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-1-4629-1956-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Tran |first=Tu Binh |author-link=Trần Tử Bình |editor=David G. Marr |editor-link=David G. Marr |year=1985 |title=The Red Earth: A Vietnamese Memoir of Life on a Colonial Rubber Plantation |series=Southeast Asia Series |translator=John Spragens, Jr |location=Athens, Ohio |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-896-80119-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Travel |first=DK |year=2017 |title=DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Vietnam and Angkor Wat |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-241-30136-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Trieu Dan |first=Nguyen |year=2017 |title=A Vietnamese Family Chronicle: Twelve Generations on the Banks of the Hat River |publisher=McFarland Publishing |isbn=978-0-7864-8779-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |year=2011 |title=The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History, 2nd Edition [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-961-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Turner |first=Robert F. |year=1975 |title=Vietnamese communism, its origins and development |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RclmAAAAMAAJ&q=100,000+execution+north+vietnam+land+reform |publisher=[[Hoover Institution Press]], Stanford University |isbn=978-0-8179-6431-3 }}
* {{cite book |last1=van Dijk |first1=Ruud |last2=Gray |first2=William Glenn |last3=Savranskaya |first3=Svetlana |last4=Suri |first4=Jeremi |last5=Zhai |first5=Qiang |display-authors=4 |year=2013 |title=Encyclopedia of the Cold War |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-92311-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Vierra |first1=Kimberly |last2=Vierra |first2=Brian |year=2011 |title=Vietnam Business Guide: Getting Started in Tomorrow's Market Today |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-17881-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Vo |first=Nghia M. |year=2011 |title=Saigon: A History |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-0-7864-8634-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Vo |first=Nghia M. |year=2012 |title=Legends of Vietnam: An Analysis and Retelling of 88 Tales |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-0-7864-9060-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Vu |first=Tu Lap |year=1979 |title=Vietnam: Geographical Data |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-oWGAAAAIAAJ&q=vietnam+climate |publisher=[[Foreign Languages Publishing House (Vietnam)|Foreign Languages Publishing House]] }}
* {{cite book |last=Waite |first=James |year=2012 |title=The End of the First Indochina War: A Global History |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-27334-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Willbanks |first=James H. |year=2013 |title=Vietnam War Almanac: An In-Depth Guide to the Most Controversial Conflict in American History |publisher=[[Skyhorse Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-62636-528-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Woods |first=L. Shelton |year=2002 |title=Vietnam: a global studies handbook |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-416-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Yao |first=Alice |year=2016 |title=The Ancient Highlands of Southwest China: From the Bronze Age to the Han Empire |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-936734-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Yue Hashimoto |first=Oi-kan |year=1972 |title=Phonology of Cantonese |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-08442-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zhu |first1=Ying |last2=Ren |first2=Shuang |last3=Collins |first3=Ngan |last4=Warner |first4=Malcolm |year=2017 |title=Business Leaders and Leadership in Asia |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-56749-3}}
{{refend}}

=== Legislation and government source ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite web |last=Anh |first=Van |year=2018 |url=https://www.vir.com.vn/vietnam-and-netherlands-reaffirm-economic-relations-56240.html |title=Vietnam and Netherlands reaffirm economic relations |newspaper=Vietnam Investment Review – vir |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116032046/https://www.vir.com.vn/vietnam-and-netherlands-reaffirm-economic-relations-56240.html |archive-date=16 January 2019}}
* {{cite web |last=Fong-Sam |first=Yolanda |year=2010 |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2010/myb3-2010-vn.pdf |title=2010 Minerals Yearbook |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302030501/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2010/myb3-2010-vn.pdf |archive-date=2 March 2013}}
* {{cite web |last=Garamone |first=Jim |year=2016 |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/779762/lifting-embargo-allows-closer-us-vietnam-cooperation-obama-carter-say/ |title=Lifting Embargo Allows Closer U.S., Vietnam Cooperation, Obama, Carter Say |website=[[United States Department of Defense]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164856/https://dod.defense.gov/News/Article/Article/779762/lifting-embargo-allows-closer-us-vietnam-cooperation-obama-carter-say/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |author=[[General Statistics Office of Vietnam]] |year=2019 |url=https://www.gso.gov.vn/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Ket-qua-toan-bo-Tong-dieu-tra-dan-so-va-nha-o-2019.pdf |title="Completed Results of the 2019 Viet Nam Population and Housing Census" |publisher=Statistical Publishing House (Vietnam) |isbn=978-604-75-1532-5 |access-date=26 December 2020 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110045640/https://www.gso.gov.vn/du-lieu-va-so-lieu-thong-ke/2020/11/ket-qua-toan-bo-tong-dieu-tra-dan-so-va-nha-o-nam-2019/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Green |first=Michael |year=2012 |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/foreign-policy-and-diplomatic-representation/print |title=Foreign policy and diplomatic representation |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164938/https://teara.govt.nz/en/foreign-policy-and-diplomatic-representation/print |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Nielsen |first=Chantal Pohl |year=2007 |url=http://agro.gov.vn/images/2007/04/VN%20Rice%20Policy.pdf |title=Vietnam's Rice Policy: Recent Reforms and Future Opportunities |website=[[Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Vietnam)|Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development]] |location=Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005074015/http://agro.gov.vn/images/2007/04/VN%20Rice%20Policy.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Claire |last2=Rutherford |first2=Tom |year=2011 |url=http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/RP11-79/RP11-79.pdf |title=Military Balance in Southeast Asia [Research Paper 11/79] |website=[[House of Commons Library]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119100812/http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/RP11-79/RP11-79.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Trung Chien |first=Tran Thi |year=2006 |url=http://jahr.org.vn/downloads/Nghien%20cuu/Khac/Vietnam%20National%20Health%20Report%202006.pdf |title=Vietnam Health Report |website=[[Ministry of Health (Vietnam)|Ministry of Health]] |location=Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009113634/http://jahr.org.vn/downloads/Nghien%20cuu/Khac/Vietnam%20National%20Health%20Report%202006.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''AgroViet Newsletter''|2007}} |year=2007 |url=http://xttm.agroviet.gov.vn/en/newsletter/2005/September.asp |title=Vietnamese general company of rubber-prospect of being a foremost Vietnamese agriculture group |periodical=AgroViet Newsletter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080221184058/http://xttm.agroviet.gov.vn/en/newsletter/2005/September.asp |archive-date=21 February 2008}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''French Senate''|1997}} |year=1997 |url=http://www.senat.fr/rap/r97-001/r97-001.html |title=Annexe au procès-verbal de la séance du 1er octobre 1997 |language=fr |website=[[Senate (France)|French Senate]] |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=31 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831140203/http://www.senat.fr/rap/r97-001/r97-001.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''General Statistics Office of Vietnam''|2009}} |year=2009 |url=https://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=599&ItemID=9788 |title=MEDIA RELEASE: The 2009 Population and Housing Census |website=[[General Statistics Office of Vietnam]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113154908/https://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=599&ItemID=9788 |archive-date=13 November 2010}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''General Statistics Office of Vietnam''|2010}} |year=2010 |url=http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=473&idmid=&ItemID=12788 |title=Transport, Postal Services and Telecommunications |website=General Statistics Office of Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006104535/http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=473&idmid=&ItemID=12788 |archive-date=6 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''General Statistics Office of Vietnam''|2011}} |year=2011 |url=http://www.gso.gov.vn/default.aspx?tabid=622&ItemID=11314 |title=Monthly statistical information – Social and economic situation, 8 months of 2011 [Traffic accidents] |website=General Statistics Office of Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006121519/http://www.gso.gov.vn/default.aspx?tabid=622&ItemID=11314 |archive-date=6 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Government of Vietnam (I)''}} |url=http://www.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/English/TheSocialistRepublicOfVietnam/AboutVietnam/AboutVietnamDetail?categoryId=10000103&articleId=10000505 |title=Overview on Vietnam geography |website=[[Government of Vietnam]] |access-date=30 November 2018 |archive-date=30 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202012/http://www.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/English/TheSocialistRepublicOfVietnam/AboutVietnam/AboutVietnamDetail?categoryId=10000103&articleId=10000505}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Government of Vietnam (II)''}} |url=http://www.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/English/TheSocialistRepublicOfVietnam/AboutVietnam/AboutVietnamDetail?categoryId=10000103&articleId=10001578 |title=About Vietnam (Political System) |website=Government of Vietnam |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=21 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921053849/http://www.chinhphu.vn/portal/page/portal/English/TheSocialistRepublicOfVietnam/AboutVietnam/AboutVietnamDetail?categoryId=10000103&articleId=10001578}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Government of the Netherlands''|2016}} |year=2016 |url=https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2016/03/30/minister-schultz-signs-agreement-on-water-treatment-project-in-vietnam |title=Minister Schultz signs agreement on water treatment project in Vietnam |website=[[Government of the Netherlands]] |access-date=16 January 2019 |archive-date=16 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116032512/https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2016/03/30/minister-schultz-signs-agreement-on-water-treatment-project-in-vietnam |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Government of the Netherlands''|2018}} |year=2018 |url=https://www.government.nl/documents/speeches/2018/03/26/speech-by-cora-van-nieuwenhuizen-minister-of-infrastructure-and-water-management-at-the-celebration-of-45-years-of-bilateral-relations-with-vietnam-hilton-hotel-the-hague-26-march-2018 |title=Speech by Cora van Nieuwenhuizen, Minister of Infrastructure and Water Management, at the celebration of 45 years of bilateral relations with Vietnam, Hilton Hotel The Hague, 26 March 2018 |website=Government of the Netherlands |access-date=16 January 2019 |archive-date=16 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116032551/https://www.government.nl/documents/speeches/2018/03/26/speech-by-cora-van-nieuwenhuizen-minister-of-infrastructure-and-water-management-at-the-celebration-of-45-years-of-bilateral-relations-with-vietnam-hilton-hotel-the-hague-26-march-2018 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Government of the United Kingdom''|2017}} |year=2017 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-aid-helps-clear-lethal-landmines-in-war-torn-countries-following-generosity-of-british-public--2 |title=UK aid helps clear lethal landmines in war-torn countries following generosity of British public |website=[[Government of the United Kingdom]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164954/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-aid-helps-clear-lethal-landmines-in-war-torn-countries-following-generosity-of-british-public--2 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Government of the United Kingdom''|2018}} |year=2018 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/uk-trade-with-vietnam-looking-to-the-next-45-years |title=UK trade with Vietnam – looking to the next 45 years |website=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=26 October 2018 |archive-date=26 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026025824/https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/uk-trade-with-vietnam-looking-to-the-next-45-years |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Japan Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism''}} |url=http://www.mlit.go.jp/kokudokeikaku/international/spw/general/vietnam/index_e.html |title=An Overview of Spatial Policy in Asian and European Countries |website=[[Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism]] |location=Japan |access-date=8 April 2018 |archive-date=18 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418133454/http://www.mlit.go.jp/kokudokeikaku/international/spw/general/vietnam/index_e.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration''|2013}} |year=2013 |url=http://immigration.london.ca/LMLIP/Publications/Documents/VietnameseCommunity.pdf |title=Vietnam [The Full Picture of Vietnam] |website=[[Ministry of Citizenship, Immigration and International Trade|Ministry of Citizenship and Immigration]] |location=Canada |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011021028/http://immigration.london.ca/LMLIP/Publications/Documents/VietnameseCommunity.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Defence'' Russia|2018}} |year=2018 |url=http://eng.mil.ru/en/news_page/country/more.htm?id=12159205@egNews |title=Russia and Vietnam draft International Military Activity Plan 2020 |website=[[Ministry of Defence (Russia)|Ministry of Defence]] |location=Russia |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016130058/http://eng.mil.ru/en/news_page/country/more.htm?id=12159205@egNews |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''|2007}} |year=2007 |url=http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/cs_doingoai/ |title=Vietnam Foreign Policy |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Vietnam)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] |location=Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090118165608/http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/cs_doingoai/ |archive-date=18 January 2009 |access-date=25 February 2009}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''|2013}} |year=2013 |url=http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/cn_vakv |title=General Information about Countries and Regions [List of countries which maintains diplomatic relations with the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (as April 2010)] |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |location=Vietnam |access-date=15 August 2008 |archive-date=16 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116143650/http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/cn_vakv/}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''|2014}} |year=2014 |url=http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/nr140319210702/nr150107173136/nr150109091301/ns150129142936 |title=Continue moving forward with intensive international integration |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |location=Vietnam |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164947/http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/nr140319210702/nr150107173136/nr150109091301/ns150129142936 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''|2018}} |year=2018 |url=http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/ctc_quocte |title=Vietnam and International Organisations |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |location=Vietnam |access-date=15 August 2008 |archive-date=26 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726035213/http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/ctc_quocte/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Foreign Affairs''}} |url=http://www.mofahcm.gov.vn/en/mofa/cn_vakv/ca_tbd/nr040819104054/ns150602164120 |title=Tài Liệu Cơ Bản Nước Cộng Hoà Hồi Giáo Pa-kít-xtan |language=vi |website=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |location=Vietnam |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016170445/http://www.mofahcm.gov.vn/en/mofa/cn_vakv/ca_tbd/nr040819104054/ns150602164120 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Justice''|1992}} |year=1992 |url=http://www.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/lists/vn%20bn%20php%20lut/view_detail.aspx?itemid=10450 |title=Constitution of Vietnam |via=[[Ministry of Justice (Vietnam)]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013071327/http://www.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/lists/vn%20bn%20php%20lut/view_detail.aspx?itemid=10450 |archive-date=13 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Justice''|1999}} |year=1999 |url=http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/_layouts/printeng.aspx?id=610 |title=Penal Code (No. 15/1999/QH10) |website=Ministry of Justice |location=Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002004440/http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/_layouts/printeng.aspx?id=610 |archive-date=2 October 2013}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Justice''|2004a}} |year=2004 |url=http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=7315 |title=Law on Publication (No. 30/2004/QH11) |website=Ministry of Justice |location=Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218104027/http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=7315 |archive-date=18 December 2011}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Justice''|2004b}} |year=2004 |url=http://moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=7818 |title=Ordinance of Beliefs and Religion [No. 21] |website=Ministry of Justice |location=Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014025515/http://moj.gov.vn/vbpq/en/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=7818 |archive-date=14 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Justice''|2012}} |year=2012 |url=http://www.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=27800 |title=Bộ Luật Lao Động (No. 10/2012/QH13) |website=Ministry of Justice |location=Vietnam |language=vi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016070557/http://www.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=27800 |archive-date=16 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment''}} |url=http://www.nea.gov.vn/HTMT_ddsh05.htm |title=Báo cáo Hiện trạng môi trường quốc gia 2005 Chuyên đề Đa dạng sinh học |language=vi |website=[[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Vietnam)|Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment]] |location=Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223065322/http://www.nea.gov.vn/HTMT_ddsh05.htm |archive-date=23 February 2009}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Special Broadcasting Service''|2013}} |year=2013 |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2013/05/16/key-ingredients-vietnamese |title=Key ingredients: Vietnamese |website=[[Special Broadcasting Service]] |location=Australia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015235902/https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2013/05/16/key-ingredients-vietnamese |archive-date=15 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''United States Agency for International Development''}} |url=https://www.usaid.gov/vietnam/environmental-remediation |title=Environmental Remediation [Agent Orange] |website=[[United States Agency for International Development]] |date=3 December 2018 |access-date=20 October 2018 |archive-date=20 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020140548/https://www.usaid.gov/vietnam/environmental-remediation}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''United States Department of State''|2005}} |year=2005 |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71363.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2006 |website=[[United States Department of State]] |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411210320/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2006/71363.htm |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''United States Department of State''|2006}} |year=2006 |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/pm/rls/rpt/walkearth/2006/68018.htm |title=U.S. Humanitarian Mine Action Programs: Asia |website=United States Department of State |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=18 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418072802/https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/pm/rls/rpt/walkearth/2006/68018.htm |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Vietnam Culture Information Network''|2014}} |year=2014 |url=http://english.cinet.vn/topics/articledetail.aspx?topicid=7&articleid=14539 |title=Nha Trang city: Vietnamese cultural cuisine festival 2014 opens |website=Vietnam Culture Information Network |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016165009/http://english.cinet.vn/topics/articledetail.aspx?topicid=7&articleid=14539}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Vietnam Investment Review''|2018}} |year=2018 |url=https://www.vir.com.vn/contract-signed-for-feasibility-study-for-long-thanh-airport-59845.html |title=Contract signed for feasibility study for Long Thanh airport |newspaper=Vietnam Investment Review – vir |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007041513/https://www.vir.com.vn/contract-signed-for-feasibility-study-for-long-thanh-airport-59845.html |archive-date=7 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Vietnam National Administration of Tourism''|2014}} |year=2014 |url=http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/english/index.php/items/7911 |title=Conquering the Fansipan |website=[[Vietnam National Administration of Tourism]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002053919/http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/english/index.php/items/7911 |archive-date=2 October 2018 |access-date=16 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |ref={{sfnref|''Vietnam National Administration of Tourism''|2018}} |year=2018 |url=http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/english/index.php/items/12453 |title=International visitors to Viet Nam in December and 12 months of 2017 |website=Vietnam National Administration of Tourism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108061659/http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/english/index.php/items/12453 |archive-date=8 January 2019}}{{refend}}

===Academic publications===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |author=((BirdLife International)) |year=2016 |title=Lophura edwardsi |journal=[[The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T45354985A95145107.en |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Amer |first=Ramses |year=1996 |title=Vietnam's Policies and the Ethnic Chinese since 1975 |journal=Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=76–104 |jstor=41056928}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Anh Dinh |first=Thuy |year=2016 |url=https://tiara-tu.ac.th/uploadFiles/145820_3248776dfc4e589b1e3c3095999f3984.pdf |title=The Causes and Effects of Korean Pop Culture on Vietnamese Consumer Behavior |type=MA thesis |publisher=[[Thammasat University]] |access-date=14 March 2023 |archive-date=14 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314141655/https://tiara-tu.ac.th/uploadFiles/145820_3248776dfc4e589b1e3c3095999f3984.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Baccini |first1=Leonardo |last2=Impullitti |first2=Giammario |author3-link=Edmund Malesky |last3=Malesky |first3=Edmund J. |year=2017 |title=Globalization and State Capitalism: Assessing Vietnam's Accession to the WTO |journal=CESifo Working Paper Series |via=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3036319}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Banout |first1=Jan |last2=Urban |first2=Ondrej |last3=Musil |first3=Vojtech |last4=Szakova |first4=Jirina |last5=Balik |first5=Jiri |display-authors=4 |year=2014 |title=Agent Orange Footprint Still Visible in Rural Areas of Central Vietnam |journal=Journal of Environmental and Public Health |volume=2014 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1155/2014/528965 |pmc=3930020 |pmid=24639878 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Berg |first1=M |last2=Stengel |first2=C |last3=Pham |first3=TK |last4=Pham |first4=HV |last5=Sampson |first5=ML |last6=Leng |first6=M |last7=Samreth |first7=S |last8=Fredericks |first8=D |display-authors=4 |year=2007 |title=Magnitude of arsenic pollution in the Mekong and Red River Deltas—Cambodia and Vietnam |journal=[[Science of the Total Environment]] |volume=372 |issue=2–3 |pages=413–25 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.09.010 |pmid=17081593 |bibcode=2007ScTEn.372..413B}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Chapman |first1=Bruce |last2=Liu |first2=Amy Y.C. |year=2013 |title=Repayment Burdens of Student Loans for Vietnamese Higher Education |journal=Crawford School Research Paper |via=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=2213076}}
* {{cite report |last1=Cira |first1=Dean |last2=Dastur |first2=Arish |last3=Kilroy |first3=Austin |last4=Lozano |first4=Nancy |last5=Gun-wang |first5=Hyoung |display-authors=4 |year=2011 |title=Vietnam Urbanization Review |publisher=[[World Bank]] |via=[[ResearchGate]] |doi=10.13140/2.1.5100.6249}}
* {{cite journal |ref={{sfnref|Cornell University}} |url=https://seap.einaudi.cornell.edu/rice-vietnamese-culture-and-economy |title=Rice in Vietnamese Culture and Economy |journal=Mario Einaudi Center for International Studies – Southeast Asia Program |date=25 September 2023 |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016125940/https://seap.einaudi.cornell.edu/rice-vietnamese-culture-and-economy |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Van De |first1=Nguyen |last2=Douglas |first2=Ian |last3=McMorrow |first3=Julia |last4=Lindley |first4=Sarah |last5=Thuy Binh |first5=Dao Kim Nguyen |last6=Thi Van |first6=Tranh |last7=Huu Thanh |first7=Le |last8=Tho |first8=Nguyen |display-authors=4 |year=2008 |title=Erosion and Nutrient Loss on Sloping Land under Intense Cultivation in Southern Vietnam |journal=Geographical Research |volume=46 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-5871.2007.00487.x |issue=1 |pages=4–16 |bibcode=2008GeoRs..46....4V |s2cid=128887874 |url=https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/erosion-and-nutrient-loss-on-sloping-land-under-intense-cultivation-in-southern-vietnam(511fb80d-fa5b-4ce9-b09e-194b12bda7f7).html |doi-access=free |access-date=11 February 2021 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418171045/https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/erosion-and-nutrient-loss-on-sloping-land-under-intense-cultivation-in-southern-vietnam(511fb80d-fa5b-4ce9-b09e-194b12bda7f7).html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Van Hoang |first=Chung |year=2017 |url=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2017_34.pdf |title=Evangelizing Post-Đổi Mới Vietnam: The Rise of Protestantism and the State's Response |journal=Perspective |publisher=ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute |issue=34 |issn=2335-6677 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014021910/https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2017_34.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2018}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Van Nam |first1=Nguyen |last2=de Vries |first2=Peter J. |last3=Van Toi |first3=Le |last4=Nagelkerke |first4=Nico |year=2005 |title=Malaria control in Vietnam: the Binh Thuan experience |journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health |volume=10 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01387.x |pmid=15807800 |issue=4 |pages=357–365 |s2cid=22083432 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Van Tho |first=Tran |year=2003 |url=http://www.f.waseda.jp/tvttran/en/recentpapers/E03_Longterm_development_of_Vietnam.pdf |title=Economic development in Vietnam during the second half of the 20th century: How to avoid the danger of lagging behind |journal=The Vietnamese Economy: Awakening the Dorming Dragon |via=[[Waseda University]] |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005050943/http://www.f.waseda.jp/tvttran/en/recentpapers/E03_Longterm_development_of_Vietnam.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2018}}
* {{cite journal |last=Van Van |first=Hoang |url=http://r-cube.ritsumei.ac.jp/repo/repository/rcube/4129/LCS_22_1pp7-18_HOANG.pdf |title=The Current Situation and Issues of the Teaching of English in Vietnam |script-journal=ja:立命館言語文化研究 |volume=22 |issue=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012055826/http://r-cube.ritsumei.ac.jp/repo/repository/rcube/4129/LCS_22_1pp7-18_HOANG.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2018}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Viet Trung |first1=Le |last2=Quoc Viet |first2=Tran |last3=Van Chat |first3=Pham |year=2016 |url=https://www.vpi.pvn.vn/upload/file/TCDK/2016/Thang%2011/Le%20Viet%20Trung.pdf |title=An Overview of Vietnam's Oil and Gas Industry |journal=Petroleum Economics & Management |via=[[Vietnam Petroleum Institute]] |volume=10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010050015/https://www.vpi.pvn.vn/upload/file/TCDK/2016/Thang%2011/Le%20Viet%20Trung.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2018}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wagstaff |first1=Adam |last2=van Doorslaer |first2=Eddy |last3=Watanabe |first3=Naoko |year=2003 |title=On decomposing the causes of health sector inequalities with an application to malnutrition inequalities in Vietnam |journal=[[Journal of Econometrics]] |volume=112 |doi=10.1016/S0304-4076(02)00161-6 |issue=1 |pages=207–223 |hdl=10986/19426 |s2cid=122165846 |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/12/17/000094946_01120604025228/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf |access-date=2 January 2022 |archive-date=14 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914162349/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2001/12/17/000094946_01120604025228/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wai-ming |first=Ng |year=2002 |url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/jas/staff/benng/publications/anime1.pdf |title=The Impact of Japanese Comics and Animation in Asia |journal=[[Japan Spotlight|Journal of Japanese Trade & Industry]] |via=[[Chinese University of Hong Kong]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016165000/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/jas/staff/benng/publications/anime1.pdf |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wilkey |first=Robert Neil |year=2002 |url=https://repository.jmls.edu/jitpl/vol20/iss4/4/ |title=Vietnam's Antitrust Legislation and Subscription to E-ASEAN: An End to the Bamboo Firewall Over Internet Regulation |journal=[[The John Marshall Journal of Information Technology and Privacy Law]] |volume=20 |issue=4 |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119103631/https://repository.jmls.edu/jitpl/vol20/iss4/4/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite journal |last=Xuan Dinh |first=Quan |year=2000 |title=The Political Economy of Vietnam's Transformation Process |journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=360–388 |jstor=25798497}}
* {{cite journal |last=Zinoman |first=Peter |year=2000 |title=Colonial Prisons and Anti-Colonial Resistance in French Indochina: The Thai Nguyen Rebellion, 1917 |journal=[[Modern Asian Studies]] |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=57–98 |jstor=313112 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00003590 |s2cid=145191678}}
* {{cite book |last=Zuckerman |first=Phil |year=2007 |chapter-url=http://www.pitzer.edu/academics/faculty/zuckerman/Ath-Chap-under-7000.pdf |chapter=Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns |title=Cambridge Companion to Atheism |via=[[Pitzer College]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090612114443/http://www.pitzer.edu/academics/faculty/zuckerman/Ath-Chap-under-7000.pdf |archive-date=12 June 2009}}
{{refend}}

===News and magazines===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite web |last=Anh |first=Lan |year=2016a |url=http://vovworld.vn/en-US/discovery-vietnam/ba-be-the-biggest-mountain-lake-in-vietnam-490525.vov |title=Ba Be, the biggest mountain lake in Vietnam |publisher=[[Voice of Vietnam]] |access-date=15 January 2019 |archive-date=15 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115084724/http://vovworld.vn/en-US/discovery-vietnam/ba-be-the-biggest-mountain-lake-in-vietnam-490525.vov |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Anh |first=Lan |year=2016b |url=http://vovworld.vn/en-US/discovery-vietnam/vietnamese-family-reunion-during-tet-407156.vov |title=Vietnamese family reunion during Tet |publisher=[[Voice of Vietnam]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016074755/http://vovworld.vn/en-US/discovery-vietnam/vietnamese-family-reunion-during-tet-407156.vov |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Batruny |first=Joe |year=2014 |url=https://matadornetwork.com/nights/20-vietnamese-dishes-drinks-need-try/ |title=20 Vietnamese dishes and drinks you need to try |website=Matador Network |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016064900/https://matadornetwork.com/nights/20-vietnamese-dishes-drinks-need-try/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Borel |first=Brooke |year=2010 |url=https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2010-02/ping-pong-playing-terminator |title=A Ping-Pong-Playing Terminator |magazine=[[Popular Science]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=3 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303182303/https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2010-02/ping-pong-playing-terminator |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=Brown |first=Vanessa |year=2018 |url=https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/true-stories/dark-side-of-vietnam-reveals-cost-of-war/news-story/3448ad53dc083a3f761f113199f89c99 |title=Dark side of Vietnam reveals cost of war |work=[[news.com.au]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164921/https://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/true-stories/dark-side-of-vietnam-reveals-cost-of-war/news-story/3448ad53dc083a3f761f113199f89c99 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=Buleen |first=Chad |year=2017 |url=https://traveltips.usatoday.com/average-temperature-vietnam-13542.html |title=Average Temperature in Vietnam |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016125948/https://traveltips.usatoday.com/average-temperature-vietnam-13542.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Cerre |first=Mike |year=2016 |url=https://abc7news.com/news/agent-oranges-legacy-continues-to-haunt-vietnam-and-veterans/1348950/ |title=Agent Orange's legacy continues to haunt Vietnam and Veterans |publisher=[[KABC-TV]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016165002/https://abc7news.com/news/agent-oranges-legacy-continues-to-haunt-vietnam-and-veterans/1348950/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Chi |first=Kim |year=2017 |url=https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/business/189858/vietnam-builds-north-south-highway--but-not-a-railway.html |title=Vietnam builds north-south highway, but not a railway |website=Vietnam Net |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016132924/https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/business/189858/vietnam-builds-north-south-highway--but-not-a-railway.html}}
* {{cite web |last=Chin |first=Stephen |year=2018 |url=https://theaseanpost.com/article/vietnam-plays-catch-high-speed-rail |title=Vietnam plays catch up with high speed rail |publisher=The ASEAN Post |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016125940/https://theaseanpost.com/article/vietnam-plays-catch-high-speed-rail |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Helen |last2=Miller |first2=Karryn |year=2017 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/vietnam-food-dishes/index.html |title=Vietnamese food: 40 delicious dishes you'll love |publisher=CNN Travel |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016060220/https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/vietnam-food-dishes/index.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=Cockburn |first=Patrick |year=1994 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/us-finally-ends-vietnam-embargo-1391770.html |title=US finally ends Vietnam embargo |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=20 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220054022/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/us-finally-ends-vietnam-embargo-1391770.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Corapi |first=Annie |year=2010 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/08/25/healthiest.ethnic.cuisines/index.html |title=The 10 healthiest ethnic cuisines |publisher=CNN Health |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=1 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001160049/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/08/25/healthiest.ethnic.cuisines/index.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Dall |first=Nick |year=2017 |url=https://www.ozy.com/fast-forward/how-vietnam-learned-to-stop-poaching-and-love-its-beasts/79150 |title=How Vietnam learned to stop poaching and love its beasts |publisher=[[Ozy Media|Ozy]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164908/https://www.ozy.com/fast-forward/how-vietnam-learned-to-stop-poaching-and-love-its-beasts/79150}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Duy |first=Dinh |year=2016 |url=https://thediplomat.com/2016/10/the-revival-of-bolero-in-vietnam/ |title=The Revival of Boléro in Vietnam |magazine=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015173022/https://thediplomat.com/2016/10/the-revival-of-bolero-in-vietnam/ |archive-date=15 October 2018}}
* {{cite news |last=Giap |first=Trong |year=2017 |url=https://e.vnexpress.net/news/news/vietnam-signs-global-treaty-to-ban-nuclear-weapons-3645628.html |title=Vietnam signs global treaty to ban nuclear weapons |newspaper=VnExpress |access-date=13 August 2019 |archive-date=13 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190813161333/https://e.vnexpress.net/news/news/vietnam-signs-global-treaty-to-ban-nuclear-weapons-3645628.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=Gillet |first=Kit |year=2011 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2011/jul/28/ho-chi-minh-trail-motorbike |title=Riding Vietnam's Ho Chi Minh trail |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=18 December 2016 |archive-date=12 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133318/http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2011/jul/28/ho-chi-minh-trail-motorbike |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=Gomes |first=Alaric |year=2019 |url=https://gulfnews.com/sport/uae-sport/asian-cup-vietnam-continue-to-chase-their-dream-with-quarters-berth-1.61560526 |title=Asian Cup: Vietnam continue to chase their dream with quarters berth |newspaper=[[Gulf News]] |access-date=6 February 2019 |archive-date=6 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190206034757/https://gulfnews.com/sport/uae-sport/asian-cup-vietnam-continue-to-chase-their-dream-with-quarters-berth-1.61560526 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last1=Ha |first1=K. Oanh |last2=Giang |first2=Nguyen Kieu |last3=Denslow |first3=Neil |year=2012 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-12/vietnam-air-aims-to-be-southeast-asia-s-no-2-carrier-by-2020.html |title=Vietnam Air Aims to Win Southeast Asia's No. 2 Title by 2020 |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029184008/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-12/vietnam-air-aims-to-be-southeast-asia-s-no-2-carrier-by-2020.html |archive-date=29 October 2013}}
* {{cite news |last=Haberman |first=Clyde |date=12 May 2014 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/12/us/agent-oranges-long-legacy-for-vietnam-and-veterans.html |title=Agent Orange's Long Legacy, for Vietnam and Veterans |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=19 July 2018 |archive-date=24 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724205114/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/12/us/agent-oranges-long-legacy-for-vietnam-and-veterans.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=Hirano |first=Ko |year=2016 |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/05/08/national/japanese-language-studies-taking-root-vietnam-elementary-schools/ |title=Japanese language studies taking root in Vietnam elementary schools |publisher=[[The Japan Times]] |newspaper=The Japan Times Online |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164855/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/05/08/national/japanese-language-studies-taking-root-vietnam-elementary-schools/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=Huong |first=Minh |year=2010 |url=https://vietnamnews.vn/Sunday/Features/201033/Folk-poetry-preservation-a-labour-of-love.html |title=Folk poetry preservation a labour of love |newspaper=[[Việt Nam News]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016103825/https://vietnamnews.vn/Sunday/Features/201033/Folk-poetry-preservation-a-labour-of-love.html}}
* {{cite web |last=Hutt |first=David |publisher=[[Asia Times]] |title=US, Vietnam ties have never been better |date=13 July 2020 |access-date=24 March 2021 |url=https://asiatimes.com/2020/07/us-vietnam-ties-have-never-been-better/ |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418211310/https://asiatimes.com/2020/07/us-vietnam-ties-have-never-been-better/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=Kinver |first=Mark |year=2011 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-15430787 |title=Javan rhino 'now extinct in Vietnam' |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=13 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313080508/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15430787 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=Loan |first=Doan |year=2018 |url=https://e.vnexpress.net/news/travel-life/vietnam-s-2019-holiday-plan-includes-9-day-tet-break-3777252.html |title=Vietnam's 2019 holiday plan includes 9-day Tet break |newspaper=VnExpress |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016075009/https://e.vnexpress.net/news/travel-life/vietnam-s-2019-holiday-plan-includes-9-day-tet-break-3777252.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last=MacLeod |first=Calum |year=2012 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2012/11/07/agent-orange/1660871/ |title=Fifty years later, U.S., Vietnam deal with Agent Orange |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016130040/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2012/11/07/agent-orange/1660871/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Mai |first=Thanh |year=2017 |url=https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/business/187522/vietnam-remains-world-s-no-1-exporter-of-cashews.html |title=Vietnam remains world's No 1 exporter of cashews |website=Vietnam Net |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016131415/https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/business/187522/vietnam-remains-world-s-no-1-exporter-of-cashews.html}}
* {{cite web |last=McNeil |first=Donald G. Jr. |year=2016 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/29/health/vietnam-tuberculosis.html |title=Vietnam's Battle With Tuberculosis |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164857/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/29/health/vietnam-tuberculosis.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Mitchell |first=Alison |date=12 July 1995 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/12/world/opening-vietnam-overview-us-grants-vietnam-full-ties-time-for-healing-clinton.html |title=Opening to Vietnam: The Overview; U.S. Grants Vietnam Full Ties; Time for Healing, Clinton Says |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164904/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/12/world/opening-vietnam-overview-us-grants-vietnam-full-ties-time-for-healing-clinton.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Mydans |first=Seth |date=24 December 2009 |url-access=subscription |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/24/world/asia/24vietnam.html |title=Vietnam Charges Lawyer With Capital Crime |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=21 December 2018 |archive-date=6 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406040418/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/24/world/asia/24vietnam.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last1=Nghia |first1=Son |last2=Luan |first2=Nguyen |year=2017 |url=https://vietnam.vnanet.vn/english/unique-fighting-cock-martial-arts/273242.html |title=Unique Fighting-Cock Martial Arts |publisher=Báo Ảnh Việt Nam |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164915/https://vietnam.vnanet.vn/english/unique-fighting-cock-martial-arts/273242.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Nguyen |first=Andrea |year=2011 |url=https://www.saveur.com/article/Travels/Heaven-in-a-Bowl |title=Heaven in a Bowl: The Original *Pho* |magazine=[[Saveur]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=3 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303182300/https://www.saveur.com/article/Travels/Heaven-in-a-Bowl |url-status=live}}
* {{cite news |last1=Nguyen |first1=Mai |last2=Binh Minh |first2=Ho |last3=Pham |first3=My |last4=Burmistrova |first4=Svetlana |last5=Chalmers |first5=John |last6=Fenton |first6=Susan |display-authors=4 |year=2016 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-politics-nuclearpower/vietnam-abandons-plan-for-first-nuclear-power-plants-idUSKBN13H0VO |title=Vietnam abandons plan for first nuclear power plants |newspaper=[[Reuters]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164901/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-politics-nuclearpower/vietnam-abandons-plan-for-first-nuclear-power-plants-idUSKBN13H0VO |url-status=live}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Norton |first=Barley |year=2015 |url=https://folkways.si.edu/magazine-winter-spring-2015-ca-tru-singing-in-vietnam-revival-and-innovation/article/smithsonian |title=Ca Trù Singing in Vietnam |magazine=Smithsonian Folkways |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119100843/https://folkways.si.edu/magazine-winter-spring-2015-ca-tru-singing-in-vietnam-revival-and-innovation/article/smithsonian |url-status=live}}
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* {{cite news |ref={{sfnref|''Viet Nam News''|2014}} |year=2014 |url=https://vietnamnews.vn/politics-laws/250222/the-constitution-of-the-socialist-republic-of-viet-nam.html |title=The constitution of the socialist republic of Viet Nam |newspaper=[[Việt Nam News]] |access-date=17 October 2018 |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501011011/https://vietnamnews.vn/politics-laws/250222/the-constitution-of-the-socialist-republic-of-viet-nam.html}}
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* {{cite news |ref={{sfnref|''Viet Nam News''|2018b}} |year=2018b |url=https://vietnamnews.vn/economy/462600/us-continues-to-be-key-export-market-for-viet-nam.html |title=US continues to be key export market for Việt Nam |newspaper=[[Việt Nam News]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=5 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005072337/https://vietnamnews.vn/economy/462600/us-continues-to-be-key-export-market-for-viet-nam.html |url-status=live}}
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{{refend}}

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* {{cite web |author=LM Report |year=2000 |url=http://archives.the-monitor.org/index.php/publications/display?url=lm/2000/denmark.html |title=Denmark Mine Removal Action Funding [Table 1. Governmental donations to mine action in calendar year 1999] |publisher=[[International Campaign to Ban Landmines]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164906/http://archives.the-monitor.org/index.php/publications/display?url=lm/2000/denmark.html |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |author=Montagnard Human Rights Organisation |url=http://www.mhro.org/montangards-history/under-south-vietnam-rule |title=Under South Vietnam Rule (1955–1975) |publisher=Montagnard Human Rights Organization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006164804/http://www.mhro.org/montangards-history/under-south-vietnam-rule |archive-date=6 October 2012}}
* {{cite web |author=OpenNet Initiative |year=2012 |url=https://opennet.net/research/profiles/vietnam |title=Country Profiles [Vietnam] |publisher=[[OpenNet Initiative]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=26 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926052522/https://opennet.net/research/profiles/vietnam |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |author=((Oxford Business Group)) |year=2017 |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/overview/wired-digital-content-gains-popularity-operators-are-bolstering-infrastructure-and-introducing-new |title=Operators in Vietnam bolster infrastructure and introduce new products and services in telecoms sector |website=Oxford Business Group |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190225034037/https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/overview/wired-digital-content-gains-popularity-operators-are-bolstering-infrastructure-and-introducing-new |archive-date=25 February 2019}}
* {{cite web |author=Reporters Without Borders |url=http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-vietnam,39763.html |title=Internet Enemies [Vietnam] |publisher=[[Reporters Without Borders]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317075418/http://en.rsf.org/internet-enemie-vietnam,39763.html |archive-date=17 March 2011}}
* {{cite web |author=UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage |year=2012 |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/worship-of-hung-kings-in-phu-tho-00735 |title=Worship of Hùng kings in Phú Thọ |work=[[Intangible cultural heritage]] |publisher=UNESCO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015060847/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/worship-of-hung-kings-in-phu-tho-00735 |archive-date=15 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |author=UNESCO Media Services |year=2016 |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/asean_economic_community_likely_to_spur_scientific_co_operat/ |title=ASEAN Economic Community likely to spur scientific co-operation, says report |publisher=UNESCO |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008095742/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/asean_economic_community_likely_to_spur_scientific_co_operat/ |archive-date=8 October 2018}}
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* {{cite web |author=UNICEF |url=https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/vietnam_statistics.html |title=At a glance: Viet Nam [Statistics] |work=UNICEF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111021133/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/vietnam_statistics.html |archive-date=11 January 2008}}
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* {{cite web |author=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |url=https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/ |title=Data Query |publisher=[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]] |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=15 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615001511/https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/ |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |author=United Nations Development Programme |year=2018 |url=http://www.vn.undp.org/content/vietnam/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/03/08/viet-nam-mine-action-project-launched-with-support-from-korea.html |title=Viet Nam: Mine Action Project launched with support from Korea |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016130211/http://www.vn.undp.org/content/vietnam/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2018/03/08/viet-nam-mine-action-project-launched-with-support-from-korea.html}}
* {{cite web |author=United Nations Population Fund |year=2009 |url=https://vietnam.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/7_Monograph-Migration-Urbanization.pdf |title=Migration and Urbanization in Vietnam: Patterns, Trends and Differentials |website=[[United Nations Population Fund]] Vietnam |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108075651/https://vietnam.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/7_Monograph-Migration-Urbanization.pdf |archive-date=8 January 2019}}
* {{cite web |author=United Nations Treaty Collection |url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |title=Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons [Vietnam] |publisher=United Nations Treaty Collection |access-date=13 August 2019 |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806220546/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVI-9&chapter=26&clang=_en |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |author=University of Technology Sydney |year=2018 |url=https://www.uts.edu.au/about/faculty-engineering-and-information-technology/news/hundreds-vietnamese-children-access-safe |title=Hundreds of Vietnamese children access safe water |publisher=[[University of Technology Sydney]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111040214/https://www.uts.edu.au/about/faculty-engineering-and-information-technology/news/hundreds-vietnamese-children-access-safe |archive-date=11 January 2019}}
* {{cite web |author=Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology |year=2017 |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/asean_economic_community_likely_to_spur_scientific_co_operat/ |title=Recent development and implementation plan 2017–2022 of Vietnam Space Center Project |publisher=[[Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008101506/http://www.vast.ac.vn/en/news/activities/1755-recent-development-and-implementation-plan-2017-2022-of-vietnam-space-center-project |archive-date=8 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |author=Vietnam National Space Centre |year=2016 |url=https://vnsc.org.vn/en/about/history/ |title=History of Establishment and Development [The period of 2016–2020] |publisher=Vietnam National Space Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008102509/https://vnsc.org.vn/en/about/history/ |archive-date=8 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |author=Vietnam News Agency |year=2018 |url=http://ven.vn/china-tops-vietnams-list-of-importers-31333.html |title=China tops Vietnam's list of importers |publisher=VEN.vn |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016164903/http://ven.vn/china-tops-vietnams-list-of-importers-31333.html}}
* {{cite web |author=Vietnam Women's Union |year=2005 |url=http://www.hoilhpn.org.vn/NewsDetail.asp?Catid=122&NewsId=1836&lang=EN |title=Vietnam set priorities for HIV/AIDS prevention in 2006 |publisher=Vietnam Women's Union |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009134555/http://www.hoilhpn.org.vn/NewsDetail.asp?Catid=122&NewsId=1836&lang=EN |archive-date=9 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |author=Vietnamese Waters Zone |url=http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez/704?chart=catch-chart&dimension=taxon&measure=tonnage&limit=10 |title=Catches by Taxon in the waters of Viet Nam |publisher=[[Sea Around Us (organization)|Sea Around Us]] |access-date=15 August 2019 |archive-date=23 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223181456/http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez/704?chart=catch-chart&dimension=taxon&measure=tonnage&limit=10 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |author=Vietnamese-American Association |url=http://vietraleigh.org/views/images/heritage/LacLongQuan.pdf |title=Lạc Long Quân & Âu Cơ |publisher=Vietnamese-American Association of [[Raleigh, North Carolina]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015054226/http://vietraleigh.org/views/images/heritage/LacLongQuan.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2018}}
* {{cite web |author=Waitemata District Health Board |year=2015 |url=https://www.ecald.com/assets/Resources/C2-S4-Vietnamese.pdf |title=Vietnamese Culture |publisher=Waitemata District Health Board, New Zealand |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190109054519/https://www.ecald.com/assets/Resources/C2-S4-Vietnamese.pdf |archive-date=9 January 2019}}
* {{cite web |author=World Bank |year=2002 |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPURBDEV/Resources/vietnam-Urbanisation.pdf |title=Issues and Dynamics: Urban Systems in Developing East Asia |work=Urbanization Dynamics and Policy Frameworks in Developing East Asia, East Asia Infrastructure Department |publisher=World Bank |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108083012/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPURBDEV/Resources/vietnam-Urbanisation.pdf |archive-date=8 January 2019}}
* {{cite web |author=World Bank |year=2013 |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.NENR?locations=VN |title=School enrollment, primary (% net) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016132947/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.NENR?locations=VN |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |author=World Bank |year=2015 |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.PROG.ZS?locations=VN |title=Progression to secondary school (%) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016131441/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.PROG.ZS?locations=VN |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |author=World Bank |year=2016b |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.MA.IN?locations=VN&year_high_desc=true |title=Life expectancy at birth, male (years) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=25 August 2018 |archive-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826120437/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.MA.IN?locations=VN&year_high_desc=true |url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |author=World Bank |year=2018a |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.AIDS.ZS?locations=VN |title=Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15–49) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=16 October 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181016132950/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.AIDS.ZS?locations=VN |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

=== Free content ===
{{Refbegin}}
{{free-content attribution
| author = UNESCO
| title = UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030
| publisher = UNESCO Publishing
| page numbers = 713–714
| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002354/235406e.pdf
| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}<br />
{{US DOS Background Notes |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4130.htm |title=(U.S. Relations With Vietnam)}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book <!--Deny Citation Bot--> |last=Nguyen |first=Lien-Hang T. |title=Hanoi's War: An International History of the War for Peace in Vietnam |date=2012 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |url=https://uncpress.org/book/9780807882696/hanois-war/ |isbn=978-0-8078-8269-6}}
* {{cite book <!--Deny Citation Bot--> |last=Dror |first=Olga |title=Making Two Vietnams: War and Youth Identities, 1965–1975 |date=2018 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/making-two-vietnams/BE086D9C1DA355B33EDBABC1C628701A |isbn=978-1-108-55616-3}}
* {{cite book <!--Deny Citation Bot--> |editor-last1=Tran |editor-first1=Nu-Anh |editor-last2=Vu |editor-first2=Tuong |title=Building a Republican Nation in Vietnam, 1920–1963 |date=2022 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |url=https://uhpress.hawaii.edu/title/building-a-republican-nation-in-vietnam-1920-1963/ |isbn=978-0-8248-9211-1}}
* {{cite book <!--Deny Citation Bot--> |last=Li |first=Tana |title=A Maritime Vietnam: From Earliest Times to the Nineteenth Century |year=2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/maritime-vietnam/96B310BA54294919EC7E1468920FBA48 |isbn=978-1-009-23762-8}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Vietnam}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1243338.stm Vietnam profile] from [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/628349/Vietnam Vietnam] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* {{wikiatlas|Vietnam}}

=== Government ===
* [https://vietnam.gov.vn/ Vietnam Government Portal]
* [https://quochoi.vn/Pages/default.aspx National Assembly of Vietnam] 
* [https://mofa.gov.vn/en/web/ministry-of-foreign-affairs Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Vietnam]

===Tourism===
* [https://vietnamtourism.gov.vn/en Official tourism website]

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