View source for Warsaw Ghetto

{{Short description|Nazi ghetto in occupied Poland}}
{{For|the book|The Warsaw Ghetto: A Guide to the Perished City{{!}}''The Warsaw Ghetto: A Guide to the Perished City''}}
{{Pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2016}}
{{Infobox holocaust event
| name       = Warsaw Ghetto
| image      = Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-134-0791-29A, Polen, Ghetto Warschau, Ghettomauer.jpg 
| image_size = 320px
| caption    = Brick wall of the Warsaw Ghetto dividing the [[Iron-Gate Square]], with view of bombed out [[Lubomirski Palace, Warsaw|Lubomirski Palace]] (left) on the "Aryan" side of the city, May 24, 1941. 
| AKA        = {{Langx|de|Ghetto Warschau}}
| location   = [[Warsaw]], [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|German-occupied Poland]]
* {{Lang|pl|[[Muranów]]|italic=no}}
* {{Lang|pl|Powązki|italic=no}}
* {{Lang|pl|Nowolipki|italic=no}}
* {{Lang|pl|Śródmieście Północne|italic=no}}
* {{Lang|pl|[[Mirów, Warsaw|Mirów]]|italic=no}}
| date       = October 1940 to May 1943
| incident_type  = Imprisonment, mass shootings, forced labor, starvation, mass deportations to [[Treblinka]] and [[Majdanek concentration camp|Majdanek]]
| perpetrators   = [[Nazi Germany]]
| participants   = {{Plainlist}}
* {{Lang|de|[[Gestapo]]|italic=no}}
* [[Order Police battalions]]
* {{Lang|de|[[Einsatzgruppen]]}}
* {{Lang|de|[[Trawniki men|Trawniki]]}} men
* {{Lang|de|[[Waffen-SS]]|italic=no}}
{{Endplainlist}}
| organizations  = {{lang|de|[[Schutzstaffel]]|italic=no}} (SS), [[Reich Security Main Office|RSHA]]
| camp           = [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]], [[Majdanek concentration camp|Majdanek]]<ref name="USHMM1"/>
| victims        = {{Plainlist}}
* 265,000 at Treblinka<ref name="USHMM2"/>
* 42,000 at Majdanek<ref name="USHMM2"/>
* 92,000 inside the ghetto{{sfnp|Engelking|Leociak|2013|p=71}}
* with expellees from Germany, Czechoslovakia and other occupied countries<ref name=Philpott/>
{{Endplainlist}}
| survivors      = 
| witnesses      = 
| documentation  = {{Plainlist}}
* [[Jewish Historical Institute]]
* [[POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews|Museum of the History of the Polish Jews]]
{{Endplainlist}}
| memorials      = {{Plainlist}}
* [[Monument to the Ghetto Heroes]]
* {{lang|de|[[Umschlagplatz]]|italic=no}}
* [[Warsaw Ghetto boundary markers]]
{{Endplainlist}}
| notes          = 
}}

The '''Warsaw Ghetto''' ({{langx|de|Warschauer Ghetto}}, officially {{lang|de|Jüdischer Wohnbezirk in Warschau}}, {{gloss|Jewish Residential District in Warsaw}}; {{langx|pl|getto warszawskie}}) was the largest of the [[Nazi ghettos]] during [[World War II]] and [[the Holocaust]]. It was established in November 1940 by the [[Nazi Germany|German]] authorities within the new [[General Government]] territory of [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|occupied Poland]]. At its height, as many as 460,000 Jews were imprisoned there,<ref name="USHMM encyclopedia" /> in an area of {{convert|3.4|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, with an average of 9.2 persons per room,<ref name=Bains/><ref name=Gutman1/> barely subsisting on meager food rations.<ref name=Gutman1/> Jews were deported from the Warsaw Ghetto to [[Nazi concentration camps]] and mass-killing centers. In the summer of 1942, at least 254,000 ghetto residents were sent to the [[Treblinka extermination camp]] during {{lang|de|[[Grossaktion Warsaw|Großaktion Warschau]]}} under the guise of "resettlement in the East" over the course of the summer.<ref name=Gutman1/> The ghetto was demolished by the Germans in May 1943 after the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]] had temporarily halted the deportations. The total death toll among the prisoners of the ghetto is estimated to be at least 300,000 killed by bullet or gas,<ref name="Shapiro"/> combined with 92,000 victims of starvation and related diseases, the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, and the casualties of the final destruction of the ghetto.<ref name="USHMM2"/><ref name="YadVashem1"/><ref name="Urynowicz"/><ref name="statistics"/>

== Background ==
Before [[World War II]], the majority of [[Polish Jews]] lived in the merchant districts of [[Muranów]], [[Wola|Powązki]], and [[Praga|Stara Praga]].<ref name=Gawryszewski/> Over 90% of [[Catholic Church in Poland|Catholics]] lived further away from the commercial center.<ref name=Gawryszewski/> The Jewish community was the most prominent there, constituting over 88% of the inhabitants of Muranów; with the total of about 32.7% of the population of the left-bank and 14.9% of the right-bank Warsaw, or 332,938 people in total<!--313,199 Yiddish and 19,739 Hebrew speakers--> [[Polish census of 1931|according to 1931 census]].<ref name=Gawryszewski/> Many Jews left the city during the [[Great Depression]].<ref name=Gawryszewski/> Antisemitic legislation, boycotts of Jewish businesses, and the nationalist "[[endecja]]" post-[[Piłsudski]] Polish government plans put pressure on Jews in the city.<ref name="Melzer"/> In 1938, the Jewish population of the Polish capital was estimated at 270,000 people.<ref name=Gessner/>

The [[Siege of Warsaw (1939)|Siege of Warsaw]] continued until September 29, 1939. On September 10 alone, the [[Luftwaffe]] conducted 17 [[Bombing of Warsaw in World War II|bombing raids on the city]];<ref name=Wardzyńska/> three days later, 50 German planes attacked the city center, targeting specifically Wola and [[Żoliborz]]. In total, some 30,000 people were killed,<ref name=Wardzyńska/> and 10 percent of the city was destroyed.<ref name=Philpott/> Along with the advancing [[Wehrmacht]], the ''[[Einsatzgruppe]]'' EG IV and the [[Einsatzkommando]]s rolled into town. On November 7, 1939, the ''[[Reichsführer-SS]]'' reorganized them into local [[Sicherheitsdienst|Security Service]] (SD). The commander of EG IV, [[Josef Meisinger]] (the "Butcher of Warsaw"), was appointed chief of police for the newly formed [[General Government#Administrative districts|Warsaw District]].<ref name=Wardzyńska/>

== Establishment of the ghetto ==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-001-0285-05A, Warschau, beschädigtes Gebäude.jpg|thumb|Karmelicka Street 11 from Nowolipia September/October 1939]]
{{location mark|type=thumb|image=Warsaw Ghetto.svg |width=250 |x%=46.2 |y%=22.6 |caption=Anachronistic map with borders of the Warsaw Ghetto in November 1940, with location of ''[[Umschlagplatz]]'' for awaiting [[Holocaust train|death trains]] |mark_width=6 }}
{{main|Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland}}
[[File:Aerial photograph of the destroyed Warsaw Ghetto.jpg|thumb|Aerial photograph of the northern Warsaw Ghetto area after its destruction, probably 1944]]
By the end of the [[September campaign]], the number of Jews in and around the capital increased dramatically with thousands of refugees escaping [[Battle of the Border|the Polish-German front]].<ref name="Berg"/> In less than a year, the number of refugees in Warsaw exceeded 90,000.<ref name=Bielawski/> On October 12, 1939, the [[General Government]] was established by Adolf Hitler in the occupied area of central Poland.<ref name=Grzesik/> The Nazi-appointed Jewish Council ([[Judenrat]]) in Warsaw, a committee of 24 people headed by [[Adam Czerniaków]], was responsible for carrying out German orders.<ref name=Bielawski/> On October 26, the Jews were mobilized as forced laborers to clear bomb damage and perform other hard labor. One month later, on November 20, the bank accounts of Polish Jews and any deposits exceeding 2,000 [[Polish złoty|zł]] were blocked.<ref name=Grzesik/> On November 23, all Jewish establishments were ordered to display a [[Jewish star]] on doors and windows. Beginning December 1, all Jews older than ten were compelled to wear [[Yellow badge|a white armband]], and on December 11, they were forbidden from using public transit.<ref name=Grzesik/> On January 26, 1940, the Jews were banned from holding [[Jewish prayer|communal prayers]] due to "the risk of spreading epidemics."<ref name="Trunk"/> [[Ration stamp|Food stamps]] were introduced by the German authorities, and measures were stepped up to liquidate all Jewish communities in the vicinity of Warsaw. The Jewish population of the capital reached 359,827 before the end of the year.<ref name=Bielawski/>
[[File:Warsaw Jews 1940 - 50994.jpg|thumb|[[Roundup (history)|Roundup]] of Jewish men for forced labor by the [[Order Police battalions]], [[Krakowskie Przedmieście]], March 1940]]

On the orders of Warsaw District Governor, [[Ludwig Fischer]], the ghetto wall construction started on April 1, 1940, circling the area of Warsaw inhabited predominantly by Jews. The work was supervised by the Warsaw Judenrat.<ref name=Fuks/> The Nazi authorities expelled 113,000 ethnic Poles from the neighbourhood, and ordered the relocation of 138,000 Warsaw Jews from the suburbs into the city center.<ref name=Bergman/> On October 16, 1940, the creation of the ghetto was announced by the German governor-general, [[Hans Frank]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=McDonough |first1=Frank |title=The Holocaust |date=2008 |publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education |location=London |isbn=978-1-137-02048-2 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G4kdBQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> The initial population of the ghetto was 450,000 confined to an area of {{convert|307|ha|acre}}.<ref name=Bielawski/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sakowska |first1=Ruta |title=The Warsaw Ghetto 1940–1945 |date=1996 |publisher=R. Nowicki |isbn=978-83-904639-1-9 |page=7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xz0pAQAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> Before [[the Holocaust]] began the number of Jews imprisoned there was between 375,000<ref name=Levin/> and 400,000 (about 30% of the general population of the capital).<ref name="USHMM1"/> The area of the ghetto constituted only about 2.4% of the overall metropolitan area.<ref name="warsaw-life"/>
[[File:Warsaw Ghetto footbridge 05.jpg|thumb|Warsaw Ghetto wall and footbridge over Chłodna Street in 1942]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-270-0298-10, Polen, Ghetto Warschau, Drahtzaun.jpg|thumb|right|Corner of Żelazna 70 and Chłodna 23 (looking east). This section of Żelazna street connected the "large ghetto" and "small ghetto" areas of German-occupied Warsaw.]]

The Germans closed the Warsaw Ghetto to the outside world on November 15, 1940.<ref name="Berg"/> The wall around it was {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} high and topped with [[barbed wire]]. Escapees were shot on sight. German policemen from [[Order Police battalions|Battalion 61]] used to hold victory parties on the days when a large number of prisoners were shot at the ghetto fence.{{sfnp|Browning|1998|p=41}} The borders of the ghetto changed and its overall area was gradually reduced, as the captive population was decreased by outbreaks of infectious diseases, mass hunger, and regular executions.<ref name=Bergman/>

The ghetto was divided in two along Chłodna Street ''{{ill|Ulica Chłodna w Warszawie|pl}}'', which was excluded from it, due to its local importance at that time (as one of Warsaw's east–west thoroughfares).<ref>{{cite AV media |year=2016 |title=Chłodna Street |location=Warsaw |publisher=Google Maps |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/52%C2%B014'13.0%22N+20%C2%B059'18.0%22E/@52.236011,20.9878609,15z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x0:0x0!8m2!3d52.236944!4d20.988333 |id=52°14'13.0"N 20°59'18.0"E }}</ref> The area south-east of Chłodna was known as the "Small Ghetto", while the area north of it became known as the "Large Ghetto". The two zones were connected at an intersection of Chłodna with Żelazna Street, where a special gate was built. In January 1942, the gate was removed and a wooden footbridge was built over it,<ref name=Kajczyk/> which became one of the postwar symbols of [[the Holocaust in occupied Poland]].<ref name=JDC>John D Clare (2014), [http://www.johndclare.net/Nazi_Germany3_WarsawGhetto.htm The Warsaw Ghetto, 1940–43.] Modern World History Topics.</ref>

== Ghetto administration ==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-270-0298-11, Polen, Ghetto Warschau, Drahtzaun.jpg|thumb|[[Jewish Ghetto Police]] guarding the gates of the Warsaw Ghetto, June 1942]]
<!----[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-134-0792-28, Polen, Ghetto Warschau, Ghettopolizei.jpg|thumb|[[Jewish Ghetto Police]] in Warsaw]]--->
The first commissioner of the Warsaw Ghetto, appointed by Fischer, was ''SA-Standartenführer'' [[Waldemar Schön]], who also supervised the initial Jewish relocations in 1940.<ref name="Gutman2"/> He was an ''attritionist'' best known for orchestrating an "artificial famine" (''künstliche Hungersnot'') in January 1941. Schön had eliminated virtually all food supplies to the ghetto causing an uproar among the SS upper echelon.<ref name="Browning2"/> He was relieved of his duties by Frank himself in March 1941 and replaced by ''Kommissar'' [[Heinz Auerswald]], a "productionist" who served until November 1942.<ref name=YadVashem2/> Like in all [[Nazi ghetto]]s across [[occupied Poland]], the Germans ascribed the internal administration to a Judenrat Council of the Jews, led by an "{{lang|de|Ältester}}" (the Eldest).<ref name="Dawidowicz"/> In Warsaw, this role was relegated to Adam Czerniaków, who chose a policy of collaboration with the Nazis in the hope of saving lives. Adam Czerniaków confided his harrowing experience in nine diaries.{{sfnp|Hilberg|Staron|Kermisz|1979}} In July 1942, when the Germans ordered him to increase the contingent of people to be deported, he took his own life.<ref>{{cite web |title=Adam Czerniakow |publisher=[[Adam Mickiewicz Institute]] |work=Dia-pozytyw: People |translator=Christina Manetti |editor=[[Piotr Cywiński|Piotr M. A. Cywinski]] |year=2004 |url=http://www.diapozytyw.pl/en/site/ludzie/adam_czerniakow |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040822083551/http://www.diapozytyw.pl/en/site/ludzie/adam_czerniakow |archive-date=August 22, 2004}}</ref>

Czerniaków's collaboration with the German occupation policies was a paradigm for attitude of the majority of European Jews vis à vis Nazism. Although his personality as president of the Warsaw Judenrat may not become as infamous as [[Chaim Rumkowski]], ''Ältester'' of the [[Łódź Ghetto]]; the SS policies he had followed were systematically anti-Jewish.

{{blockquote|
Czerniakow's first draft of October, 1939; for organizing the Warsaw Judenrat, was just a rehash of conventional [[Kehilla (modern)|kehilla departments]]: chancellery, welfare, rabbinate, education, cemetery, tax department, accounting, vital statistics... But the Kehilla was an anomalous institution. Throughout its history in czarist Russia, it served also as an instrument of the state, obligated to carry out the regime's policies within the Jewish community, even though these policies were frequently oppressive and specifically anti-Jewish. — [[Lucy Dawidowicz]], ''[[The War Against the Jews]]'' <ref name="Dawidowicz"/>}}

The Council of Elders was supported internally by the [[Jewish Ghetto Police]] (''Jüdischer Ordnungsdienst''),<ref name=Bielawski/> formed at the end of September 1940 with 3,000 men, instrumental in enforcing law and order as well as carrying out German ad hoc regulations, especially after 1941, when the number of refugees and expellees in Warsaw reached 150,000 or nearly one third of the entire Jewish population of the capital.<ref name="Trunk"/>

===Catholics and Poles in the ghetto===
In January 1940, there were 1,540 Catholics and 221 individuals of other Christian faiths imprisoned in the ghetto, including Jewish converts. It is estimated that at the time of closure of the ghetto there were around 2,000 Christians, and number possibly rose eventually to over 5,000. Many of these people considered themselves Polish, but due to [[Nazism and race|Nazi racial criteria]] they were classified by German authorities as Jewish.<ref name="ReferenceA">Karol Madaj – Duszpasterstwo Żydów-katolików w getcie warszawskim Biuletyn IPN nr 98 (3) / 2009 page 23–39</ref><ref>''Christians in the Warsaw Ghetto: An Epitaph for the Unremembered'', by Peter Florian Dembowski, 2005</ref> Within the ghetto, there were three Christian churches, the [[All Saints Church, Warsaw|All Saints Church]], [[St. Augustine's Church in Warsaw|St. Augustine's Church]], and the [[Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Warsaw|Church of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary]]. All Saints Church served Jewish Christians who were detained in the ghetto. At that time, the parish priest, [[Marceli Godlewski]] who before the war was connected to [[National Democracy (Poland)|Endecja]] and anti-Jewish actions, now became involved in helping Jews. At the rectory of the parish, the priest sheltered and helped many escape, including [[Ludwik Hirszfeld]], [[Louis-Christophe Zaleski-Zamenhof]] and [[Wanda Zamenhof-Zaleska]]. For his actions, he was posthumously awarded the [[Righteous Among the Nations]] medal in 2009.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite book|chapter=Antisemitism, Anti-Judaism, and the Polish Catholic Clergy during the Second World War, 1939–1945|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeUvRvZY0dEC&pg=PA256|title=Antisemitism and Its Opponents in Modern Poland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeUvRvZY0dEC|publisher=Cornell University Press|editor=Robert Blobaum|author=Dariusz Libionka|year=2005|page=256|isbn=0801489695}}</ref>

== Conditions ==
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=220
|image3=Homeless children Warsaw Ghetto.jpg
|caption3=Homeless children in Warsaw Ghetto
|image4=Childwarsawghetto.jpg
|caption4=A child dying on the sidewalk of the Warsaw Ghetto, September 19, 1941
}}

{{See also|Hunger Plan}}

Nazi officials, intent on eradicating the ghetto by hunger and disease, limited food and medical supplies.<ref name="USHMM encyclopedia">{{Cite book|publisher= Indiana University Press; In association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|isbn= 978-0-253-35328-3|editor-first1=Geoffrey P. |editor-last1=Megargee | editor-link1 = Geoffrey P. Megargee|title= The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum encyclopedia of camps and ghettos, 1933–1945|location= Bloomington, Washington, D.C.|date= 2009|volume=2-B |chapter=Warsaw |pages=456–460}}</ref> An average daily food ration in 1941 for Jews in Warsaw was limited to 184 calories, compared to 699 calories allowed for [[gentile]] Poles and 2,613 calories for the Germans.<ref name="Roland"/> In August, the rations fell to 177 calories per person. This meager food supply by the German authorities usually consisted of dry bread, flour and potatoes of the lowest quality, groats, turnips, and a small monthly supplement of margarine, sugar, and meat.<ref name=Laqueur/> As a result, [[black market]] economy thrived, supplying as much as 80% of the ghetto's food.<ref name="USHMM encyclopedia" /><ref name=Laqueur/> In addition, the [[American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee|Joint]] had opened over 250 [[soup kitchen]]s,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archives.jdc.org/exhibits/in-memoriam/david-guzik/ |title=In Memoriam: David Guzik |website=JDC Archives |language=en-US |access-date=2019-10-10}}</ref> which served at one time as many as 100,000 meals per day.<ref name="USHMM encyclopedia" />

Men, women and children all took part in smuggling and illegal trade, and private workshops were created to manufacture goods to be sold secretly on the "Aryan" side of the city. Foodstuffs were often smuggled by children alone, who crossed the ghetto wall by the hundreds in any way possible, sometimes several times a day, returning with goods that could weigh as much as they did. Unemployment leading to extreme poverty was a major problem in the ghetto, and smuggling was often the only source of subsistence for the ghetto inhabitants, who would have otherwise died of starvation.<ref name=Laqueur/> "Professional" smugglers, in contrast, often became relatively wealthy.<ref name="USHMM encyclopedia" />

During the first year and a half, thousands of Polish Jews as well as some [[Romani people]] from smaller towns and the countryside were brought into the ghetto, but as many died from [[typhus]] and starvation the overall number of inhabitants stayed about the same.<ref name="Wdowiński"/> Facing an out-of-control famine and meager medical supplies, a group of Jewish doctors imprisoned in the ghetto decided to use the opportunity to study the physiological and psychological effects of hunger.<ref name="Engelking 2002">{{Cite book |title=Holocaust and memory : the experience of the Holocaust and its consequences : an investigation based on personal narratives |last=Engelking |first=Barbara |publisher=Leicester University Press, in association with the European Jewish Publication Society |year=2002 |isbn=9780567342775 |location=London |pages=110–111 |oclc=741690863}}</ref><ref name="Winick 2014">{{Cite book| publisher = Berghahn Books| isbn = 978-1-78238-417-5| editor = Michael A. Grodin | last = Winick| first = Myron| title = Jewish medical resistance in the Holocaust| chapter = Jewish medical resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto| location = New York; Oxford| date = 2014}}</ref> The [[Warsaw Ghetto Hunger Study]],<ref name="Winick 1979">{{Cite book |title=Hunger disease: studies by the Jewish physicians in the Warsaw Ghetto |last1=Winick |first1=Myron |last2=Osnos |first2=Martha |publisher=Wiley |year=1979}}</ref> as it is now known, remains one of the most thorough investigations of semi-starvation done to date.<ref name="Winick 2014" />

==Education and culture==
Despite grave hardships, life in the Warsaw Ghetto had educational and cultural activities, both legal and those conducted by its underground organizations. Hospitals, public soup kitchens, orphanages, refugee centers and recreation facilities were formed, as well as a school system. Some schools were illegal and operated under the guise of soup kitchens. There were secret libraries, classes for the children and even a symphony orchestra. Rabbi [[Alexander Zusia Friedman|Alexander Friedman]],<ref name="Farbstein"/> secretary-general of [[World Agudath Israel|Agudath Israel]] of Poland, was one of the Torah leaders{{clarify|date=October 2019}} in the Warsaw Ghetto; he organized an underground network of religious schools, including "a Yesodei HaTorah school for boys, a [[Bais Yaakov]] school for girls, a school for elementary Jewish instruction, and three institutions for advanced Jewish studies".<ref name="Friedman"/> These schools, operating under the guise of kindergartens, medical centers and soup kitchens, were a place of refuge for thousands of children and teens, and hundreds of teachers. In 1941, when the Germans gave official permission to the local Judenrat to open schools, these schools came out of hiding and began receiving financial support from the official Jewish community.<ref name="hillel">Seidman, Hillel. "Alexander Zusia Friedman", in ''Wellsprings of Torah: An Anthology of Biblical Commentaries'', Vol. 1. Nison L. Alpert, ed. The Judaica Press, Inc., 1974, pp. xii–xxiii.</ref> Former cinema ''Femina'' became a theater in this period.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/33978764/Theater_as_Imperative_in_the_Warsaw_Ghetto_Artists_and_Audience_in_Jerzy_Jurandots_FEMINA_1940-1942 Theater as Imperative in the Warsaw Ghetto: Artists and Audience in Jerzy Jurandot's FEMINA 1940–1942]</ref> The Jewish Symphonic Orchestra performed in several venues, including ''Femina''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Marian Fuks|date=November 25, 2013|title=Polyhymnia in the Warsaw Ghetto|publisher=Jewish Historical Institute|url=http://www.jhi.pl/en/blog/2013-11-25-polyhymnia-in-the-warsaw-ghetto|access-date=July 4, 2019|archive-date=August 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821125611/http://www.jhi.pl/en/blog/2013-11-25-polyhymnia-in-the-warsaw-ghetto|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Israel Gutman]] estimates that around 20,000 prisoners (out of more than 400,000) remained at the top of ghetto society, either because they were wealthy before the war, or because they were able to amass wealth during it (mainly through smuggling). Those families and individuals frequented restaurants, clubs and cafes, showing in stark contrast the economic inequalities of ghetto life.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/resistancewarsaw00gutm/page/87 |title=Resistance : the Warsaw Ghetto uprising |last=Gutman |first=Israel |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |year=1994 |isbn=0395601991 |location=Boston |pages=[https://archive.org/details/resistancewarsaw00gutm/page/87 87] |oclc=29548576 }}</ref> [[Tilar J. Mazzeo|Tilar Mazzeo]] estimates that group at around 10,000 people—"rich industrialists, many ''Judenrat'' council leaders, [[Jewish Ghetto Police]] officers, profiteering smugglers, nightclub owners [and] high-end prostitutes" who were spending their time at over sixty cafes and nightclubs, "dancing among the corpses."<ref>{{Cite book |title=Irena's children : the extraordinary story of the woman who saved 2,500 children from the Warsaw ghetto |last=Mazzeo |first=Tilar J. |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2016 |isbn=9781476778501 |edition=First Gallery books hardcover |location=New York |pages=66–67 |oclc=928481017}}</ref>

== Manufacture of German military supplies ==
[[File:Working Jews Warsaw Ghetto 02.jpg|thumb|left|Jews working in a ghetto factory]]
Not long after the ghetto was closed off from the outside world, a number of German [[War profiteering|war profiteers]] such as [[Többens and Schultz]] appeared in the capital.<ref name="Menszer"/> At first, they acted as middlemen between the high command and the Jewish-run workshops. By spring 1942, the ''Stickerei Abteilung'' Division with headquarters at Nowolipie 44 Street had already employed 3,000 workers making shoes, leather products, sweaters and socks for the Wehrmacht. Other divisions were making furs and wool sweaters also, guarded by the ''Werkschutz'' police.<ref name="CBnZŻ"/> Some 15,000 Jews were working in the ghetto for Walter C. Többens from Hamburg, a convicted war criminal,<ref name="Kurzman"/> including at his factories on Prosta and Leszno Streets among other locations. His Jewish labor exploitation was a source of envy for other ghetto inmates living in fear of deportations.<ref name="CBnZŻ"/> In early 1943, Többens gained for himself the appointment of a Jewish deportation commissar of Warsaw in order to keep his own workforce secure, and maximize profits.<ref name="Powell"/> In May 1943, Többens transferred his businesses, including 10,000 [[Forced labor under German rule during World War II|Jewish slave workers]] to the [[Poniatowa concentration camp]] barracks.<ref name="Nicosia"/> Fritz Schultz took his manufacture along with 6,000 Jews to the nearby [[Trawniki concentration camp]].<ref name="Menszer"/><ref name="Libionka"/>

== Treblinka deportations ==
[[File:Grossaktion Warsaw 1942.jpg|thumb|right|The ''[[Grossaktion Warsaw (1942)|Grossaktion Warschau]]'' 1942]]
[[File:Umschlagplatz Warsaw Ghetto 01.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Umschlagplatz]]'' holding pen for deportations to Treblinka [[death camp]] ]]
[[File:Umschlagplatz loading.jpg|thumb|right|The ''[[Grossaktion Warsaw (1942)|Grossaktion Warschau]]'' 1942 boarding onto the [[Holocaust train]]s]]
Approximately 100,000 ghetto inmates had already died of hunger-related diseases and starvation before the mass deportations started in the summer of 1942. Earlier that year, during the [[Wannsee Conference]] near Berlin, the [[Final Solution]] was set in motion. It was a secretive plan to mass-murder Jewish inhabitants of the General Government. The techniques used to deceive victims were based upon experience gained at the [[Chełmno extermination camp]] (''Kulmhof'').{{sfnp|Browning|1998|loc="The August Deportations to Treblinka". pp. 88–96 (115–123 in PDF)}} The [[Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland|ghettoised Jews]] were rounded up, street by street, under the guise of "[[World War II evacuation and expulsion|resettlement]]", and marched to the ''[[Umschlagplatz]]'' holding area.<ref name="Memorial"/> From there, they were sent aboard [[Holocaust train]]s to the [[Treblinka death camp]], built in a forest {{convert|50|mi|order=flip}} northeast of Warsaw.<ref name="Kopówka"/> The operation was headed by the German Resettlement Commissioner, ''[[SS]]-[[Sturmbannführer]]'' [[Hermann Höfle]], on behalf of SS-''[[Oberführer]]'' [[Ferdinand von Sammern-Frankenegg]], the acting [[SS and police leader]] of the [[Warsaw District]]. Upon learning of this plan, Adam Czerniaków, leader of the Judenrat Council, killed himself. He was replaced by [[Marek Lichtenbaum]],<ref name="Gutman1"/> tasked with managing roundups with the aid of Jewish Ghetto Police. No-one was informed about the real state of affairs.<ref name="Edelman" />

The extermination of Jews by means of poisonous gases was carried out at [[Treblinka II]] under the auspices of [[Operation Reinhard]], which also included [[Bełżec extermination camp|Bełżec]], [[Majdanek concentration camp|Majdanek]], and [[Sobibór extermination camp|Sobibór]] death camps.{{sfnp|Browning|1998|loc="The August Deportations to Treblinka". pp. 88–96 (115–123 in PDF)}} About 254,000 Warsaw Ghetto inmates (or at least 300,000 by different accounts) were sent to Treblinka during the ''[[Grossaktion Warsaw (1942)|Grossaktion Warschau]]'', and murdered there between ''[[Tisha B'Av]]'' (July 23) and ''[[Yom Kippur]]'' (September 21) of 1942.<ref name="YadVashem1"/> The ratio between Jews killed on the spot by [[Orpo battalions|Orpo]] and [[Sicherheitspolizei|Sipo]] during roundups, and those deported was approximately 2 percent.{{sfnp|Browning|1998|loc="The August Deportations to Treblinka". pp. 88–96 (115–123 in PDF)}}

For eight weeks, the deportations of Jews from Warsaw to Treblinka continued on a daily basis via two shuttle trains: each transport carrying about 4,000 to 7,000 people crying for water; 100 people to a cattle truck. The first daily trains rolled into the camp early in the morning often after an overnight wait at a layover yard; and the second, in mid-afternoon.{{sfnp|Kopówka|Rytel-Andrianik|2011|p = 94}} Dr [[Janusz Korczak]], a famed educator, went to Treblinka with his orphanage children in August 1942. He was offered a chance to escape by Polish friends and admirers, but he chose instead to share the fate of his life's work.<ref name="Lifton"/> All new arrivals were sent immediately to the undressing area by the ''[[Sonderkommando]]'' squad that managed the arrival platform, and from there to the gas chambers. The stripped victims were suffocated to death in batches of 200 with the use of monoxide gas. In September 1942, new gas chambers were built, which could kill as many as 3,000 people in just 2 hours. Civilians were forbidden to approach the camp area.<ref name="Edelman"/> In the last two weeks of the ''Aktion'' ending on September 21, 1942, some 48,000 Warsaw Jews were deported to their deaths. The last transport with 2,200 victims from the Polish capital included the [[Jewish Ghetto Police]] involved with deportations, and their families.<ref name="Arad"/> In October 1942, the [[Jewish Combat Organization]] (ŻOB) was formed and tasked with opposing further deportations. It was led by 24 year–old [[Mordechai Anielewicz]].<ref name="USHMM2"/> Meanwhile, between October 1942 and March 1943, Treblinka received transports of almost 20,000 foreign Jews from the German [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] via [[Theresienstadt]], and from Bulgarian-occupied [[Thrace]], Macedonia, and [[Pirot]] following an agreement with the Nazi-allied Bulgarian government.<ref name="USHMM4"/>

By the end of 1942, it was clear that the deportations were to their deaths.<ref name="USHMM2"/> The underground activity of ghetto resistors in the group ''[[Ringelblum Archive|Oyneg Shabbos]]'' increased after learning that the transports for "resettlement" led to the mass killings.<ref name="USHMM5"/> Also in 1942, [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Polish resistance]] officer [[Jan Karski]] reported to the Western governments on the situation in the ghetto and on the extermination camps. Many of the remaining Jews decided to resist further deportations, and began to smuggle in weapons, ammunition and supplies.<ref name="USHMM2"/>

== Ghetto Uprising and final destruction of the ghetto ==
{{main|Warsaw Ghetto Uprising}}
[[File:Stroop Report - Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 09.jpg|thumb|Suppression of [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]]. Captured Jews escorted by the [[Waffen SS]], Nowolipie Street, 1943]]
On January 18, 1943, after almost four months without deportations, the Germans suddenly entered the Warsaw Ghetto intent upon further roundups. Within hours, some 600 Jews were shot and 5,000 others removed from their residences. The Germans expected no resistance, but the action was brought to a halt by hundreds of insurgents armed with handguns and Molotov cocktails.<ref name="Seeman"/><ref name="Patt"/><ref name="Schoen"/>

Preparations to resist had been going on since the previous autumn.<ref name="Gilbert"/> The first instance of Jewish armed struggle in Warsaw had begun. The underground fighters from [[Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa|ŻOB]] ({{lang|pl|Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa}}: Jewish Combat Organization) and [[Żydowski Związek Wojskowy|ŻZW]] ({{lang|pl|Żydowski Związek Wojskowy}}: Jewish Military Union) achieved considerable success initially, taking control of the ghetto. They then barricaded themselves in the bunkers and built dozens of fighting posts, stopping the expulsions. Taking further steps, a number of Jewish collaborators from [[Żagiew]] were also executed.<ref name="Wdowiński"/>
<!---[[File:Warsaw ghetto ruins – place of mass executions at 27 Dzielna Street.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the house at 27 Dzielna Street. In 1943–1944, thousands of [[Poles|Polish]] political prisoners of [[Pawiak prison|Pawiak]] were murdered there]]--->
[[File:Gęsia Street in Warsaw after the war.jpg|thumb|Warsaw Ghetto area after the war. Gęsia Street, view to the west]]
[[File:Warsaw Ghetto after WWII 04.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto]]

The final assault started on the eve of [[Passover]] of April 19, 1943, when a Nazi force consisting of several thousand troops entered the ghetto. The initial offensive against the ghetto underground launched by Sammern-Frankenegg was met with armed resistance and suffered casualties. He was relieved of command by [[Heinrich Himmler]] and replaced by SS-''[[Brigadeführer]]'' [[Jürgen Stroop]].{{sfn|Zentner|Bedürftig|1997|pp=1022–1023}} After the initial setback, 2,000 [[Waffen-SS]] soldiers under the field command of Stroop systematically burned and blew up the ghetto buildings, block by block, rounding up or murdering anybody they could capture. Significant resistance ended on April 28, and the Nazi operation officially ended in mid-May, symbolically culminating with the demolition of the [[Great Synagogue (Warsaw)|Great Synagogue of Warsaw]] on May 16. According to the official report, at least 56,065 people were killed on the spot or deported to German Nazi concentration and death camps (Treblinka, Poniatowa, Majdanek and Trawniki).<ref name=Report>{{cite web|author=Jürgen Stroop |title=The Warsaw Ghetto Is No More |work=Nazi Conspriracy and Aggression Volume 3 – Document No. 1061-PS|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/1061-ps.asp |publisher=The Avalon Project: Lillian Goldman Law Library |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126085231/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/1061-ps.asp |archive-date=November 26, 2010|author-link=Jürgen Stroop }}</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2020}} The site of the ghetto became the [[Warsaw concentration camp]].

== Preserving remnants of the Warsaw Ghetto ==
The ghetto was almost entirely leveled during the Uprising; however, a number of buildings and streets survived, mostly in the "small ghetto" area, which had been included into the Aryan part of the city in August 1942 and was not involved in the fighting. In 2008 and 2010, [[Warsaw Ghetto boundary markers]] were built along the borders of the former Jewish quarter, where, from 1940 to 1943, stood the gates to the ghetto, wooden footbridges over Aryan streets, and the buildings important to the ghetto inmates. The four buildings at 7, 9, 12, and 14 [[Próżna Street]] are among the best known original residential buildings that in 1940–41 housed Jewish families in the Warsaw Ghetto. They have largely remained empty since the war. The street is a focus of the annual Warsaw Jewish Festival. In 2011–2013, buildings at number 7 and 9 underwent extensive renovations and have become office space.<ref name=RMi>{{cite web |title=Book review |author=Robert Mielcarek |work=Rafał Chwiszczuk, Ulica Próżna i dzielnica żydowska w Warszawie, Warszawa: Austriackie Forum Kultury, 2013 |publisher=Forum Żydów Polskich |url=http://www.fzp.net.pl/ksiazki/ulica-prozna-i-dzielnica-zydowska-w-warszawie |year=2016 |access-date=December 11, 2016 |archive-date=August 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806185843/http://www.fzp.net.pl/ksiazki/ulica-prozna-i-dzielnica-zydowska-w-warszawie |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=UMSW>{{cite web |title=Miejsca historyczne związane z ludnością żydowską w Warszawie |trans-title=Historic places connected to Jewish people of Warsaw |work=Judaica |url=http://www.warsawtour.pl/warszawa-dla-ka-dego/judaica-1848.html |publisher=Urząd m.st. Warszawy (official website) |author=UMSW |year=2016 |access-date=December 11, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220171727/http://www.warsawtour.pl/warszawa-dla-ka-dego/judaica-1848.html |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

The [[Nożyk Synagogue]] also survived the war. It was used as a horse stable by the German Wehrmacht. The synagogue has today been restored and is once again used as an active synagogue. The best preserved [[Fragments of the ghetto walls in Warsaw|fragments of the ghetto wall]] are located 55 Sienna Street, 62 Złota Street, and 11 Waliców Street (the last two being walls of the pre-war buildings). There are two [[Monument to the Ghetto Heroes|Warsaw Ghetto Heroes' monuments]], unveiled in 1946 and 1948, near the place where the German troops entered the ghetto on 19 April 1943. In 1988, a stone monument was built to mark the Umschlagplatz.<ref name=UMSW/>

There is also a small memorial at [[Miła 18|ul. Miła 18]] to commemorate the site of the Socialist ŻOB underground headquarters during the Ghetto Uprising. In December 2012, a controversial statue of a kneeling and praying [[Adolf Hitler]] was installed in a courtyard of the ghetto. The artwork by Italian artist, [[Maurizio Cattelan]], entitled "HIM", has received mixed reactions worldwide. Many feel that it is unnecessarily offensive, while others, such as Poland's chief rabbi, [[Michael Schudrich]], feel that it is thought-provoking, even "educational".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/dec/28/adolf-hitler-statue-warsaw-ghetto |title=Controversy over Adolf Hitler statue in Warsaw ghetto |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2012-12-28 |access-date=2016-08-11}}</ref>

==People of the Warsaw Ghetto==
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2020}}

===Casualties===
[[File:Umschlagplatz noc.JPG|thumb|[[Umschlagplatz]] Memorial on Stawki Street]]
[[File:Mur getta warszawskiego.jpg|thumb|Borders of the ghetto are marked in remembrance of its victims]]
* [[Tosia Altman]] – ghetto resistance fighter, escaped the ghetto in 1943 uprising through the sewers. Died after she was caught by the [[Gestapo]] when the celluloid factory she was sheltering in caught fire.
* [[Mordechai Anielewicz]] – ghetto resistance leader in the ŻOB (alias ''Aniołek''). Died with many of his comrades at [[Miła 18|their surrounded command post]].
* [[Dawid Moryc Apfelbaum]] – ghetto resistance leader and commander of the ŻZW. Killed in action during the ghetto uprising.{{efn|1=Though Apfelbaum is listed in many books and articles devoted to the revolt in the Warsaw Ghetto as one of the commanders of the Jewish Military Union (see: {{cite journal|first=Moshe|last=Arens|title=The Development of the Narrative of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising|journal=Israel Affairs|volume=14|issue=1|pages=6–28|date=January 2008|doi=10.1080/13537120701705924|s2cid=144134946| issn=1353-7121}}), and a square was named for him in Warsaw,  historians Dariusz Libionka and Laurence Weinbaum have cast doubt about his existence.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Dariusz Libionka|author2=Laurence Weinbaum|title=A legendary commander|url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.4945664|work=Haaretz|date=June 22, 2007}}</ref>}}
* [[Maria Ajzensztadt]] – singer known as the ''Nightingale of the Ghetto''
* Adam Czerniaków – engineer and senator, head of the Warsaw Judenrat (Jewish council). Committed suicide in 1942.
* [[Paweł Finder]] – First Secretary of the Polish Workers' Party (PPR) from 1943 to 1944; killed by Germans in Warsaw Ruins 1944
* [[Paweł Frenkiel]] – one of the leaders of ŻZW (Żydowski Związek Wojskowy – [[Jewish Military Union]]).
* [[Mira Fuchrer]] – ghetto resistance fighter in the ZOB. Died with many of her comrades at [[Miła 18|their surrounded command post]].
* [[Yitzhak Gitterman]] – director of the [[American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee]] in Poland, resistance fighter. Killed in action during the ghetto uprising.
* [[Itzhak Katzenelson]] – teacher, poet, dramatist and resistance fighter. Executed at Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1944.
* [[Janusz Korczak]] – children's author, pediatrician, child pedagogist and orphanage owner. Executed along with his orphans at Treblinka in August, 1942, after refusing an offer to leave his orphans and escape.
* [[Simon Pullman]] – conductor of the Warsaw Ghetto symphony orchestra. Executed at Treblinka in 1942.
* [[Emanuel Ringelblum]] – historian, politician and social worker, leader of the [[Ringelblum Archive|ghetto chroniclers]]. Discovered in Warsaw and executed together with his family in 1944.
* [[Kalonymus Kalman Shapira]] – grand rabbi of [[Piaseczno]]. Executed at Trawniki during [[Aktion Erntefest]] in 1943.
* [[Gershon Sirota]] – cantor known as the "Jewish Caruso". Was killed during the uprising.
* [[Cecylia Słapakowa]] – journalist and translator, killed at Treblinka in 1942 or at Trawniki in 1943 together with her daughter.
* [[Władysław Szlengel]] – poet of the Warsaw ghetto; killed in 1943 uprising.
* [[Lidia Zamenhof]] – [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]]-[[Esperanto|Esperantist]] daughter of Dr. [[L. L. Zamenhof]]. Executed at Treblinka in 1942.
* [[Nathalie Zand]] – neurologist and research scientist. Practiced as a doctor within the ghetto. Thought to have been executed at [[Pawiak]] prison, September 1942.
* [[Yitzhak Suknik]] – fighter in the [[Jewish Combat Organization|Jewish Fighting Organization]]. Was shot and killed in combat in an escape operation.

===Survivors===
* [[Rokhl Auerbakh]] – Polish Jewish writer and essayist; member of the ghetto chroniclers group led by [[Emanuel Ringelblum]]. Died in 1976.
* [[Mary Berg]] – 15-year-old diarist (in 1939) born to American mother in [[Łódź]]; [[Pawiak]] internee exchanged for German POWs in March 1944.<ref name="Berg"/> Died in 2013.
* [[Adolf Berman]] – leader in Jewish Underground in Warsaw; member of [[Zegota]] and [[CENTOS (charity)|CENTOS]] – died in 1978.
[[File:Icchak Cukierman.jpg|thumb|[[Yitzhak Zuckerman]] testifies for the prosecution during the trial of [[Adolf Eichmann]] ]]
* [[Yitzhak Zuckerman]] – ghetto resistance leader ("Antek"), founder of the [[Lohamei HaGeta'ot]] kibbutz in Israel. Died in 1981.
* [[Marek Edelman]] – Polish political and social activist, cardiologist. He was the last surviving leader of the ŻOB. Died in 2009.
* Jack P. Eisner – author of "The Survivor of the Holocaust". The young boy who hung the Jewish flag atop the burning building in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. ZZW fighter. Commemorator of the Holocaust. Died in 2003.{{efn|1=Eisner's memoir, 'The Survivor' (published in 1980) is challenged as not a reliable source of information.<ref name="Libionka/Weinbaum"/>}}
* Ruben Feldschu (Ben Shem) (1900–1980) – Zionist author and political activist<ref>Laurence Weinbaum, [http://jcpa.org/article/shaking-the-dust-off-the-story-of-the-warsaw-ghettos-forgotten-chronicler-ruben-feldschu-ben-shem "Shaking the Dust Off" The Story of the Warsaw Ghetto's Forgotten Chronicler], [http://jcpa.org/publication/jpsr Jewish Political Studies Review] Vol. 22 No. 3-4 (Fall 2010).</ref>
* [[Joseph Friedenson]] – editor of ''Dos Yiddishe Vort''. Died in 2013.
* [[Bronisław Geremek]] – Polish social historian and politician. Died in 2008.
* [[Martin Gray (writer)|Martin Gray]] – [[NKVD|Soviet secret police]] officer and American and French writer. Died in 2016.
* [[Mietek Grocher]] – Swedish author and the Holocaust remembrance activist.
* Alexander J. Groth – Professor of Political Science at the [[University of California, Davis]]. Author of ''Lincoln: Authoritarian Savior'', ''Democracies Against Hitler: Myth, Reality and Prologue'', ''Holocaust Voices'', and ''Accomplices: Roosevelt, Churchill and the Holocaust''.
* [[Ludwik Hirszfeld]] – Polish microbiologist and serologist, died in 1954.
* [[Morton Kamien]] – Polish-American economist, died in 2011.
* [[Zivia Lubetkin]] – ghetto resistance leader, [[Aliyah Bet]] activist, later married Cukierman. Died in 1976.
* [[Vladka Meed]] – ghetto resistance member; author. Died in 2012.
* [[Uri Orlev]] – Israeli author of the semi-autobiographical novel ''[[The Island on Bird Street]]'' recounting his experiences in the Warsaw Ghetto.
* [[Marcel Reich-Ranicki]] – German literary critic. Died in 2013.
* Sol Rosenberg – American steel industrialist and philanthropist. Died in 2009.<ref>{{cite news|title=Businessman Sol Rosenthal dies|date=January 31, 2009|work=The News-Star|location=[[Monroe, Louisiana]]|url=https://thenewsstar.newspapers.com/search/#query=Sol+Rosenberg&ymd=2009-01-31&lnd=1&t=3751|access-date=2019-12-12}}</ref>
* [[Simcha Rotem]] – ghetto resistance fighter ("Kazik"), [[Berihah]] activist, post-war Nazi hunter. Died in 2018.
* [[Uri Shulevitz]] – book illustrator
* [[Władysław Szpilman]] – Polish pianist, composer and writer, subject of the film [[The Pianist (2002 film)|''The Pianist'']] by [[Roman Polanski]] (survivor of the [[Kraków Ghetto]]) based on [[The Pianist (memoir)|his memoir]]. Died in 2000.
* [[Menachem Mendel Taub]] – [[Kaliv]]er rabbi in Israel. Died in 2019.
* [[Dawid Wdowiński]] – psychiatrist, political leader of the [[Irgun]] in Poland, resistance leader of the ŻZW, American memoirist. Died in 1970.
* [[Bogdan-Dawid Wojdowski]] – writer and the author of the most renowned novel about the Warsaw Ghetto, ''Chleb rzucony umarłym'' (1971; ''Bread for the Departed'', 1998).
* [[Freda Hoffman Zgodzinski]] – [[Anarchist Federation of Poland]] militant and publisher of the Yiddish language ''Kul fun Frayhayt'' newspaper produced in the Ghetto. Died 2012.

===Associated people===
* [[Władysław Bartoszewski]] – Polish resistance activist of the [[Żegota]] organization in Warsaw.
* [[Henryk Iwański]] – Polish resistance officer in the charge of support for the ghetto. Died in 1978.{{efn|1=Though he succeeded in convincing a number of historians of the veracity of his story, according to new research by a Polish-Israeli team of historians, Iwanski's unit never entered the ghetto. See: {{cite book|author=Dariusz Libionka|author2=Laurence Weinbaum|title=Bohaterowie, hochsztaplerzy, opisywacze: wokół Żydowskiego Związku Wojskowego|publisher=Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów|location=Warsaw|year=2011|isbn=9788393220281|author-link=Dariusz Libionka}} ''[also in]'' {{cite book |title=The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939–1945 |author=Joshua D. Zimmerman |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-1107014268 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4dsCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA218 |page=218|author-link=Joshua D. Zimmerman }}}}
* [[Jan Karski]] – Polish resistance courier who reported on the ghetto for the Allies. Died in 2000.
* [[Zofia Kossak-Szczucka]] – Polish writer and World War II resistance fighter and co-founder of [[Żegota]]. Died in 1968.
* [[Irena Sendler]] – Polish resistance member who smuggled 2,500 Jewish children out of the ghetto and helped to hide them, subject of the film ''[[The Courageous Heart of Irena Sendler]]''. Died in 2008.
* [[Szmul Zygielbojm]] – Polish-Jewish [[socialism|socialist]] politician. In 1943, he committed suicide in London in an act of protest against the Allied indifference to the death of the Warsaw Ghetto.
[[File:Warsaw Ghetto destroyed by Germans, 1945.jpg|thumb|center|750px|Ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto in 1945; left, the [[Krasiński Palace|Krasiński's]] Garden and Swiętojerska street. The entire city district was leveled by the German forces according to order from Adolf Hitler after the suppression of the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]] in 1943]]

==See also==
* [[Executions in the ruins of the Warsaw Ghetto (1943–1944)]]
* [[Group 13]] – Jewish collaborationist [[secret police]], also known as Jewish [[Gestapo]], led by [[Abraham Gancwajch]]
* [[Odilo Globocnik]] – The Nazi leader responsible for the liquidation of the ghetto
* [[Ludwig Hahn]] – ''Kommandeur'' of the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'' and the [[Sicherheitsdienst|SD]] (KdS) for Warsaw
* ''[[Mila 18]]'' – book by [[Leon Uris]]
* ''[[The Silver Sword]]'' – novel focused on a family from Warsaw during the [[Second World War]]
* [[Stroop Report]] – official Nazi record of the Ghetto Uprising, 19 April 1943 – 24 May 1943
* [[Timeline of Treblinka extermination camp]]
* [[Warschauer Kniefall]] – gesture by [[Chancellor of Germany (Federal Republic)|Chancellor of Germany]] [[Willy Brandt]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="Arad">{{cite book |first=Yitzhak |last=Arad |author-link=Yitzhak Arad |title=Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YglnAAAAMAAJ&q=September+21%2C+1942 |publisher=Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indianapolis |pages=97–99|isbn=9780253342935 |year=1987 }}</ref>

<ref name=Bains>{{cite book |title=World War II |first1=Alisha |last1=Bains |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2016 |work=A Political and Diplomatic History of the Modern World Series |isbn=978-1680483529 |pages=190–200 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZWjDAAAQBAJ&q=21+Reinhard+Heydrich+Judenr%C3%A4te}}</ref>

<ref name="Berg">{{cite book |first1=Mary |last1=Berg |author-link1=Mary Berg |last2=Pentlin |first2=Susan Lee |title=The Diary of Mary Berg: Growing up in the Warsaw Ghetto |year=2007 |orig-year=1945 |id=Hardcover |publisher=L. B. Fischer Publishing / Oxford: Oneworld Publications (2nd ed) |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/diaryofmarybergg00berg/page/2 2–5, 38] |url=https://archive.org/details/diaryofmarybergg00berg/page/2 |isbn=978-1851684724 |quote=''Chapter I: Warsaw Besieged:'' ... the roads were jammed, and gradually we were completely engulfed in the slow but steady flow of humanity toward the capital. Mile after mile it was the same ... as tens of thousands of provincials entered Warsaw in the hope of finding shelter there. }}</ref>

<ref name=Bergman>{{cite book |title=Ludność żydowska w Warszawie |trans-title=Jewish population of Warsaw |first1=Eleonora |last1=Bergman |quote=Nie masz bóżnicy powszechnej. Synagogi i domy modlitwy w Warszawie od końca XVIII do początku XXI wieku |publisher=[[Virtual Shtetl]] |url=http://www.sztetl.org.pl/pl/cms/wiedza/4837,ludnosc-zydowska-w-warszawie/ |access-date=December 14, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220140928/http://www.sztetl.org.pl/pl/cms/wiedza/4837,ludnosc-zydowska-w-warszawie/ |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

<ref name=Bielawski>{{cite web |first1=Krzysztof |last1=Bielawski |first2=Adam |last2=Dylewski |first3=Anna |last3=Kraus |first4=Justyna |last4=Laskowska |title=Warszawa (part 7) |work=[[Virtual Shtetl]] |url=http://www.sztetl.org.pl/pl/article/warszawa/5,historia/?action=view&page=6 |publisher=[[POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews]] }} ''[Also in:]'' {{cite web |title=The Warsaw Ghetto (part 2) |url=http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/warszawa/13,sites-of-martyrdom/3531,the-warsaw-ghetto/?action=viewtable&page=1 |translator=Magdalena Wójcik |publisher=Virtual Shtetl |access-date=December 15, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220150956/http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/article/warszawa/13,sites-of-martyrdom/3531,the-warsaw-ghetto/?action=viewtable&page=1 |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

<ref name="Browning2">{{cite journal |first=Christopher |last=Browning |author-link=Christopher Browning |title=Before the "Final Solution": Nazi Ghettoization Policy in Poland (1940–1941) |journal=Ghettos 1939–1945. New Research and Perspectives on Definition, Daily Life, and Survival |publisher=Symposium Presentations, USHMM |at=18 of 175 in PDF |url=https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20050823-ghettos-symposium.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20050823-ghettos-symposium.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |year=2005}}</ref>

<ref name="CBnZŻ">{{cite web|title=database search|publisher=Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów|website=Getto Warszawskie|url=http://warszawa.getto.pl/index.php?mod=wyszukiwanie_db&table_id=zdarzenia&columns=zdarzenie&show_source=4976191839728189066|language=pl|access-date=December 19, 2016|archive-date=October 29, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029233303/http://warszawa.getto.pl/index.php?mod=wyszukiwanie_db&table_id=zdarzenia&columns=zdarzenie&show_source=4976191839728189066|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name="Dawidowicz">{{cite book |first1=Lucy S. |last1=Dawidowicz |title=The war against the Jews 1933–1945 |location=New York |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |year=1975 |pages=228–229 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lLaoQr-yhwYC|isbn=9781453203064 }}</ref>

<ref name="Edelman">{{cite book|first=Marek|last=Edelman|author-link=Marek Edelman|chapter=The Ghetto Fights|title=The Warsaw Ghetto: The 45th Anniversary of the Uprising|publisher=Interpress Publishers|pages=17–39|date=n.d.}} via {{cite web|title=The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, by Marek Edelman|url=http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/warsaw-uprising.html|website=Literature of the Holocaust}}<br />''[Also in:]'' {{cite book|first=Bogdan|last=Musiał|author-link=Bogdan Musiał|chapter=Treblinka — ein Todeslager der "Aktion Reinhard"|title="Aktion Reinhardt": der Völkermord an den Juden im Generalgouvernement 1941–1944|publisher=Osnabrück|year=2004|pages=257–281|isbn=978-3-929-75983-9}}<br />''[As well as:]'' {{cite web |url=http://www.nizkor.org/faqs/reinhard/reinhard-faq-13.html |title=Operation Reinhard: Treblinka Deportations |work=The Nizkor Project |access-date=December 21, 2016 |archive-date=September 23, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923030356/http://www.nizkor.org/faqs/reinhard/reinhard-faq-13.html |url-status=dead }} ''[Source:]'' ''AZ-LG Dusseldorf: II 931638'', p. 49 ff., and ''AZ-LG Dusseldorf, XI-148/69 S'', pp. 111 ff.</ref>

<ref name="Farbstein">{{cite book |first=Esther |last=Farbstein |author-link=Esther Farbstein|title=Hidden in Thunder: Perspectives on faith, halachah and leadership during the Holocaust |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=772I7ZNUSKYC&q=alexander+zusha+friedman&pg=PA31 |page=31 |year=2007 |volume=1 |publisher=[[Feldheim Publishers]] |isbn=9789657265055 |quote=[[Alexander Zusia Friedman|Friedman]] sought to inform world Jewry of the initial transports, he sent a telegram stating: 'Mr. Amos kept his promise from the fifth-third.' This is an allusion to [[Book of Amos|Amos 5:3]]: 'The city that goes out a thousand strong will have a hundred left, and the one that goes out a hundred strong will have ten left to the House of Israel'.}}</ref>

<ref name="Friedman">{{cite book |first1=A. Zisha |last1=Frydman |author-link=Alexander Zusia Friedman |title=Wellsprings of Torah |publisher=Judaica Press |year=1986 |orig-year=1974 |pages=xii–xxiii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8HwRAQAAIAAJ&q=advanced+Jewish+studies |isbn=0910818045 |via=Google Books snippet}}</ref>

<ref name=Fuks>{{cite book |first1=Adam |last1=Czerniaków |author-link1=Adam Czerniaków |first2=Marian |last2=Fuks |title=Adama Czerniakowa dziennik getta warszawskiego 6 IX 1939 – 23 VII 1942 |others=Opracowanie i przypisy Marian Fuks |publisher=[[Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe]] |location=Warszawa 1983 |page=101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tOVtAAAAMAAJ&q=1+IV+1940 |via=Google Books|isbn=9788301030421 |year=1983 }}</ref>

<ref name=Gawryszewski>{{cite book |first1=Andrzej |last1=Gawryszewski |title=Ludność Warszawy w XX wieku |trans-title=Population of Warsaw in the 20th Century |publisher=[[Polish Academy of Sciences|Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania PAN im. Stanisława Leszczyckiego]] |location=Warsaw |year=2009 |isbn=978-83-61590-96-5 |work=Język, narodowość, wyznanie |issn=1643-2312 |url=http://rcin.org.pl/Content/2063/WA51_13604_r2009-nr10_Monografie.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://rcin.org.pl/Content/2063/WA51_13604_r2009-nr10_Monografie.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |via=direct download, 425 pages |pages=191, 193, 195, 202–203}}</ref>

<ref name=Gessner>{{cite web|author=Peter K. Gessner |title=Warsaw: Life and Death in the Ghetto during WWII |publisher=Polish Academic Information Center, University at Buffalo |year=2000 |url=http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/exhib/ghetto/1.html |access-date=December 12, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130124213/http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/exhib/ghetto/1.html |archive-date=January 30, 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=Grzesik>{{cite book |first1=Julian |last1=Grzesik |title=Holocaust – Zagłada Żydów (1939–1945) |trans-title=Holocaust – Destruction of the Jews (1939–1945) |publisher=Lublin, 3rd edition, revised |year=2011 |pages=43–44, 54 |url=http://alija.4me.pl/pdf/PK-%20%20Zaglada%20Zydow.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412015944/http://alija.4me.pl/pdf/PK-%20%20Zaglada%20Zydow.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2013-04-12 |via=direct download }}</ref>

<ref name="Gutman1">{{cite book |first1=Israel |last1=Gutman |author-link1=Israel Gutman |title=Resistance: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=1998 |isbn=0395901308 |pages=118–119, 200 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4P_kP4yKqy8C&q=resettlement}}</ref>

<ref name="Gutman2">{{cite book |first=Yisrael |last=Gutman |author-link=Israel Gutman |title=The Jews of Warsaw, 1939–1943: Ghetto, Underground, Revolt |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1989 |isbn=0253205115 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4U_OcvXvhF4C&q=Waldemar |pages=50, 98}}</ref>

<ref name="USHMM1">{{cite web |author=Holocaust Encyclopedia |title=Warsaw    |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/warsaw |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |date=February 22, 2023}}</ref>

<ref name="USHMM2">{{cite web |author=Holocaust Encyclopedia |title=Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/warsaw-ghetto-uprising |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |date=April 17, 2023}}</ref>

<ref name="USHMM4">{{cite web |author=Holocaust Encyclopedia |title=Treblinka: Chronology |url=http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007257 |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |date=10 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605123023/http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007257 |archive-date=5 June 2012 |quote=Deportations from Theresienstadt and Bulgarian-occupied territory among others.}}</ref>

<ref name="USHMM5">{{cite book |title=The Warsaw Ghetto Oyneg Shabes—Ringelblum Archive. Catalog and Guide |editor1=Robert Moses Shapiro |editor2=Tadeusz Epsztein |others=Introduction by Samuel D. Kassow |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-253-35327-6 |publisher=Indiana University Press in association with USHMM and the [[Jewish Historical Institute]], Warsaw |via=Academic Publications of the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |url=https://www.ushmm.org/research/publications/academic-publications/full-list-of-academic-publications/the-warsaw-ghetto-oyneg-shabesringelblum-archive-catalog-and-guide |quote=For years, Oyneg Shabbos had discreetly [[chronicle]]d conditions and hid their photos, writings, and short films in improvised [[time capsule]]s. In May 1942, the Germans began filming a propaganda movie titled "''Das Ghetto''" which was never completed. Footage is shown in the 2010 documentary called "[[A Film Unfinished]]" which concerns the making of "''Das Ghetto''" and correlates scenes from the film with descriptions of them that Czerniakow mentioned in his own diary.}}</ref>

<ref name=Kajczyk>{{cite web|first1=Agnieszka|last1=Kajczyk|title=The bridge over Chłodna Street|publisher=[[Jewish Historical Institute]]|url=https://www.jhi.pl/en/articles/the-bridge-over-chlodna,199|date=2015-02-03}}</ref>
<ref name="Kopówka">{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Kopówka |title=The Memorial |publisher=Muzeum Walki i Męczeństwa w Treblince. Oddział Muzeum Regionalnego w Siedlcach [Museum of Struggle and Martyrdom at Treblinka. Division of the Regional Museum in Siedlce] |date=February 4, 2010 |author-link=Edward Kopówka |url=http://www.treblinka.bho.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=203&Itemid=129 |work=Treblinka. Nigdy wiecej, Siedlce 2002, pp.&nbsp;5–54. |via=Internet Archive |archive-date=October 19, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019060357/http://www.treblinka.bho.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=203&Itemid=129 }}</ref>

<ref name="Kurzman">{{cite book |first1=Dan |last1=Kurzman |title=Tobbens Poniatow factories |work=The Bravest Battle: The Twenty-eight Days Of The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6o1njEqaKbsC&q=Tobbens+Poniatow+factories |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0786748266 |page=346}}</ref>

<ref name=Laqueur>{{cite book |title=The Holocaust Encyclopedia |first1=Walter |last1=Laqueur |first2=Judith Tydor |last2=Baumel |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPbr0XzlTzcC&q=Warsaw+caloric+rations |pages=260–262 |isbn=0300138113}}</ref>

<ref name=Levin>{{cite book |first1=Itamar |last1=Levin |first2=Rachel |last2=Neiman |title=Walls Around: The Plunder of Warsaw Jewry During World War II and Its Aftermath |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2004 |isbn=0275976491 |page=29 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j1GfKmW0hqUC&q=Warsaw+375%2C000+Jews}}</ref>

<ref name="Libionka">{{cite journal |first1=Wojciech |last1=Lenarczyk |first2=Dariusz |last2=Libionka |author-link2=Dariusz Libionka |title=Obóz pracy dla Żydów w Trawnikach |journal=Erntefest 3–4 Listopada 1943 – Zapomniany Epizod Zagłady, Pp. 183–210 |publisher=Państwowe Muzeum na Majdanku |id=Transfer szopów Schultza z getta warszawskiego |url=https://www.academia.edu/3881164 |year=2009 |pages=189–191 |format=PDF / HTML |isbn=978-83-925187-5-4}}</ref>

<ref name="Libionka/Weinbaum">{{cite book |author1=Dariusz Libionka |author2=Laurence Weinbaum |title=Bohaterowie, hochsztaplerzy, opisywacze: wokół Żydowskiego Związku Wojskowego |year=2011 |publisher=Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów |location=Warsaw |isbn=9788393220281 |pages=534–535 |language=pl}}</ref>

<ref name="Lifton">{{cite book |first=Betty Jean |last=Lifton |title=The King of Children: The Life and Death of Janusz Korczak |url=http://www.korczak.com/Biography/kap-0.htm |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |at=1st edition |year=2006 |isbn=0-312-15560-3 |access-date=February 24, 2024 |archive-date=March 7, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307220226/http://www.korczak.com/Biography/kap-0.htm |url-status=dead }} ''[Also in:]'' {{cite web |url=http://fcit.coedu.usf.edu/holocaust/KORCZAK/about.htm |title=The Janusz Korczak Living Heritage Association |publisher=The Florida Center for Instructional Technology |location=Stockholm, Sweden |access-date=February 24, 2024 |archive-date=March 9, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309080624/http://fcit.coedu.usf.edu/Holocaust/KORCZAK/about.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
<!---
<ref name=Megargee>{{cite book |editor-first1=Geoffrey P. |editor-last1=Megargee | editor-link1 = Geoffrey P. Megargee| title=The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945 |volume=Volume II: Ghettos in German-occupied Eastern Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndUAAQAAQBAJ |year=2009 |publisher= Indiana University Press; In association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |location=Bloomington |isbn=978-0-253-35599-7 |pages=456–460}}</ref>--->

<ref name="Melzer">{{cite book |first1=Emanuel |last1=Melzer |title=No way out: the politics of Polish Jewry, 1935–1939 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=co3KJikOaBYC&pg=PA132 |pages=131–144 |publisher=Hebrew Union College Press |year=1997 |isbn=0878204180 |via=Google Books, 235 pages}}</ref>

<ref name="Memorial">{{cite web |author=Memorial Museums.org |title=Treblinka Museum of Struggle and Martyrdom |others=Uwe Neumärker (Director) |url=http://www.memorialmuseums.org/eng/staettens/view/59/Treblinka-Museum-of-Struggle-and-Martyrdom |publisher=Portal to European Sites of Remembrance |work=Remembrance |year=2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Menszer">{{cite journal |first1=John |last1=Menszer |title=Tobbens' Shop in the Warsaw ghetto |publisher=Holocaust Survivors: Encyclopedia |journal=Background Information to Survivor Stories |url=http://www.holocaustsurvivors.org/data.show.php?di=record&da=encyclopedia&ke=113 |year=2015 |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |access-date=December 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225025825/https://www.holocaustsurvivors.org/data.show.php?di=record&da=encyclopedia&ke=113 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Nicosia">{{cite book |first1=Francis |last1=Nicosia |first2=Donald |last2=Niewyk |title=The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2000 |page=232 |isbn=0231528787 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzJAXkfozW8C |quote=The Jews of Poland were augmented by around 3,000 Slovakian and Austrian Jews (the camp elite) expelled to Poland beforehand, and housed separately from the rest.}}</ref>

<ref name="Patt">{{cite book |first1=Avinoam |last1=Patt |pages=414–425 |title=Resistance in the Warsaw Ghetto |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hYf5AwAAQBAJ&q=Frenkel+Wdowinski |work=Jewish Resistance Against the Nazis |editor1-first=Patrick |editor1-last=Henry |publisher=CUA Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0813225890 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

<ref name=Philpott>{{cite book |first1=Colin |last1=Philpott |title=Relics of the Reich: The Buildings The Nazis Left Behind |publisher=Pen and Sword |year=2016 |isbn=978-1473844254 |page=122 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C-alDAAAQBAJ&q=Warsaw+Ghetto+300%2C000 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

<ref name="Powell">{{cite book |last1=Powell |first1=Lawrence N. |title=Troubled Memory |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |year=2000 |page=114 |isbn=0807825042 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cxDbrgTjrQMC}}</ref>

<ref name="Roland">{{cite book |last=Roland |first=Charles G. |chapter-url=http://www.remember.org/courage/chapter6.html |chapter=Scenes of Hunger and Starvation |year=1992 |title=Courage Under Siege: Disease, Starvation and Death in the Warsaw Ghetto |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2008-01-25 |isbn=978-0-19-506285-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/courageundersieg0000rola/page/99 99–104] |url=https://archive.org/details/courageundersieg0000rola/page/99 }}</ref>

<ref name="Seeman">{{cite journal |first1=Mary V. |last1=Seeman |author-link1=Mary V Seeman |title=Review of ''Bohaterowie, Hochsztaplerzy, Opisywacze, Wokol Żydowskiego Związku Wojskowego'' |journal=Heroes, Hucksters and Story-Tellers: On the Jewish Military Union in the Warsaw Ghetto |url=http://spme.org/book-reviews/review-of-bohaterowie-hochsztaplerzy-opisywacze-wokol-zydowskiego-zwiazku-wojskowego-heroes-hucksters-and-story-tellers-on-the-jewish-military-union-in-the-warsaw-ghetto-2/ |date=August 25, 2013 |publisher=Scholars for Peace in the Middle East (SPME)}}</ref>

<ref name="Shapiro">{{cite book |first1=Robert Moses |last1=Shapiro |url=https://archive.org/details/holocaustchronic00robe  |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/holocaustchronic00robe/page/35 35] |title=Holocaust Chronicles |publisher=Published by KTAV Publishing |year=1999 |isbn=0-88125-630-7 |via=Internet Archive, 302 pages |quote=300,000 Jews murdered by bullet or gas.<sup>[page 35]</sup>}}</ref>

<ref name="Schoen">{{cite book |title=The Yellow Star: The Persecution of the Jews in Europe, 1933–1945 |first1=Gerhard |last1=Schoenberner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-vW7cG2xi4wC&q=Chaim+Frimer |publisher=Fordham Univ Press |year=2004 |isbn=0823223906 |work=The first day of the Uprising |pages=204–205 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

<ref name="Trunk">{{cite book |first1=Isaiah |last1=Trunk |author-link1=Isaiah Trunk |title=Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |year=1972 |isbn=080329428X |pages=191, 475, 543–544 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7bobfzrcCoC&q=refugees+dying+150%2C000+Warsaw |quote=The Jewish police have learned how to hit, to enforce order, and to send people to the labor camps, and they are one of the contributing factors that keep people in line. — [[Emanuel Ringelblum]] <sup>[544]</sup>}}</ref>

<ref name="Urynowicz">{{cite journal |author=Dr. Marcin Urynowicz |title=Gross Aktion – Zagłada Warszawskiego Getta |trans-title=Gross Aktion – Annihilation of the Warsaw Ghetto |publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance|Institute of National Remembrance (IPN)]] |journal=Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej, 7 /7 (2007) Pp. 105–114 |language=pl |url=http://www.ipn.gov.pl/download.php?s=49&id=29288 |via=direct download |quote=Likwidacja getta warszawskiego wiosną 1943 r. oznaczała natychmiastową lub chwilowo odwleczoną śmierć ok. 50 tys. osób. Tymczasem Gross Aktion, tzw. Wielka Akcja, zakończyła się wysłaniem do obozu zagłady w Treblince ok. 250 tys. osób. Zatem to lato 1942 r., a nie wiosna 1943, było okresem faktycznej likwidacji społeczności warszawskich Żydów. |access-date=December 11, 2016 |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220133644/http://www.ipn.gov.pl/download.php?s=49&id=29288 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Gilbert">Gilbert, Martin (1986), ''The Holocaust'', pages 522–523.</ref>

<ref name=Wardzyńska>{{cite book |first1=Maria |last1=Wardzyńska |title=Intelligenzaktion |work=Operacja niemieckiej policji bezpieczeństwa w Polsce |location=Warsaw |year=2009 |publisher=[[Institute of National Remembrance|Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]] Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu |pages=46, 51–55, 88–89 |url=http://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYL_ROK_1939.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510010646/https://pamiec.pl/download/49/34737/BYL_ROK_1939.pdf |archive-date=May 10, 2019 |url-status=dead |via=direct download}}</ref>

<ref name="Wdowiński">Wdowiński, David (1963). ''And we are not saved''. New York: Philosophical Library pp. 222. {{ISBN|0-8022-2486-5}}. Note: Chariton and Lazar are not co-authors of Wdowiński's memoir. Wdowiński is considered the single author.</ref>

<ref name="statistics">Statistical data compiled on the basis of [http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/selectcity/ "Glossary of 2,077 Jewish towns in Poland"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208215116/http://www.sztetl.org.pl/en/selectcity/ |date=February 8, 2016 }} by ''[[Virtual Shtetl]]'' [[Museum of the History of the Polish Jews]] &nbsp;{{in lang|en}}, as well as [http://www.izrael.badacz.org/historia/szoa_getto.html "Getta Żydowskie"] by ''Gedeon'' &nbsp;{{in lang|pl}} and [http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/ghettolist.htm "Ghetto List"] by Michael Peters at ARC.</ref>

<ref name="warsaw-life">[http://www.warsaw-life.com/poland/warsaw-ghetto The Warsaw Ghetto.]  Local Life Warsaw, Guide.</ref>

<ref name="YadVashem1">{{cite journal |author=Yad Vashem |author-link=Yad Vashem |journal=Aktion Reinhard |title=Treblinka Extermination Camp in the ''Generalgouvernement'' |url=http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205886.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www1.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205886.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=YadVashem2>{{cite journal |author=Yad Vashem |title=Auerswald, Heinz |publisher=Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies |via=direct download |url=http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205780.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205780.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} ''[Also in:]'' {{cite journal |author-link=Christopher Browning |first1=Christopher |last1=Browning |title=Ghettos 1939–1945. New Research and Perspectives on Definition, Daily Life, and Survival |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |url=http://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20050823-ghettos-symposium.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/20050823-ghettos-symposium.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live | journal=Before the 'Final Solution' |date=2005 |id=PDF file, direct download}}</ref>
</references>

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |first=Christopher R. |last=Browning |author-link=Christopher Browning |title=Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland |publisher=Penguin Books|url=http://hampshirehigh.com/exchange2012/docs/BROWNING-Ordinary%20Men.%20Reserve%20Police%20Battalion%20101%20and%20the%20Final%20Solution%20in%20Poland%20(1992).pdf |orig-year=1992 |year=1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019043400/http://hampshirehigh.com/exchange2012/docs/BROWNING-Ordinary%20Men.%20Reserve%20Police%20Battalion%20101%20and%20the%20Final%20Solution%20in%20Poland%20(1992).pdf|archive-date=2013-10-19|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |first1=Marek |last1=Edelman |author-link1=Marek Edelman |title=The Ghetto Fights |publisher=London: Bookmarks |year=1994 |isbn=0-906224-56-X}} Full text in {{cite web |last1=Edelman |first1=Marek | title=The Ghetto Fights |url=https://writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/warsaw-uprising.html |website=Literature of the Holocaust |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] |access-date=7 January 2024}}
* {{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=Engelking |first2=Jacek |last2=Leociak |author-link1=Barbara Engelking |author-link2=Jacek Leociak |translator= Emma Harris|title=The Warsaw Ghetto: A Guide to the Perished City|location=New Haven|publisher=Yale University Press |year=2009|isbn=978-0-300-11234-4}}
* {{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=Engelking |first2=Jacek |last2=Leociak|author-link2 = Jacek Leociak |author-link1 = Barbara Engelking |title=Getto warszawskie. Przewodnik po nieistniejącym mieście |location=Warszawa |publisher=Stowarzyszenie Centrum Badań nad Zagładą Żydów |year=2013 |orig-year=2001 |isbn=978-83-63444-27-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZs5AAAAMAAJ&q=400+tys}}
* {{cite book |first1=Israel |last1=Gutman |author-link1=Israel Gutman |title=Resistance: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1994 |isbn=0-395-60199-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/resistancewarsaw00gutm }}
* {{cite book |editor-first1=Raul |editor-last1=Hilberg |editor-first2=Stanislaw |editor-last2=Staron |editor-first3=Josef |editor-last3=Kermisz|editor-link1=Raul Hilberg|title=The Warsaw diary of Adam Czerniakow: Prelude to Doom |location=New York|publisher=Stein & Day |year=1979|isbn=9780812825237}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kopówka |first1=Edward |author-link1=Edward Kopówka |last2=Rytel-Andrianik |first2=Paweł |title=Treblinka II – Obóz zagłady |trans-title=Monograph, chapt. 3: Treblinka II Death Camp |language=pl |url=http://echomatkibozejniepokalaniepoczetej.com/embnp/pages/assets/files/2011-09/dam_ime_na_wieki.pdf |publisher=Drohiczyńskie Towarzystwo Naukowe [The [[Drohiczyn]] Scientific Society] |others=Dam im imię na wieki [I will give them an everlasting name. Isaiah 56:5] |year=2011 |isbn=978-83-7257-496-1 |via=direct download 20.2 MB |id=With list of Catholic [[Polish Righteous among the Nations|rescuers of Jews]] from around Treblinka, selected testimonies, bibliography, alphabetical indexes, photographs, English language summaries, and forewords by Holocaust scholars. |access-date=February 9, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010231757/http://echomatkibozejniepokalaniepoczetej.com/embnp/pages/assets/files/2011-09/dam_ime_na_wieki.pdf |archive-date=October 10, 2014 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}
* {{cite book |first=Janusz |last=Korczak |title=Ghetto Diary |author-link=Janusz Korczak |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qJRU07FOUfQC |via=Google Books |isbn=978-0-89604-004-5}}
* {{cite book |first1=Bożena |last1=Potyralska |first2=Marek |last2=Potyralski|title=Warsaw and Ghetto i ghetto|location=Warsaw|publisher=B & M Potyralski|year=2000|isbn=83-901501-2-3}}
* {{cite book |first1=Emmanuel |last1=Ringelblum |author-link1=Emmanuel Ringelblum |title=Notes From The Warsaw Ghetto: The Journal Of Emmanuel Ringelblum |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |year=2015 |isbn=978-1786257161 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4tJvCwAAQBAJ |via=Google Books Preview}}
* {{cite book |first=Władysław |last=Szpilman |author-link=Władysław Szpilman |title=The Pianist: The Extraordinary True Story of One Man's Survival in Warsaw, 1939–1945 |location=New York|publisher=Picador|year=2003|isbn=0-312-31135-4|title-link=The Pianist (memoir) }}
* {{cite book |first=Dawid |last=Wdowiński |author-link=Dawid Wdowiński |title=And We Are Not Saved |isbn=978-0-8022-2486-6 |location=New York|publisher=Philosophical Library|year=1985}} via sample in Kindle {{cite web |url=https://www.amazon.ca/We-Are-Not-Saved-ebook/dp/B00XABVSG6/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&qid=1482385680&sr=8-3&keywords=and+we+are+not+saved#reader_B00XABVSG6 |year=1963 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222223721/https://www.amazon.ca/We-Are-Not-Saved-ebook/dp/B00XABVSG6 |archive-date=December 22, 2016 |title=And We Are Not Saved }}
*{{cite book |editor-last1=Zentner |editor-first1=Christian |editor-last2=Bedürftig |editor-first2=Friedemann |year=1997 |orig-date=1991 |title= [[The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich]] |publisher=Da Capo Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-306-80793-0}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Warsaw Ghetto}}
* [https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/warsaw ''Warsaw'' article in The Holocaust Encyclopedia] — [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]]  
* [http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/warsaw_ghetto/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki Photographs from the Warsaw Ghetto] – Online exhibition from Yad Vashem
* [http://isurvived.org/TOC-I.html#WarsawGhetto Warsaw Ghetto] from Holocaust Survivors and Remembrance Project: "Forget You Not"
* [http://www.bfcollection.net/cities/poland/warszawa/warszawa_01.html pre and post-war pictures of Warsaw]
* [http://www.um.warszawa.pl/zmh/nn.htm Historical Sites of Jewish Warsaw]
* [http://warszawa.getto.pl/index.php Warsaw Ghetto Internet Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717022046/http://warszawa.getto.pl/index.php |date=July 17, 2013 }} hosted by the [[Polish Center for Holocaust Research]]
* [http://siger.org/warsawghettomaps/ Topography of Terror: Maps of the Warsaw Ghetto], by Harrie Teunissen
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080124134701/http://warsawgetto.org/index.php?mod=plan Detailed, interactive map of the Warsaw Ghetto plotted on pre-war plan of the city]
*Yad Vashem – About the Holocaust – [http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/about/03/warsaw.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki The Warsaw Ghetto] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305134820/http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/about/03/warsaw.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki |date=March 5, 2016 }}
* [http://poetryinhell.org/ Warsaw Ghetto poems from the Ringelblum Archive]
*[http://jewishhistorylectures.org/2013/04/04/emmanuel-ringelblum-heroic-scholar-of-the-warsaw-ghetto/ Lecture on Emanuel Ringelblum and the Warsaw Ghetto Dr. Henry Abramson]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130613040132/http://www.culture.pl/web/english/resources-music-full-page/-/eo_event_asset_publisher/eAN5/content/meet-the-artists-of-the-warsaw-ghetto Artists of the Warsaw Ghetto]
* [http://www.at-home-in-europe.tv/blog/remembrance/? The ramparts of Warsaw 1943–44] (documentary film) by André Bossuroy, 2014, programme 'Active European Remembrance' of the European Commission.
* [http://www.chroniclesofterror.pl/dlibra/results?action=AdvancedSearchAction&type=-3&search_attid1=62&search_value1=Warsaw+Ghetto+%E2%80%93+hell+in+the+center+of+the+city 'Warsaw Ghetto – hell in the center of the city'.] Collection of testimonies concerning Warsaw Ghetto
*[https://culture.pl/en/article/rokhl-auerbakh-literature-as-social-service-warsaw-ghetto Rokhl Auerbakh: Literature as Social Service & the Warsaw Ghetto Soup Kitchen]
* {{JewishGen-LocalityPage|534433|Warszawa, Poland}}

{{Holocaust Poland}}
{{The Holocaust |state=autocollapse}}

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[[Category:Warsaw Ghetto| ]]
[[Category:Jewish ghettos in Nazi-occupied Poland]]
[[Category:General Government]]
[[Category:Warsaw in World War II]]
[[Category:1940 establishments in Poland]]
[[Category:1943 disestablishments]]