View source for War of the Spanish Succession

{{Short description|1701–1714 European Great Power conflict}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2013}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = War of the Spanish Succession
| partof            = [[French–Habsburg rivalry]]; [[Anglo-French Wars]]
| image             = File:Final War of the Spanish Succession Collage.jpg
| image_size        = 300
| caption           = Clockwise, from top left:{{flatlist|
* [[Battle of Blenheim]] (13 August 1704)
* [[Battle of Ramillies]] (23 May 1706)
* [[Battle of Almansa]] (25 April 1707)
* [[Battle of Denain]] (24 July 1712)
}}
| date              = March 1701 – September 7, 1714 (13 years)
| place             = [[Europe]], [[Atlantic]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Caribbean]]
| territory         = * [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]] recognised as [[King of Spain]], in return for renouncing his claim to the [[List of French monarchs|French monarchy]].
* [[Bourbon Spain]] cedes the [[Duchy of Milan]], the [[Spanish Netherlands]], [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]] and [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Sardinia]] to [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]] to [[Savoyard state|Savoy]], [[Gibraltar]] and [[Menorca]] to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]].
* [[Kingdom of France|France]] cedes [[Ypres]], [[Tournai]], [[Menen]], [[Veurne]], [[Fort Knokke]], and [[Warneton, Belgium|Warneton]] to Austria, while gaining the [[Principality of Orange]] and the [[Ubaye Valley]].
* The [[Dutch Republic]] gains [[Barrier Treaty|barrier fortresses]] and part of [[Upper Guelders]].
| result            = Treaties of [[Peace of Utrecht|Utrecht]], [[Treaty of Rastatt|Rastatt]], and [[Treaty of Baden (1714)|Baden]]
| combatant1        = '''{{flagdeco|Spain|1701}} Pro-[[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] [[Spanish Empire|Spain]]'''{{efn|{{translit|es|[[Borbónicos]]}}}}
| combatant2        = '''{{flagdeco|Spain|1506}} Pro-[[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] [[Spanish Empire|Spain]]'''{{efn|{{translit|es|[[Austracistas]]}}}}
| combatant2a       = {{plainlist|
* {{flag|Holy Roman Empire}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Great Britain}}
* {{flagcountry|Dutch Republic}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Prussia|1701}} {{small|(from 1702)}}
* {{flagdeco|Portugal|1707}} [[History of Portugal (1640–1777)|Portugal]] {{small|(from 1702)}}
* {{flagdeco|Savoy}} [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]] {{small|(from 1703)}}
}}
| combatant1a       = {{plainlist|
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of France}}
* {{flagcountry|Electorate of Bavaria}}
* {{flagicon image|Black St George's Cross.svg}} [[Electorate of Cologne|Cologne]]
* {{flagicon image|LuikVlag.svg}} [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège|Liège]]
* {{flagdeco|Portugal|1707}} [[History of Portugal (1640–1777)|Portugal]] {{small|(until 1702)}}
* {{flagdeco|Savoy}} [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]] {{small|(until 1703)}}
* {{Flagicon|Mantua}} [[Duchy of Mantua|Mantua]]
}}
| commander2        = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1506}}{{flagdeco|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]]
* {{flagdeco|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]]
* {{flagdeco|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph I]]
* {{flagdeco|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Prince Eugene of Savoy|Savoy]]
* {{flagdeco|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden|Baden-Baden]]
* {{flagdeco|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Guido Starhemberg|Starhemberg]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain}}{{flagdeco|Dutch Republic}} [[William III of England|William III/II]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer|Harley]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Marlborough]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde|Ormonde]]
* {{flagdeco|Dutch Republic}} [[Anthonie Heinsius|Heinsius]]
* {{flagicon|Dutch Republic}} [[Godert de Ginkell, 1st Earl of Athlone|Athlone]]
* {{flagdeco|Dutch Republic}} [[Henry de Nassau, Lord Overkirk|Ouwerkerk]]
* {{flagdeco|Dutch Republic}} [[Claude Frédéric t'Serclaes, Count of Tilly|Tilly]]
* {{flagdeco|Prussia|1701}} [[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick I]]
* {{flagdeco|Prussia|1701}} [[Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau|Anhalt-Dessau]]
* {{flagdeco|Portugal|1707}} [[Peter II of Portugal|Peter II]]
* {{flagdeco|Portugal|1707}} [[John V of Portugal|John V]]
* {{flagdeco|Duchy of Savoy}} [[Victor Amadeus II]]
}}
| commander1        = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1701}} [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}} [[Louis XIV]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}} [[Claude Louis Hector de Villars|Villars]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}} [[Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme|Vendôme]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}} [[James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick|Berwick]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}} [[Louis-François de Boufflers|Boufflers]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}} [[François de Neufville, duc de Villeroy|Villeroy]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}} [[Camille d'Hostun, duc de Tallard|Tallard]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}} [[Jacques Bazin de Bezons|Bezons]]
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}} [[Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil|Vaudreuil]]
* {{flagdeco|Electorate of Bavaria}} {{flagdeco|Spain|1701}} [[Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria|Maximilian II]]
* {{flagicon image|Black St George's Cross.svg}}{{flagicon image|LuikVlag.svg}} [[Joseph Clemens of Bavaria|Joseph Clemens]]
* {{flagdeco|Transylvania|1703}} [[Francis II Rákóczi]]}}
| strength2         = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|Holy Roman Empire}}: 260,090{{Sfn|Wilson|2016|page=461}}{{Efn|Annual average, 1701–1713. The Austrian army made up nearly half this force. Wilson estimates Imperial strength peaked at 343,000 in 1710.{{Sfn|Wilson|2016|page=460}}}}
* {{flagdeco|Dutch Republic}}: 119,000{{Sfn|Glete|2001|p=156}}{{Efn|Ostwald estimates Dutch strength peaked at 137,000.{{Sfn|Ostwald|2000|p=664}}}}{{efn|In addition the Dutch possessed the only significant siege engineering corps of the Grand Alliance.{{sfn|Ostwald|2006|p=135}}}}
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain}}: 70,000{{Sfn|Rasler|1994|p=129}}
* {{flagdeco|Portugal|1707}}: 28,000{{efn|Although the Portuguese promised to provide 28,000 men, their effective strength in 1704 barely reached 15,000 men{{Sfn|Wijn|1956|p=509}}}}
* {{flagdeco|Duchy of Savoy}}: 26,500{{sfn|Storrs|2000|pp=26}}
* '''Peak naval strength'''
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain}}: 123 ships of the line{{sfn|Nimwegen|2020|p=67}}
* {{flagdeco|Dutch Republic}}: 86 ships of the line{{sfn|Nimwegen|2020|p=67}}
}}
| strength1         = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}}: 255,000–400,000{{Sfn|Dwyer|2014|p=14}}{{Sfn|Lynn|1994|p=894}}{{efn|In addition the French possessed the only significant siege engineering corps of the Bourbon Alliance.{{sfn|Ostwald|2006|p=128}}}}
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1701}}: 70,000{{Efn|The Spanish Army consisted of three separate forces; Spain (20,000), Spanish Netherlands (35,000) and Italy (15,000). These are authorised numbers and actual were almost certainly lower.{{sfn|Vault|2016|pp=98, 540, 625}}}}
* {{flagdeco|Electorate of Bavaria}}: 20,000{{Sfn|Vault|2016|p=454}}
* '''Peak naval strength'''
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}}: 105 [[ships of the line]]{{sfn|Nimwegen|2020|p=67}}
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1701}}: 26 ships of the line{{sfn|Bruijn|2011|p=129}}{{efn|This number is from 1700, one year before the outbreak of the war}}
}}
| casualties2       = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|Dutch Republic}}{{flagdeco|Kingdom of Great Britain}}: 250,000 killed and wounded{{Efn|32,000 British soldiers died<ref>Charles Carlton, "This Seat of Mars: War and the British Isles, 1485-1746", Yale University Press, November 2011. Page 262.</ref>}}
* {{flagdeco|Holy Roman Empire}}: 200,000 killed and wounded{{efn|Split 50:50 between [[Habsburg monarchy]] and other HRE states.{{Sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=74}}}}
* {{flagdeco|Portugal|1707}}: 50,000 killed and wounded
* {{flagdeco|Savoy}}: 50,000 killed and wounded{{Sfn|Clodfelter|2008|page=74}}
}}

'''Total: 550,000 killed and wounded'''
| casualties1       = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|Kingdom of France}}: 500,000–600,000 killed and wounded
* {{flagdeco|Spain|1701}}{{flagdeco|Electorate of Bavaria}}: {{circa|100,000}} killed and wounded{{Sfn|Clodfelter|2008|page=74}}
}}

'''Total: 600,000–700,000 killed and wounded'''
| casualties3       = {{plainlist|
* '''Total deaths in combat (both sides)''': 400,000{{Sfn|Clodfelter|2008|page=74}}
* '''Total military deaths including disease''': 700,000{{Sfn|Urlanis|1971|p=187}} to 1,251,000{{Sfn|Levy|2014|p=90}}
}}
}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Spanish Succession}}
{{Campaignbox Queen Anne's War}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Spanish Succession: West Indies}}
{{Campaignbox Anglo-French wars}}
The '''War of the Spanish Succession'''{{efn|[[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Guerra de sucesión española''}} was a European [[great power]] conflict, fought between 1701 and 1714. The death of [[Charles II of Spain]] in November 1700 without children resulted in a succession struggle between rival claimants. In his will, Charles named his heir as [[Philip V of Spain|Philip of Anjou]], who was backed by his grandfather [[Louis XIV]]. His opponent, [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles of Austria]], was supported by the [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]].{{efn|Its primary members included [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], the [[Dutch Republic]], and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]].}} Significant related conflicts include the [[Great Northern War]] (1700–1721) and [[Queen Anne's War]] (1702–1713).

Although no longer the predominant power in [[Europe]], the [[Spanish Empire]] remained a vast global power, including the [[Spanish Netherlands]], large parts of [[Council of Italy|Italy]], the [[Spanish America|Americas]] and the [[Spanish East Indies]]. Its union with either France or Austria threatened the [[European balance of power]], and the proclamation of Philip as king of Spain on 16 November 1700 led to war. Although by 1709 the Grand Alliance had forced France onto the defensive, Philip had confirmed his position in Spain, the ostensible cause of the war.

When [[Emperor Joseph I]] died in 1711, Archduke Charles succeeded him as [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. Union with Austria was as unwelcome as that with France, while mounting costs led the new [[1710 British general election|British government]] to withdraw from the war. The Grand Alliance's remaining forces continued to fight until British military and financial support collapsed. This led to the 1713 [[Peace of Utrecht]], followed by the treaties of [[Treaty of Rastatt|Rastatt]] and [[Treaty of Baden (1714)|Baden]] in 1714.

Philip was confirmed as King of Spain, but renounced his place in the French line of succession. In addition, most Spanish possessions in Italy were ceded to [[Savoy]] and Austria, which also acquired the [[Austrian Netherlands]]. Britain retained the Spanish ports of [[Gibraltar]] and [[Menorca]], along with trade concessions in the Americas. This established the latter as the primary European commercial entity, replacing the Dutch, who thereafter declined as a significant power despite securing their [[Barrier Treaty|barrier fortresses]] and gaining part of [[Upper Guelders]]. France was left financially exhausted but placing a Bourbon on the Spanish throne meant it had succeeded in the long envisioned goal of breaking the encirclement of its borders by the [[Habsburg monarchy]].

==Background==
[[Charles II of Spain]] succeeded his father [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] at the age of four in 1665. Subject to extended periods of ill-health for much of his life, the issue of his successor was a matter of diplomatic debate for decades. For example, in [[Secret Treaty of Dover|1670]] [[Charles II of England]] agreed to support the rights of [[Louis XIV]] of France, while the 1689 [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]] committed [[Kingdom of England|England]] and the [[Dutch Republic]] to back those of [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor]].{{sfn|Hochedlinger|2003|p=171}}

When Charles died in 1700, the [[Spanish Empire]] was no longer the dominant [[great power]], but still included much of Italy and the [[Spanish America|Americas]], the [[Spanish Netherlands]], and colonies such as the [[History of the Philippines (1521–1898)|Philippines]].{{sfn|Storrs|2006|pp=6–7}} Negotiations between Louis and Emperor Leopold centered on dividing these territories, which the Spanish refused to allow. Since the acquisition of an undivided empire by either Austria or France would make them too powerful, its inheritance led to a war that involved most of Europe. The 1700–1721 [[Great Northern War]] is considered a connected conflict since it affected the involvement of states such as [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]], [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxony]], [[Denmark–Norway]] and [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]].{{sfn|Frey|Frey|1995|pp=191–192}}

Armies in the 1688 to 1697 [[Nine Years' War]] frequently numbered over 100,000, requiring expenditure unsustainable for pre-industrial economies.{{sfn|Childs|2013|p=1}} The 1690s also marked the low point of the [[Little Ice Age]], a period of cold and wet weather that drastically reduced crop yields across Europe.{{sfn|White|2011|pp=542–543}} The [[Great Famine of 1695–1697]] killed an estimated 15–25% of the population in present-day [[Scotland]], [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Baltic states]], plus another two million in France and [[Northern Italy]].{{sfn|de Vries|2009|pp=151–194}}

This combination of financial exhaustion and famine led to the October 1697 [[Treaty of Ryswick]], a compromise that left the succession unresolved. Since it now seemed clear Charles would die without children, Leopold signed only with extreme reluctance, and all sides viewed Ryswick as only a temporary suspension of hostilities.{{sfn|Meerts|2014|p=168}}

==Partition treaties==
[[File:Charles II of Spain anonymous portrait.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|[[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]], 1665–1700, last Habsburg King of Spain]]

Unlike the crowns of [[Kingdom of France|France]] or [[Habsburg monarchy|Austria]], that of Spain could be inherited through the female line. This allowed Charles' sisters [[Maria Theresa of Spain|Maria Theresa]] and [[Margaret Theresa]] to pass their rights onto the children of their respective marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. Louis sought to avoid conflict over the issue through direct negotiation with his main opponent [[William III of England]] while excluding the Spanish.{{sfn|Frey|Frey|1995|p=389}}

Leopold and Margaret's daughter [[Maria Antonia of Austria|Maria Antonia]] married [[Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria]] in 1685, and on 28 October 1692, they had a son, [[Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria|Joseph Ferdinand]]. Under the October 1698 [[Treaty of The Hague (1698)|Treaty of the Hague]] between France, Britain and the Dutch Republic, five-year-old Joseph was designated heir to Charles II; in return, France and Austria would receive parts of Spain's European territories.{{sfn|McKay|Scott|1983|pp=54–55}} Charles refused to accept this; on 14 November 1698, he published a will leaving an undivided Spanish monarchy to Joseph Ferdinand. However, the latter's death from smallpox in February 1699 undid these arrangements.{{sfn|Ward|Leathes|2010|p=385}}

In 1685, Maria Antonia passed her claim to the Spanish throne onto Leopold's sons, [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph]] and Archduke Charles.{{sfn|Ingrao|2010|p=105}} Her right to do so was doubtful, but Louis and William used this to devise the 1700 [[Treaty of London (1700)|Treaty of London]]. Archduke Charles became the new heir, while France, [[Duchy of Savoy|Savoy]] and Austria received territorial compensation; however, since neither Leopold nor Charles agreed, the treaty was largely pointless.{{sfn|Kamen|2001|p=3}} By early October 1700, Charles was dying; his final will left the throne to Louis XIV's grandson [[Philip V of Spain|Philip, Duke of Anjou]]; if he refused, the offer would pass to his younger brother the [[Charles, Duke of Berry (1686–1714)|Duke of Berry]], followed by Archduke Charles.{{sfn|Rule|2017|pp=91–108}}

Charles died on 1 November 1700, and on the 9th, Spanish ambassadors formally offered the throne to Philip. Louis briefly considered refusing; although it meant the succession of Archduke Charles, insisting William help him enforce the Treaty of London meant he might achieve his territorial aims without fighting. However, his son the [[Louis, Grand Dauphin|Dauphin]] rejected the idea; French diplomats also advised Austria would fight regardless, while neither the British nor Dutch would go to war for a settlement intended to avoid war. Louis therefore accepted on behalf of his grandson, who was proclaimed Philip V of Spain on 16 November 1700.{{sfn|Rule|2017|pp= 91–108}}

==Prelude to war==
[[File:Philippe de France proclamé roi d'Espagne.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|Proclamation of Philip of Anjou as [[Philip V of Spain]], Versailles, 16 November 1700]]

With most of his objectives achieved by diplomacy, Louis now made a series of moves that combined to make war inevitable.{{sfn|Falkner|2015|pp=508–510}} The [[Tories (British political party)|Tory]] majority in the English [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] objected to the Partition Treaties, chiefly the French acquisition of [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]], an important link in the lucrative [[Levant]] trade.{{sfn|Gregg|2001|p=126}} However, a foreign diplomat observed their refusal to become involved in a European war was true "only so long as English commerce does not suffer".{{sfn|Somerset|2012|p=166}} Louis either failed to appreciate this or decided to ignore it and his actions gradually eroded Tory opposition.{{sfn|Falkner|2015|p=96}}

In early 1701, Louis registered Philip's claim to the French throne with the [[Parlement of Paris]], raising the possibility of union with Spain, contrary to Charles' will, though Philip was only third in the French succession. In February, the Spanish-controlled [[Duchy of Milan]] and allied [[Duchy of Mantua]] in Northern Italy announced their support for Philip and accepted French troops. Combined with efforts to build an alliance between France and Imperial German states in [[Swabia]] and [[Franconia]], these were challenges Leopold could not ignore.{{sfn|Thompson|1973|pp=158–160}}

Helped by the governor, [[Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria|Max Emanuel of Bavaria]], French troops replaced Dutch garrisons in the 'Barrier' fortresses in the [[Spanish Netherlands]], granted at Ryswick. It also threatened the Dutch monopoly over the [[Scheldt]] granted by the 1648 [[Peace of Münster]], while French control of [[Antwerp]] and [[Ostend]] would allow them to blockade the [[English Channel]] at will.{{sfn|Israel|1990|pp=197–199}} Combined with other French actions that threatened English trade, this produced a clear majority for war and in May 1701, Parliament urged William to negotiate an anti-French alliance.{{sfn|Somerset|2012|p=167}}

On 7 September, Leopold, the Dutch Republic and Britain{{efn|England and Scotland were separate kingdoms until 1707 but the Treaty was signed by William as King of Great Britain}} signed the [[Treaty of The Hague (1701)|Treaty of The Hague]] renewing the 1689 [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|Grand Alliance]]. Its provisions included securing the Dutch Barrier in the Spanish Netherlands, the Protestant succession in England and Scotland and an independent Spain but did not refer to placing Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne.{{sfn|Somerset|2012|p=168}} When the exiled [[James II of England]] died on 16 September 1701, Louis reneged on his recognition of the Protestant [[William III of England|William III]] as king of England and Scotland and supported the claim of James' son, [[James Francis Edward Stuart]]. War became inevitable and when William himself died in March 1702, his successor [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] confirmed her support for the Treaty of the Hague.{{sfn|Wolf|1974|p=514}} The Dutch now led by [[Grand Pensionary]] [[Anthonie Heinsius]] did the same, despite French hopes that without a [[Stadtholder]] the republic would be torn apart internally.{{sfn|Nimwegen|2020|p=261}} On 8 May the Dutch Republic declared war on France, followed by the British and the Emperor on 15 May and the [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]] on 30 September.{{sfn|Wolf|1974|p=514}}

==General strategic drivers==
[[File:Grand Strategy, War of the Spanish Succession.png|thumb|left|upright=1.0|France's central position required the Grand Alliance to attack on exterior lines.]]

The importance of trade and economic interests to the participants is often underestimated; contemporaries viewed Dutch and English support for the Habsburg cause as primarily driven by a desire for access to Spanish markets in the Americas.{{sfn|Schmidt Voges|Solana Crespo|2017|p=2}} While modern economists generally assume a constantly growing market, the then dominant theory of [[mercantilism]] viewed it as relatively static. This meant increasing one's own share of a market required taking it from someone else, with the state facilitating this by attacking opponents' merchant ships and colonies.{{sfn|Rothbard|2010}}

As a result, the war quickly expanded to [[North America]], [[India]], and other parts of Asia, with tariffs used as a policy weapon. The 1651–1663 [[Navigation Acts]] were a major factor in the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars]], while between 1690 and 1704, English import duties on foreign goods increased by 400%. On 6 September 1700, France banned the import of English manufactured goods such as cloth and imposed prohibitive duties on a wide range of others.{{sfn|Schaeper|1986|p=1}}

The field armies that operated in the Southern Netherlands during the Nine Years' War had sometimes reached 100,000 men. The size of armies continued to grow during the War of the Spanish Succession. Between 1702 and 1707, the field armies in the Southern Netherlands had a strength of 60,000 to 80,000 men, and from 1708 onwards, over 120,000 men.{{sfn|Nimwegen|1995|p=9}} These extensive armies placed immense strain on pre-industrial economies.{{sfn|Nimwegen|1995|p=9}}{{sfn|Childs|2013|p=2}} Armies were restricted by their dependence on water-borne transport for supplies, so campaigns focused on rivers like the [[Rhine]], [[Scheldt]] and [[Adda (river)|Adda]], while their absence limited operations in areas like Northern Spain. Better logistics, unified command, and simpler internal lines of communication gave Bourbon armies an advantage over their opponents.{{sfn|Falkner|2015|p=37}}

==Strategic objectives by participant==

===Spain===
[[File:Battle of Vigo Bay 1702.webp|thumb|right|An Anglo-Dutch squadron captures a [[Spanish treasure fleet]], Vigo Bay, October 1702]]

In 1700, Spain remained a great power in terms of territory control; recent research moreover shows that imports of bullion from the Americas reached their highest level between 1670 and 1700.{{Sfn|Kamen|2002|p=435}} However, this concealed major structural weaknesses; the vast majority of these imports were used to fund debt or pay foreign merchants. When the new Bourbon administration took over in 1701, they found the empire bankrupt and effectively defenceless, with fewer than 15,000 troops in Spain itself and a navy consisting of 20 ships in total.{{sfn|Kamen|2002|p=440}}

Almost constant warfare during the 17th century made the economy subject to long periods of low productivity and depression, and largely reliant upon others for its prosperity. In many ways, the continued existence of the empire was not due to Spanish strength but to maintain a balance between the powers competing for a share of its markets. Despite fighting a series of wars against Spain from 1667 to 1697, France was also its most significant economic partner, supplying labour and controlling a large proportion of its foreign trade. This consideration was an important factor in the Charles' decision to name Philip his heir.{{sfn|Kamen|2002|p=435}} Its dependence on others was illustrated in 1703; despite the presence of an invading Allied army, the French ambassador urged Louis to allow Dutch and English merchants to purchase wool from Spanish farmers, "otherwise the flocks cannot be maintained".{{sfn|Kamen|2002|p=440}}

Enacting political or economic reform was extremely complex, since [[Habsburg Spain]] was a personal union between the Crowns of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]], each with very different political cultures,{{efn|Aragon was divided into the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Principality of Catalonia|Catalonia]], [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]], [[Kingdom of Majorca|Majorca]], [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]], and [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)|Sardinia]].}} while links with the former Spanish strongholds in [[Spanish Netherlands|the Netherlands]]  and [[Spanish possessions in Italy|Italy]] were frayed. Most of [[Botifler|Philip's support]] came from the Castilian elite,{{sfn|Cowans|2003|pp=26–27}} who saw [[Nueva Planta Decrees|comprehensive reforms]] as necessary to preserve an independent Spanish Empire. As these reforms included the elimination of the privileges, or ''[[Fuero]]s'', held by the Aragonese states, [[Austracista|support for the Hapsburgs]] was [[Maulets (history)|strongest]] in areas that were part of the Crown of Aragon, including [[Principality of Catalonia|Catalonia]] and [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]].{{Sfn|Kamen|2002|pp=442–444}}

===France===
Under [[Louis XIV]], France was the most powerful state in Europe, with revenue-generating capacities that far exceeded those of its rivals. Its army was the largest in Europe and France's geographical position provided enormous tactical flexibility; unlike Austria, it had [[French Navy|a navy]], and as the campaigns of 1708–1710 proved, even under severe pressure it could defend its borders. The [[Nine Years' War]] had shown France could not impose its objectives without support, and its new alliance with Spain and Bavaria made a successful outcome more likely.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}} However, the previous wars had left France with severe economic problems. This was recognized by the [[Jules Louis Bolé, marquis de Chamlay|Marquis de Chamlay]], who advised Louis to not take on a purely offensive strategy. He argued that the combined might of the Grand Alliance forces made it highly improbable for France to launch a successful attack. The Dutch and Imperial fortresses were located far from convenient Franco-Spanish bases, and the Netherlands and [[Rhineland]] lacked easily navigable rivers for the Bourbon armies. Furthermore, besieging a major Dutch fortress demanded the commitment of two full armies. The French would thus pursue a strategy described as a "mixed war" in Europe. In this strategy, the Franco-Spanish forces would primarily assume a defensive posture to safeguard the vital fortresses they needed to retain. Offensive actions, on the other hand, were characterized by assertive posturing and strategic positioning, with an emphasis on sustaining their forces by living off enemy territory whenever feasible, while blocking enemy thrusts, and trying to engage them in battle where possible.{{sfn|Rowlands|2013|p=24}} Apart from denying an undivided Spanish monarchy to others, Louis's objectives were to secure his borders with the Holy Roman Empire, weaken his rival Austria, and increase French commercial strength through access to trade with the Americas.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

===Austria and the Holy Roman Empire===
[[File:II. Rákóczi Ferenc Mányoki.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Francis II Rákóczi|Francis Rákóczi]], leader of the 1703–1711 Hungarian revolt; funded by France, this was a major distraction for Austria]]

The Imperial Diet formally declared [[Reichskrieg]] against France in November 1702.<ref>Wilson, Peter (1998). German Armies: War and German Society, 1648–1806. London: UCL Press. Page 107.</ref>

Despite being the dominant power within the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian and Imperial interests did not always coincide. The Habsburgs wanted to put [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles]] on the throne of an undivided Spanish monarchy, while their Allies were fighting to prevent either the Bourbons or the Habsburgs from doing so. This divergence and Austria's financial collapse in 1703 meant the campaign in Spain was reliant on Anglo-Dutch naval support and after 1706, British funding. Particularly during the reign of [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph I]], the priority for the Habsburgs was to secure their southern borders from French intervention in northern Italy and suppress [[Rákóczi's War of Independence]] in Hungary.{{sfn|Ingrao|1979|p=220}}

Much of the Spanish nobility resented what they considered to be the arrogance of the Austrians, a key factor in the selection of Philip as their preferred candidate in 1700. In return for British support, Charles agreed to major commercial concessions within the empire, as well as accepting British control of [[Gibraltar]] and [[Menorca]]. These made him widely unpopular at all levels of Spanish society, and he was never able to sustain himself outside the coastal regions, which could be supplied by the Anglo-Dutch navies.{{sfn|Hattendorf|1979|pp=50–54}}

The majority of the Empire sided with the Emperor, including not only his own lands of the [[Habsburg monarchy|Austrian monarchy]] but eventually also [[Savoyard state|Savoy]], [[Brandenburg-Prussia]], [[Electorate of Hanover|Hanover]], [[Electoral Palatinate|the Palatinate]], and many minor states such as [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel|Hessen-Kassel]] and [[Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg|Salzburg]]. The [[House of Wittelsbach|Wittelsbach]]-controlled states of [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]], [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège|Liège]], and [[Electorate of Cologne|Cologne]] allied with France, as did [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]], the [[Spanish Netherlands]] (both territories of Spain) and [[Duchy of Mantua|Mantua]]. Other states stayed neutral due to concerns about their lack of relative military strength (e.g. the [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscany]]), being busy with other conflicts (e.g. Saxony), a lack of interest, or some combination thereof (e.g. many of the small states of southwest Germany). Despite several major states siding with France, the Habsburgs were largely successful at mustering the rest of the Empire for war. Of the average Imperial strength of 260,090 soldiers, 126,000  were in the ''Kaiserliche Armee'' and 134,090 in the ''Reichsarmee'' (some states, such as Savoy, did not contribute troops to the Imperial Army and instead marched alongside the Emperor but under their own princes). Total expenditure for the Imperial war effort was 650 million florins across 1701–14, including the cost of the official contingents and additional auxiliaries provided by the Imperial states, as well as their other directly incurred war expenditures. About 90 million of this (14% of the total) was covered by subsidies from the Empire's British and Dutch allies. The remainder was divided roughly one-third for the Habsburgs (187 million, 29% of the total) and two-thirds for the remaining imperial estates (373 million, 57% of the total).<ref>Peter Wilson. "Heart of Europe: A History of the Holy Roman Empire." Cambridge: 2016. p. 454.</ref>

Like Bavaria, the larger entities pursued their own policies; his claim to the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish crown]] meant [[Augustus II the Strong|Augustus of Saxony]] focused on the [[Great Northern War]], while [[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick I]] made his support dependent on Leopold recognising [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] as a kingdom and making it an equal member of the Grand Alliance. Since [[George I of Great Britain|George, Elector of Hanover]], was also heir to the British throne, his support was more reliable, but the suspicion remained that the interests of [[Electorate of Hanover|Hanover]] came first.{{sfn|Ingrao|1979|pp=39–40}}

===Britain===
[[File:War of the Spanish Succession alliances (1703).png|thumb|right|Participants in the War of the Spanish Succession in 1703: Pro-Habsburg (orange) and Pro-Bourbon (lavender)]]

British foreign policy was based on three general principles, which remained largely consistent from the 16th through the 20th centuries. The first, overriding all others, was to preserve a balance of power in Europe, an objective threatened by French expansion under Louis XIV. The second was to prevent the [[Low Countries]] from being controlled by a hostile power or one stronger than Britain; this included both the Spanish Netherlands and the Dutch Republic, whose deep harbours and prevailing winds made her a natural embarkation point for an attack on England, as [[Glorious Revolution#Crossing and landing|demonstrated in 1688]]. The third was to maintain a navy strong enough to protect British trade, control her waters and launch attacks on her enemies' commercial routes and coastal areas.{{Sfn|Burke}}

Alignment on reducing the power of France and securing the Protestant succession for the British throne masked differences on how to achieve them. In general, the [[Tories (British political party)|Tories]] favoured a mercantilist strategy of using the [[Royal Navy]] to attack French and Spanish trade while protecting and expanding their own; land commitments were viewed as expensive and primarily of benefit to others.{{sfn|Shinsuke|2013|pp=37–40}} The [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigs]] argued France could not be defeated by seapower alone, making a Continental strategy essential, while Britain's financial strength made it the only member of the Alliance able to operate on all fronts against France.{{sfn|Ostwald|2014|pp=100–129}}

===Dutch Republic===
The Dutch Republic had been the [[cornerstone]] of European resistance against French expansionism since the outbreak of the [[Franco-Dutch War]] in 1672, when it was nearly overrun.{{sfn|Nimwegen|2020|p=349}} In addition to concerns over the balance of power, they viewed the Spanish Netherlands as a key strategic buffer against French aggression.{{sfn|Rowen|1954|p=3}} Since recent experience showed the Spanish could not defend them, the 1697 [[Treaty of Ryswick]] allowed the Dutch to place garrisons in eight key cities, providing [[strategic depth]] sufficient to protect their commercial and demographic heartlands against attack from the south. However, with the help of Maximilian of Bavaria, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands, by 1701 these garrisons had been nullified and replaced by French troops. At the request of the [[Archbishop of Cologne|Elector of Cologne]] and [[List of bishops and prince-bishops of Liège|Prince-bishop of Liège]], [[Joseph Clemens of Bavaria]], French troops also moved into his territories in the [[Rhineland]] and were thus directly threatening the Dutch border from both the south and the east. Dutch priorities were to secure their borders, {{Nowrap|re-establish}} and strengthen the Barrier fortresses, retain control of the economically vital Scheldt estuary, and gain access to trade in the Spanish Empire.{{sfn|Lesaffer}}

At the outset of the war, the [[Dutch States Army]] was the best prepared army of the Grand Alliance, being similar in size to that of the Austrians, but of significantly higher quality.{{sfn|Bromley|1979|p=412}} Although [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Marlborough]] was appointed commander of Allied forces in the [[Low Countries]], it was the Dutch who provided the bulk of the troops and supplies, as well as covering the expenses for the [[Train (military)|siege train]]. This made strategy in this theatre subject to the approval of their [[Field deputies (Dutch Republic)|field deputies]] and generals.{{Efn|[[Godert de Ginkel, 1st Earl of Athlone|Athlone]] until 1703, [[Henry de Nassau, Lord Overkirk|Overkirk]] from 1704 to 1708 and [[Claude Frédéric t'Serclaes, Count of Tilly|Tilly]] from 1708.{{sfnp|Nimwegen|2020|pages=184, 262, 306}}}} When Dutch forces operated outside the Low Countries, it was generally seen as a concession.{{sfn|Van Alphen|Hoffenaar|Lemmers|Van der Spek|2021|p=86}}

===Savoy===
[[File:Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia - Palace of Venaria (cropped).png|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Victor Amadeus II]], [[Duke of Savoy]]]]

Throughout the 17th century, [[Savoyard state|Savoy]] sought to replace Spain as the dominant power in [[Northern Italy]]. Savoy consisted of two main geographic segments; [[Prince of Piedmont|Piedmont]], which contained the capital [[Turin]], and the [[Duchy of Aosta]] on the Italian side of the [[Alps]], with the [[Duchy of Savoy]] and [[County of Nice]] in Transalpine France. The latter were almost impossible to defend and combined with the anti-Habsburg policy pursued by Louis XIV and his predecessors, this meant Savoy generally sided with France. However, Piedmont provided foreign powers access to the restive southern French provinces of the [[Dauphiné]] and [[Vaunage]], former [[Huguenot]] strongholds with a long history of rebellion. This provided [[Victor Amadeus II]] with a degree of leverage, allowing him to manoeuvre between opposing parties to expand his territories.{{sfn|Symcox|1985|pp=146–147}}

During the Nine Years' War in 1690, Savoy joined the Grand Alliance before agreeing to a [[Treaty of Turin (1696)|separate peace]] with France in 1696. The accession of Philip V in 1701 led to a reversal of long-standing strategic policy, with France now supporting the Spanish position in Lombardy, rather than seeking to weaken it, and Austria doing the opposite. While Victor Amadeus initially allied Savoy with France, his long-term goal was the acquisition of the [[Duchy of Milan]], which neither Bourbons nor Habsburgs would relinquish voluntarily. As discussed elsewhere in this article, securing his borders in Italy was of greater concern to Emperor Leopold than Spain itself. This meant Britain was the only power inclined to help Victor Amadeus achieve this objective and he changed sides in 1703 after the Anglo-Dutch navies won control of the Western Mediterranean.{{sfn|Symcox|1985|p=149}}

==Military campaigns; 1701–1708==

===Italy===
[[File:North Italy 1700.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Northern Italy; Milan, Savoy, and Mantua were the primary areas of conflict]]

The war in Italy primarily involved the Spanish-ruled [[Duchy of Milan]] and the French-allied [[Duchy of Mantua]], considered essential to the security of Austria's southern borders. In 1701, French troops occupied both cities and [[Victor Amadeus II]], Duke of Savoy, allied with France, his daughter [[Maria Luisa of Savoy|Maria Luisa]] marrying Philip V.{{sfn|Dhondt| 2015|pp=16–17}} In May 1701, an Imperial army under [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]] moved into Northern Italy; by February 1702, victories at [[Battle of Carpi|Carpi]], [[Battle of Chiari|Chiari]] and [[Battle of Cremona|Cremona]] forced the French behind the [[Adda (river)|Adda]] river.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=270–271}}

[[Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme]], one of the best French generals, took command and was substantially reinforced; Prince Eugene managed a draw at the [[Battle of Luzzara]] but the French recovered most of the territory that it had lost to Prince Eugene the year before.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=276–277}} In October 1703, Victor Amadeus declared war on France; by May 1706, the French held most of Savoy except [[Turin]] while victories at [[Battle of Cassano (1705)|Cassano]] and [[Battle of Calcinato|Calcinato]] forced the Imperialists into the [[Trentino]] valley.{{sfn|Falkner|2015|p=1302}}

In July 1706 Vendôme and all the forces that could be spared were sent to reinforce France's northern frontier after the defeat at [[Battle of Ramillies|Ramillies]]. Reinforced by German auxiliaries led by [[Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau|Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau]], Prince Eugene broke the [[siege of Turin]] in September; despite a minor French victory at [[Battle of Castiglione (1706)|Castiglione]], the war in Italy was over. To the fury of his allies, the 1707 [[Convention of Milan]] Emperor Joseph gave French troops in Lombardy free passage to Southern France.{{sfn|Sundstrom|1992|p=196}}

A combined Savoyard-Imperial attack on the French base of [[Toulon]] planned for April was postponed when Imperial troops were diverted to seize the Spanish Bourbon [[Kingdom of Naples]]. By the time they [[Siege of Toulon (1707)|besieged Toulon]] in August, the French were too strong, and they were forced to withdraw. By the end of 1707, fighting in Italy ceased, apart from minor attempts by Victor Amadeus to recover Nice and Savoy.{{sfn|Symcox|1985|p=155}}

===Low Countries, Rhine, and Danube===
[[File:Low Countries 1700 and entrenched lines.png|thumb|left|upright=1.3|[[Low Countries]]; note the location of [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège]] (in pink). Red lines show the {{lang|fr|[[pré carré]]}}, a double line of fortresses guarding the French border.]]

The first objective for the Grand Alliance in this theatre was to secure the Dutch frontiers, threatened by the alliance between France, Bavaria, and [[Joseph Clemens of Bavaria]], ruler of [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège|Liège]] and [[Electorate of Cologne|Cologne]]. In early 1702 the Grand Alliance repelled an [[Assault on Nijmegen (1702)|assault on Nijmegen]] and [[Siege of Kaiserswerth|captured Kaiserswerth]], a strong town along the Rhine on the eastern side of the Dutch Republic. The Allies then advanced into the [[Meuse]] valley, taking [[Siege of Venlo (1702)|Venlo]], [[Roermond]], and [[Stevensweert]], and concluding the campaign with the [[Capture of Liège (1702)|capture of Liège]].{{sfn|Lynn|1999|p=275}} The 1703 campaign was marred by Allied conflicts over strategy. Despite [[Siege of Bonn (1703)|capturing Bonn]], they failed to take [[Antwerp]], while a Dutch contingent narrowly escaped disaster at [[Battle of Ekeren|Ekeren]] in June.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=280–281}}

On the [[Upper Rhine]], Imperial forces under [[Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden]] remained on the defensive, although they took [[Siege of Landau (1702)|Landau]] in 1702. Supported by the Bavarians, during the 1703 campaign French forces retook Landau, won victories at [[Battle of Friedlingen|Friedlingen]], [[First Battle of Höchstädt|Höchstädt]] and [[Battle of Speyerbach|Speyerbach]], then captured [[Siege of Kehl (1703)|Kehl]] and [[Breisach]]. With Austrian resources absorbed by [[Rákóczi's War of Independence]] in Hungary, the Franco-Bavarian plan for 1704 was to march on Vienna.{{sfn|Ingrao|1979|p=123}} To relieve the pressure, Marlborough marched up the Rhine, joined forces with Louis of Baden and Prince Eugene, and crossed the Danube on 2 July. Allied victory at [[Battle of Blenheim|Blenheim]] on 13 August forced Bavaria out of the war and the [[Treaty of Ilbersheim]] placed it under Austrian rule.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=286–294}}

Allied efforts to exploit [[Battle of Elixheim|their victory at Eliksem]] in 1705 floundered on poor coordination, tactical disputes, and command rivalries.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=298–299}} A diplomatic crisis between the Dutch Republic and England was only averted by the dismissal of General [[Frederik Johan van Baer|Slangenburg]],{{Sfn|Nimwegen|2020|p=285}} while the imposition of Austrian rule in Bavaria caused a brief but vicious [[Bavarian uprising of 1705–1706|peasant revolt]].{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=298–299}} In May 1706, the French were comprehensively defeated at [[Battle of Ramillies|Ramillies]] by an Allied army under Marlborough, which then occupied much of the Spanish Netherlands in under two weeks.{{sfn|Holmes|2008|pp=347–349}} France assumed a largely defensive posture for the rest of the war.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=320–323}}

The 1707 campaign was without any significant events, as both parties focussed on other fronts. The French, now under Marshal Vendôme, avoided battle and Marlborough did little to force one upon them. By 1708, the focus of both sides was again almost entirely on the fighting in the Low Countries. The allies once more set their sights on breaking French fortification belts, while the French themselves planned a [[counteroffensive]]. The French operation had early success when the French surprised the Allied garrisons at [[Ghent]] and [[Bruges]], it failed after the Allies defeated them at the [[Battle of Oudenaarde]].{{efn|This was in part possible due to the help from Flemish citizens who were dissatisfied with their new Anglo-Dutch rulers.{{sfn|Veenendaal|1950|pp=34–41}}}} In its aftermath the Allies managed to [[Siege of Lille (1708)|capture Lille]], the strongest fortress of the French fortress belts, while a [[Assault on Brussels (1708)|French assault on Brussels]] was repelled and [[Siege of Ghent (1708)|Ghent]] and Bruges recaptured.{{sfn|Nimwegen|2020|p=354}}{{sfn|Veenendaal|1950|pp=34–41}} Despite losses like Lille and other strongpoints, the French prevented the Allies from making an irreparable breach in their frontiers.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=320–323}}

===Spain and Portugal===
[[File:Spain 1702-1714.png|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Peninsular Spain, showing [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]] and [[Aragon]]]]

British involvement was primarily driven by the need to protect their trade routes in the Mediterranean. By putting Archduke Charles on the Spanish throne, they also hoped to gain commercial privileges within the Spanish Empire. Despite their dynastic claim, the Austrian Habsburgs viewed securing Northern Italy and suppressing the Hungarian revolt as higher priorities. With the Dutch focusing on Flanders post-1704, this theatre was largely dependent on British naval and military support.{{sfn|Atkinson|1944|pp=233–233}}

Spain at the time was a [[personal union]] between the Crowns of [[Crown of Castile|Castile]] and [[Crown of Aragon|Aragon]]. The latter was further divided into the separate entities of [[Principality of Catalonia|Catalonia]], [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Valencia|Valencia]], [[Kingdom of Majorca|Majorca]], [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]], [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], and [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1720)|Sardinia]]. In 1701, Majorca, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia declared for Philip, while a mixture of anti-Castilian and anti-French sentiment meant the others supported Archduke Charles, the most important being Catalonia. Allied victory at [[Battle of Vigo Bay|Vigo Bay]] in October 1702 persuaded [[Peter II of Portugal]] to switch sides, giving them an operational base in this area.{{sfn|Francis|1965|pp=71–93}}

Archduke Charles landed at [[Lisbon]] in March 1704 to begin a land campaign, while the Anglo-Dutch [[capture of Gibraltar]] was a significant blow to Bourbon prestige. An attempt to retake it was defeated [[Battle of Vélez-Málaga|in August]], with a [[Twelfth siege of Gibraltar|land siege]] being abandoned in April 1705.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|p=296}} The 1705 [[Pact of Genoa]] between Catalan representatives and Britain opened a second front in the north-east; the loss of [[Siege of Barcelona (1705)|Barcelona]] and Valencia left [[Toulon]] as the only major port available to the Bourbons in the Western Mediterranean. Philip [[Siege of Barcelona (1706)|tried to retake Barcelona]] in May 1706 but was repulsed, while his absence allowed an Allied force from Portugal to enter Madrid and [[Zaragoza]].{{sfn|Lynn|1999|p=302}}

However, lack of popular support and logistical issues meant the Allies could not hold territory away from the coastline, and by November, Philip controlled Castile, [[Kingdom of Murcia|Murcia]], and parts of Valencia. Allied efforts to regain the initiative ended with defeat at [[Battle of Almansa|Almansa]] in April 1707, followed by an unsuccessful [[Siege of Toulon (1707)|siege of Toulon]] in August. Despite these failures, control of Gibraltar and the [[Capture of Menorca (1708)|capture of Menorca]] in 1708 allowed the [[Royal Navy]] to dominate the Western Mediterranean. Since many British politicians considered this their primary objective, they became reluctant to approve further expensive land campaigns in this theatre.{{sfn|Atkinson|1944|pp=233–233}}

===War beyond Europe and related conflicts===
[[File:French Antilles.png|thumb|left|upright=1.0|The [[French West Indies]]; the huge profits associated with sugar production made this area highly significant.]]

The close links between war and trade meant conflict extended beyond Europe, particularly in North America, where it is known as [[Queen Anne's War]], and the [[West Indies]], which [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|produced sugar]], then a hugely profitable commodity. Also, there were minor trade conflicts in South America, India, and Asia; the financial strains of war particularly affected the [[Dutch East India Company]], as it was a huge drain on scarce naval resources. The war in Europe also
coincided with Dutch involvement in the [[First Javanese War of Succession|War of Javanese Succession]].

Related conflicts include [[Rákóczi's War of Independence]] in [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526-1867)|Hungary]], which was funded by France and a serious concern for the Habsburgs throughout the war. In South-Eastern France, Britain funded the [[Huguenot]] 1704–1710 [[Camisard rebellion]]; one objective of the 1707 campaign in Northern Italy and Southern France was to support this revolt, one of a series that began in the 1620s.

==Towards peace; 1709–1715==
By the end of 1708, the French had withdrawn from Northern Italy, while the maritime powers controlled the Spanish Netherlands, and secured the borders of the Dutch Republic; in the Mediterranean, the maritime powers had achieved naval supremacy, and Britain acquired permanent bases in Gibraltar and Menorca. However, as Marlborough himself pointed out, the French frontiers remained largely intact, their army showed no signs of being defeated, while Philip proved far more popular with the Spanish than his rival. Many of the objectives set out by the Grand Alliance in 1701 had been achieved, but success in 1708 made them overconfident.{{sfn|Nicholson|1955|pp=124–125}}

===Diplomacy and renewed war===
{{further|No Peace Without Spain}}

French diplomats focused on the Dutch, whom they considered more likely to favour peace, since victory at Ramillies had removed any direct military threat to the Republic, while highlighting differences with Britain on the Spanish Netherlands. Peace talks had broken down in late 1708 because the Allies could not agree joint terms.{{sfn|Bromley|1979|p=446}} The [[Great Frost of 1709]] caused widespread famine in France and Spain, forcing Louis to re-open negotiations, who now hinted at his willingness to cede French fortresses to the Dutch Republic.{{sfn|Ward|Leathes|2010|pp=422–423}}{{sfn|Nimwegen|2020|p=307}}

In May 1709 the Allies presented him with the preliminaries of the Hague. Britain and Austria still insisted on an undivided Spanish monarchy for Archduke Charles. The Allies demanded that Philip was given two months to cede his throne to Charles, while France was required to remove him by force if he did not comply, besides having to cede the strongholds, [[Thionville]], [[Cambrai]] and [[Valenciennes]] as collateral.{{sfn|Ward|Leathes|2010|pp=422–423}} Although Spain was of less importance to them, the Dutch negotiators, led by Heinsius, considered these strict conditions necessary to ensure that peace conditions were honoured, as they doubted Louis' sincerity. They were concerned the Allies might exhaust themselves in Spain, while allowing France to recover, and potentially back Phillip once again.{{sfn|Bromley|1979|pp=437}}{{sfn|Nimwegen|2020|pp=307–308 & 321}}

[[File:The Battle of Malplaquet, 1709.png|thumb|right|upright=1.0|[[Battle of Malplaquet]], 1709: an Allied victory, the losses shocked Europe and increased the desire for peace.]]

Many Allied statesmen, including Marlborough, felt the terms assumed Philip would abdicate on request, and seriously underestimated France's ability to continue the war. They also required the Spanish to accept Archduke Charles as king in his place, which they were certainly unwilling to do, as demonstrated by the failure of Allied campaigns to hold territory outside Catalonia.{{sfn|Kamen|2001|pp=70–72}} Although Louis seemed willing to abandon his ambitions in Spain, making war on his grandson was unacceptable, a stipulation so offensive that the French resolved to fight on when it was made public.{{sfn|Ward|Leathes|2010|p=424}}

Following the capture of [[Siege of Tournai (1709)|Tournai]], Marlborough's 1709 offensive in northern France culminated in the [[Battle of Malplaquet]] on 11 September, a hard-fought Allied victory with heavy casualties on both sides.{{Sfn|Holmes|2008|p=433}} Although the battle did not improve the French strategic position, it showed their fighting abilities were intact and increased war-weariness in both Britain and the Dutch Republic. The impact was magnified by Franco-Spanish victories at [[Siege of Alicante|Alicante]] in April, and [[Battle of La Gudina|La Gudina]] in May 1709, which made prospects of an Allied victory in Spain increasingly remote.{{sfn|Gregg|2001|p=289}}

Shortly after, the Dutch discovered they had been excluded from a commercial agreement signed by Archduke Charles giving Britain exclusive trading rights in Spanish America. This deepened divisions between the Allies while increasing Spanish opposition to having the Archduke as their king.{{sfn|Gregg|2001|p=289}} The [[Godolphin–Marlborough ministry|Whig government]] in London was afraid to push the Dutch into the hands of the French and went back on their commercial agreement with Archduke Charles. In exchange for a Dutch guarantee to support the Hanoverian succession, Britain agreed to share trading rights in Spanish America and the Mediterranean. The Whigs promised the Dutch a significantly expanded barrier in the Spanish Netherlands, including fortress towns such as Lille, Valenciennes, [[Vieux-Condé|Condé]] and [[Maubeuge]]. The Dutch now seemed to obtain all they had ever wanted from the war, in the Low Countries, the Mediterranean and America.{{sfn|Veendendaal|1970|p=438–439}} This treaty sparked resentment from Emperor Joseph, who was offended by the heavy burden it imposed on his brother's sovereignty over the Southern Netherlands, while they were also opposed by the Tory opposition in Britain who saw them as detrimental to British commerce.{{sfn|Veendendaal|1970|p=439}}{{sfn|Gregg|2001|p=289}}

The Whigs had won the [[1708 British general election]] by arguing military victory was the quickest road to peace, but failure in France was mirrored in Spain. Archduke Charles re-entered Madrid in 1710 after victories at [[Battle of Almenar|Almenar]] and [[Battle of Saragossa|Saragossa]], but the Allies could not hold the interior and were forced to retreat. 3,500 British troops surrendered at [[Battle of Brihuega|Brihuega]] on 8 December, while the [[Battle of Villaviciosa]] on 10 December confirmed Bourbon control of Spain.{{sfn|Kamen|2001|p=101}} At the same time, costs continued to rise; the Dutch were close to bankruptcy while Austrian troops were almost entirely funded by Britain. In 1709, [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] approved expenditures of £6.4 million was up from £5.0 million in 1706; by the end of 1710, these had doubled to £12.9 million, despite minimal gains.{{Sfn|Hattendorf|1978|p=304}}

===Negotiations===
[[File:Villars a Denain1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Battle of Denain]], July 1712; defeat ended Austrian and Dutch hopes of improving their negotiating position.]]

When talks resumed at [[Geertruidenberg]] in March 1710, Louis now even showed a willingness to assist the Allies in removing his grandson from Spain. The Dutch proposed compensating Philip with Sicily and Sardinia, but neither the Austrians or British would agree, and negotiations broke down again.{{sfn|Onnekink|Bruin|2013|p=65–66}} However, it was clear to the French the mood in Britain had changed. This was confirmed when the pro-peace Tories won a landslide victory in the October [[1710 British general election|1710 British election]], although they confirmed their commitment to the war to prevent a credit crisis. Despite the capture of [[Siege of Bouchain|Bouchain]] in September, a decisive victory in northern France continued to elude the Allies, while an [[Quebec expedition (1711)|attack on Quebec]] ended in disaster.{{sfn|Simms|2008|pp=60–64}}

When Emperor Joseph died in April 1711, his brother Archduke Charles was [[1711 imperial election|elected emperor]]. For the Dutch and British, his accession undermined a key reason for continuing the war, since a union of Spain with Austria was as unwelcome as one with France. The British secretly negotiated peace terms directly with France, leading to the signing of the Preliminary Articles of London on 8 October 1711.{{efn|Also known as the Mesnager Convention.}} These included French acceptance of the [[Act of Settlement 1701]] and a guarantee the French and Spanish crowns would remain separate. In addition, France undertook to ensure Spain ceded Gibraltar and Menorca, while giving Britain a thirty-year monopoly on the {{lang|es|[[Asiento de Negros]]}}, the right to import slaves into Spanish American colonies.{{sfn|Bromley|1979|pp=459–460}} Despite their resentment at being excluded from these talks, the Dutch were financially exhausted by the war, and could not continue without British support. Charles VI initially rejected the idea of a peace conference, only agreeing once the Dutch decided to support it, but continued to oppose the treaty.{{sfn|Elliott|2014|p=63}}

===Peace of Utrecht===
{{main|Peace of Utrecht}}
[[File:Europe 1714.png|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Western Europe in 1714, after the Treaties of [[Treaty of Utrecht|Utrecht]] and [[Treaty of Rastatt|Rastatt]]]]

Within weeks of the conference opening, events threatened the basis of the peace agreed between Britain and France. First, the French presented proposals awarding the Spanish Netherlands to Max Emmanuel of Bavaria and a minimal Barrier, leaving the Dutch with little to show for their huge investment of money and men. Second, a series of deaths left Louis XIV's two-year-old great-grandson, the future [[Louis XV]] as heir, making Philip next in line and his immediate renunciation imperative.{{sfn|Somerset|2012|p=470}}

The Dutch and Austrians fought on, hoping to improve their negotiating position but the new British government ordered Marlborough's replacement, [[James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde]], not to participate in offensive operations against the French.{{sfn|Gregg|2001|p=354}} These orders caused fury then and later, with Whigs urging Hanoverian military intervention. Those considered responsible, including Ormonde and the Tory statesman [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke]], were driven into exile when George I succeeded Queen Anne in 1714, and became prominent [[Jacobitism|Jacobites]].{{sfn|Somerset|2012|p=477}}

A combined Austro-Dutch army under Prince Eugene captured [[Le Quesnoy]] in June, before besieging [[Landrecies]], a key stronghold in France's final defensive line. However, they were defeated at [[Battle of Denain|Denain]] on 24 July, then [[Rhine campaign of 1713|went on to recapture]] Le Quesnoy, Marchines, Douai, and Bouchain. This demonstrated the continued ability of the French army, while the Dutch had finally reached the end of their willingness and ability to continue the war.{{sfn|Holmes|2008|p=462}}

On 6 June, Philip confirmed his renunciation of the French throne, and the British offered the Dutch a revised [[Barrier Treaty]], replacing that of 1709 which they rejected as overly generous. Although subject to Austrian approval, it was still a significant improvement on that agreed in 1697, and was sufficient for the Dutch to agree.{{sfn|Myers|1917|pp=799–829}} Despite this, negotiations dragged on until 1715, as the Austrians were reluctant to pay for Dutch garrisons stationed in their territory, although British pressure meant the issue was ultimately concluded in favour of the Dutch.{{sfn|Nimwegen|2002|p=29}}

Emperor Charles withdrew from negotiations when France insisted he guarantee not to acquire Mantua or [[Duchy of Mirandola|Mirandola]]. He was supported in this by the future George I, who wanted France to withdraw backing for the Stuart heir [[James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis]]. As a result, neither Austria nor the Emperor signed the [[Peace of Utrecht]] of 11 April 1713 between France and the other Allies; Spain made peace with the Dutch in June, then Savoy and Britain on 13 July 1713.{{sfn|Somerset|2012|pp=494–495}}

===Treaties of Rastatt and Baden===
Fighting continued on the Rhine, but Austria was financially exhausted and after the loss of [[Landau]] and [[Freiburg]] in November 1713, Charles finally made peace on 7 March 1714. In the [[Treaty of Rastatt]], the [[Habsburg monarchy]] acceded to the terms of Utrecht, which confirmed their gains in Southern Italy, returned [[Breisach]], [[Kehl]], and Freiburg, ended French support for the Hungarian revolt and agreed on terms for the Dutch Barrier fortresses. Charles abandoned his claim to Strasbourg and [[Upper Alsace|Alsace]] and agreed to the restoration of the Wittelsbach electors of Bavaria and Cologne, Max Emmanuel and Joseph Clemens, lifting the [[Imperial ban]] on them. Article XIX of the treaty transferred sovereignty over the Spanish Netherlands to Austria. On 7 September, the Holy Roman Empire joined the agreement by the [[Treaty of Baden (1714)|Treaty of Baden]]; although Catalonia and Majorca were not finally subdued by the Bourbons until June 1715, the war was over.{{sfn|Frey|Frey|1995|pp=374–375}}

==Aftermath==
[[File:The Battle of Cape Passaro, 11 August 1718 RMG BHC0351.tiff|thumb|right|upright=1.3|The Royal Navy destroys a Spanish fleet off Sicily, [[Battle of Cape Passaro|Cape Passaro]], August 1718]]

Article II of the Peace of Utrecht included the stipulation "because of the great danger which threatened the liberty and safety of all Europe, from the too-close conjunction of the kingdoms of Spain and France, ... the same person should never become King of both kingdoms." Some historians view this as a key point in the evolution of the modern nation-state; [[Randall Lesaffer]] argues it marks a significant milestone in the concept of collective security.{{sfn|Lesaffer|2014}}

===Spain===
Philip was confirmed as king of Spain, which retained its independence and the majority of its empire, in return for ceding the Spanish Netherlands, most of its Italian possessions, as well as Gibraltar and Menorca. The [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]] and [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]] were regained in 1735 and Menorca in 1782. The 1707 [[Nueva Planta decrees]] centralised power in Madrid, and abolished regional political structures including the [[Crown of Aragon]], although Catalonia and Majorca remained outside the system until 1767.{{sfn|Vives|1969|p=591}} Their economy recovered remarkably quickly, and the House of Bourbon (save for brief interruptions) has held the Spanish throne ever since.{{sfn|Fernández-Xesta y Vázquez|2012|p=244}}

===France===
Louis XIV died on 1 September 1715, and was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson Louis XV; on his deathbed, he is alleged to have admitted, "I have loved war too well.”{{sfn|Colville|1935|p=149}} True or not, the final settlement was far more favourable than the Allied terms of 1709. France retained [[Landau]] and was awarded the [[Principality of Orange]] and [[Ubaye Valley]]. More importantly, by placing a Bourbon on the Spanish throne, Louis XIV ended roughly two centuries of Habsburg encirclement around the borders of his kingdom.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=361–362}} From 1666 onward French policies assumed economic superiority over their rivals, but this was no longer the case by 1714 when Britain appeared to have overtaken France on this front. The continued widening of this gap as British trade expanded post-Utrecht was viewed by Louis's successors as a permanent threat to the European [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]]. Seeking to reduce this was a major factor in France entering the 1740–1748 [[War of the Austrian Succession]].{{sfn|McKay|Scott|1983|pages=138–140}}

===Austria and the Holy Roman Empire===
Despite failure in Spain, Austria secured its position in Italy and Hungary and acquired the bulk of the former Spanish Netherlands. Even after reimbursing the Dutch for their Barrier garrisons, increased revenues from the [[Austrian Netherlands]] funded a significant expansion of the [[Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Emperor|Austrian army]].{{sfn|Falkner|2015|pp=4173–4181}} With the acquisition of Milan, Mantua, Naples and Sardinia, Austria gained a dominant position in Italy that largely continued until [[Second Italian War of Independence|1859]]. Victory in the [[Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718]] accentuated the shift of Habsburg focus into Southern Europe and away from Germany, where they were increasingly challenged by Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, and Saxony. In 1742, [[Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles of Bavaria]] became the first non-Habsburg Emperor in over 300 years.{{sfn|Lindsay|1957|p=420}}

===Great Britain===
Britain emerged as the leading European naval and commercial power with the acquisition of the strategic Mediterranean ports of Gibraltar and Menorca, as well as trading rights in Spanish America.{{sfn|Elliott|2014|p=114}} France accepted the Protestant succession, ensuring a smooth inheritance by George I in August 1714, while agreeing to end support for the Stuarts in the [[Anglo-French Alliance (1716–1731)|1716 Anglo-French Treaty]].{{sfn|Szechi|1994|pp=93–95}} Although the war left all participants with unprecedented levels of government debt, Britain was able to finance it efficiently, providing a relative advantage over its competitors.{{sfn|Carlos|Neal|Wandschneider|2006|p=2}}

===Dutch Republic===
{{Location map many|Belgium|caption = The Barrier fortresses as agreed in 1715, corresponding to the modern borders of Belgium|border = black| width = 250| relief = yes|float = right
|label = Veurne|pos=top |lat_deg=51|lat_min =4|lon_deg = 2|lon_min = 39
|label2 =Knokke|pos2=right|lat2_deg=50|lat2_min = 59|lon2_deg = 2|lon2_min = 48
|label3 =Ypres |pos3= left|lat3_deg=50|lat3_min = 51|lon3_deg = 2|lon3_min = 53
|label4 =Menen |pos4=right|lat4_deg=50|lat4_min = 48|lon4_deg = 3|lon4_min = 7
|label5=Tournai|pos5=right|lat5_deg=50|lat5_min = 36|lon5_deg = 3|lon5_min = 23
|label6 =Mons |pos6=right|lat6_deg=50|lat6_min = 27|lon6_deg = 3|lon6_min = 57
|label7=Dendermonde|pos7 = right|lat7_deg = 51 | lat7_min = 2 | lon7_deg = 4 | lon7_min = 6
|label8 = Namur|pos8 = right|lat8_deg = 50 | lat8_min = 28 | lon8_deg = 4 | lon8_min = 52
}}
The Dutch had recovered and expanded their positions in the Southern Netherlands, and their troops were central to the alliance which halted French territorial expansion in Europe until a new cycle began in [[French Revolutionary Wars|1792]].{{sfn|Nimwegen|2020|p=354}} But the war left them bankrupt, and inflicted permanent damage on the Dutch merchant navy; while they remained the dominant economic power in the [[Far East]], Britain took over as the pre-eminent global commercial and maritime power.{{sfn|Elliott|2014|p=8}} The exhaustion of the [[Dutch admiralties]] had also allowed the [[Barbary pirates|pirates]] from [[Regency of Algiers|Algiers]] to capture numerous Dutch merchant vessels, which the Dutch were only able to stop after a [[Dutch-Algerian War (1715–1726)|long conflict]]. The Barrier Treaty fortresses became the central driver of Dutch foreign policy in the decades after 1713 and were put to the test during the [[War of the Austrian Succession]].{{efn|Although judged favourably by contemporaries,{{sfn|Nimwegen|2002|pp=31–35}} modern historians still argue about the true effectiveness of the barrier fortresses, since they were conquered by France during the War of the Austrian Succession.{{sfn|Ward|Leathes|2010|p=57}}{{sfn|Kubben|2011|p=148}} Advocates instead emphasise that it took 3 years of campaigning for the French to conquer all barrier fortresses and that the purpose of the barrier was to give the Dutch enough time to mobilize and fortify their borders. According to them, nobody in the Dutch Republic was under the illusion that the barrier would stop French armies.{{sfn|Wijn|1964|p=703}}{{sfn|Nimwegen|2002|pp=31–33}}}}

===Other===
Wider implications include the rise of Prussia and Savoy while many of the participants were involved in the 1700–1721 [[Great Northern War]], with Russia becoming a major European power for the first time as a result. Finally, while colonial conflicts were relatively minor and largely confined to the North American theatre, the so-called [[Queen Anne's War]], they were to become a key element in future wars.{{sfn|Lynn|1999|pp=361–362}} Meanwhile, maritime [[unemployment]] brought on by the war's end led to the third stage of the [[Golden Age of Piracy]], as many sailors formerly employed in the navies of the warring powers turned to [[piracy]] for survival.<ref>{{cite web |title=Golden Age of Piracy – Post Spanish Succession Period |url=https://goldenageofpiracy.org/history/post-spanish-succession-period.php |access-date=25 August 2020 |website=goldenageofpiracy.org}}</ref>

==Claims to the Spanish throne==
{{War of the Spanish Succession family tree|State=collapsed}}

==See also==
* [[Decline of Spain]]
* [[International relations (1648–1814)]]
* [[Madeleine Caulier]]

==Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|20em}}

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* {{cite book |last=Szechi |first=Daniel |title=The Jacobites: Britain and Europe, 1688–1788 |year=1994 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-3774-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Andrew |title=The Utrecht Settlement and its Aftermath in Britain, Spain and the Treaty of Utrecht 1713–2013 |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-909662-22-3 |editor-last=Dadson |editor-first=Trevor}}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=R.T. |title=Lothar Franz von Schönborn and the Diplomacy of the Electorate of Mainz |year=1973 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-90-247-1346-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Urlanis |first=Boris Cezarevič |title=Wars and Population |year=1971 |publisher=Progress Publishing}}
* {{cite book |last=Vault |first=François Eugène de|editor-last=Pelet |editor-first=Jean Jacques Germain baron |title=Mémoires militaires relatifs à la succession d'Espagne sous Louis XIV: Extraits de la correspondance de la cour et des généraux |volume=1 |orig-year=1845 |year=2016 |publisher=Wentworth Press |isbn=978-1-372-87768-1 |language=fr}}
* {{cite journal |last=Veenendaal |first=A. J. |title=The Opening Phase of Marlborough's Campaign of 1708 in the Netherlands: A Version from Dutch Sources |journal=History |date=1950 |volume=35 |issue=123/124 |pages=34–48 |doi=10.2307/120864 |jstor=24402730 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24402730 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Bromley|editor-first=J.S. |last=Veendendaal |first=A.J. |title= The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 6, The war of the Spanish succession in Europe |date=1970 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29396-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Vives |first=Jaime |title=An Economic History of Spain |year=1969 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-05165-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=William |last2=Leathes |first2=Stanley |title=The Cambridge Modern History |orig-year=1912 |publisher=Nabu |isbn=978-1-174-38205-5 |year=2010}}
* {{cite book |last=White |first=Ian |chapter=Rural Settlement 1500–1770 |title=The Oxford Companion to Scottish History |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-211696-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Peter |title=The Holy Roman Empire: A Thousand Years of Europe's History |year=2016 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-1-84614-318-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolf |first=John |title=Louis XIV |orig-year=1968 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Co. |isbn=978-0-393-00753-4 |year=1974}}
* {{cite book |last=Wijn |first=J.W. |title=Het Staatsche Leger: Deel VIII – Het tijdperk van de Spaanse Successieoorlog 1702–1705 (The Dutch States Army: Part VIII – The era of the War of the Spanish Succession 1702–1705) |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |date=1956 |language=nl}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wijn |first=J.W. |title=Het Staatsche Leger: Deel VIII Het tijdperk van de Spaanse Successieoorlog 1711–1715 (The Dutch States Army: Part VIII – The era of the War of the Spanish Succession 1711–1715) |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |date=1964|language=Dutch}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=de Bruin |first=Renger E. |title=Performances of Peace: Utrecht 1713 |publisher=Brill |date=2011 |jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w76w4b}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Arthur N. |title=Army Impressment During the War of the Spanish Succession |journal=[[The Historian (journal)|The Historian]] |volume=38 |issue=4 |date=1976 |pages=689–708 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1976.tb00057.x |jstor=24444302}}
* {{cite journal |last=Thomson |first=M.A. |title=Louis XIV and the Origins of the War of the Spanish Succession |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |volume=4 |date=1954 |pages=111–134 |doi=10.2307/3678854 |jstor=3678854|s2cid=159533647}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Spanish Succession}}
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[[Category:Anglo-French wars]]
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